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Please enter a valid web address * About * Blog * Projects * Help * Donate * Contact * Jobs * Volunteer * People * Sign up for free * Log in Search metadata Search text contents Search TV news captions Search radio transcripts Search archived web sites Advanced Search * About * Blog * Projects * Help * Donate Donate icon An illustration of a heart shape * Contact * Jobs * Volunteer * People Full text of "The Civil Engineer And Architect's Journal Vol 18 " See other formats Google Acerca de este libro Esta es una copia digital de un libro que, durante generaciones, se ha conservado en las estanterias de una biblioteca, hasta que Google ha decidido escanearlo como parte de un proyecto que pretende que sea posible descubrir en linea libros de todo el mundo. Ha sobrevivido tantos años como para que los derechos de autor hayan expirado y el libro pase a ser de dominio público. 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La responsabilidad ante la infracción de los derechos de autor puede ser muy grave. Acerca de la Busqueda de libros de Google El objetivo de Google consiste en organizar información procedente de todo el mundo y hacerla accesible y útil de forma universal. El programa de Büsqueda de libros de Google ayuda a los lectores a descubrir los libros de todo el mundo a la vez que ayuda a autores y editores a llegar a nuevas audiencias. Podrá realizar búsquedas en el texto completo de este libro en la web, en la página|ht tp: //books.google.com This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible. Google books https://books.google.com — =~, RUE TUI 4 Hi037 2. cmm ti TTT v PAA m mut SE HI Ir | LIBRARY or THE NI € amo cd L —— eee eee — LE GILL BAIL Lu. wo N eee —̃ —— —^-———"na" "^ Xu | JE E GE e e 1 i —— ee eee ee Ce ee eres N —— ENS Greer INS af Lie R Google THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, INCORPORATED WITH The Arrhitert. VOLUME XVIII. — 1855. LONDON: R. GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW; J. WEALE, HIGH HOLBORN; W. ROBERTSON, DUBLIN; SUTHERLAND, EDINBURGH; MATHIAS, PARIS; MUQUARDT, BRUSSELS; C. MONIER, MADRID; WILEY AND PUTNAM, NEW YORK. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN KNOTT, OP PARE PLACE, SOUTH HACKNEY, FOR THE PROPRIETOR, FREDERICK WILLIAM LAXTON, AT THR OFFICE, 19, ABUNDEL STREET, STRAND, 8 INDEX TO VOLUME XVIII. Accrington, Peel institution, 181 Acts, metropolitan buildings, 309 Acts, railway, for 1854, 40 Adams, railway improvements, 887 Adaine. on guns and projectiles, 383 Agricul implements, Paris exhibition, 28 9 Air and steam, Shock on cloud combination of, 74 Air-lock for sinking hollow piles, 156 Air supply to furnaces, Gilbertson’s pat. 12 Alcholic liquo:8, motions observable at sur- face, 389 Alderney harbour of refuge, 187 Allen, on cloud combination of steam and Allen, on steam and sailing colliers, 137 Aluminium, Calvert on alloys of, 410 Alluvial formations, south coast, 88 American architecture, Wheeler on, 321 American electric telegraphs, 278 American patent commissioners report, 399 Analytical geometry, Ellis on, 875 Ancient tracery, 360 Anderson's pat. purifying sewers, &c. 336 Andrews, on decomposition of water, 320 Andrews, on metropolitan bridges, 24 Anthracite, comparative economy of, 14 Aqueduct of Roque favour, Rennie on, 66 Aquitaine, mediæval architecture in, 286 Arcade round London, Paxton’s plan, 247, 263 Arch, writers on theory of, 241 Arches, forms of, Cox on, 882 Arches, strength and atability of, 241, 294, 830, 369 Architecture, American, Wheeler on, 321 Architecture, application of harmonic law in, 6, 167 Architecture at Royal Academy, 181 ANE of pre-gothic age 1n Germany, Architecture in England, Tite on, 407 Architecture, revision of, aT Dr. Reid, 175 Architecture, styles of, Tarbuck (rev.) 185 ARCHITECTURAL ERBCT!O38 (new)— Asylum for idiots, New York—Woor- LETT, 329 Cemetery chapels, Doncaster—JoHNSsoN, 204 Chapel, Barnsley—Jaxus, 237 Chapel, Bayswater—Tainsy, 281 Chapel, Sere Brighton—J auzs Harpy, 435 Corn Hall, Lynn—M A»sARLETY, 8 Hall, Thornton, Bucke—Taasixa, 405 Hydropathic establishment, Ilkley Wells ' —DBnopaAick, 221 sanitation, Peel, Accrington—Gazzx, 81 Mansion, near Halifax —SxiTb, 329 Militia buildings, Richmond —Po wNALL, : 16 | Museum buildings, Trin. Col., Dublin— | Mc Corpy, 48 ee Palace, Westminster proposed extension e Raris 4i ates —HALL, Railroad depot, Troy, U.S—Boxxazr, 279 Royal Institution buildings, Hull—Brop- ' RICK, 1 School, industrial, Oxford —Baoton, 2 School of Art, Sheffield, competition, 63 | School of Art, Wolverhampton—Baxzs, | 69 Station, railway, Halifaz—BoTTEA- WORTH, 286 Town ball, Chectham— Bian, 105 1855. Architectural exhibition, 3, 38, 216, 325 Architectural publication society, 216 Armstrong, on smoke consumption, 286, 318 Army rifle, 43 Artificial stone, American, 424 Artificial stone, Hutchison's, pat., 426 Artificial stone, Ransome'a pat. 393 Artillery and projectiles, Adams on, 388 Ashby, on metropolitan bri 8, 24 Asylum for idiots, New York, 329 Athens, history of, de Laborde (rev.) 186 Atkins' pat. automaton reaper, 20 Aurora borealis, Ross on, 410 Austin's gully-trap, 48 Austin’s sediment-box, 48 N reaper and mower, Atkins’ pat. Axles and piston-rods, Fenton's pat. 822 Axles and wheels of locomotives, removing and replacing, 308 Axles, Mowbray’s pat., 429 Aytoun’s double-action force-pump, 317 Baalham, on metropolitan bridges, 25 Babbage, on mechanical notation, 356 Bauyion, Oppert on French expedition to, Baker's mode of se land-boilera, 14 Ballasting, Allen on, 137 Balmoral 402 Barnsley independent chapel, 287 ur ra aneroid, for measuring heights, 59 Barton, on wrought-iron beams, 173, 211, 236 Baylis, on town drainage, 60 Bayswater, Craven-hill chapel, 281 on metro i Bazalgette, on town Bazalgette, on pipe drainage, Beaches, shingle, Martin on, 802 Beacons, floating, Herbert on, 436 Bedminster bridge, Dredge on, 174 Belting for driving machinery, 401 Bellhouse's oscillating safety-valve, 28 Bellhouse’s pat. oat ap us, 323 Bentbam, on artificial i tion, 95 Bentham, on continuous work in dockyards, caisson-gates, TT n 3 T timber, 235 : es (de; propelling apparatus, 171 Berlin, baths ids . 111 Bertram's pat. forging iron plates, 821 Bessemer’s pat. lif for voip ia 394 Bidder, on town drainage, 6 Praon on tracery, 860 Bills, list of, plans for private, 39 Birmingham, iron roof at, 97 Birkenhead dock works, 372 Blackburn, sewerage and drainage, 278 Blades, Ewbank on form of, 887 Blasting and quarrying, Sim on, 858 Blasting, boring m e, 66 Blanchard's timber- machinery, 18 Board of Health, 68, 100, 165 Boat, iron wire and cement, 268 Boat plug, Napier'a, 385 Bookcase and furniture, 112 Bond, Tyerman's pat. 400 Bookcovers, hinged, 112 Boileau, on metropolitan bridges, 25 Boiler farnaces, Crampton’s pat. 43 Boiler explosions, Fairbairn on, 352 Boilers, Dunn's pat. 376 Boilery and furnaces, Carter's pat. 316 Boilers, brine apparatus for, 290 Boilers, Fairbairn on construction, 156 Boilers, Isherwood on ing, 14 Boring machine, Cleland’s, 66 Boring machinery, Mather and Platt's, 248 Boswell, on substitute for thatch, 249 Boult, on periodical surveys of harbours, 888 Bourinier's surve instrument, 102 Bow, on openwor ers, 300, 829 Bow, on wrought iron beams, $86 Bow, on smokeless furnaces, 95 Boyne viaduct, description of, 173, 218 Bracing, Bow on, 300, 889 Braithwaite, on infiltration of salt water to springs, 215, 249 Brass nails, stereotype moulding for casting, 817 Bridge, expanding, 438 Bridge, Sunderland, 897 Bridges, railway, 414 Building materials, mode of testing, 377 ra mien: Laxton’s examples rev. i act, metropolitan, new, 198; 306 Buildi Anderson's 336 x via es and 172 — '? 172 on yale dri .| Burnell, ving, 266 Brasil, on water su of Dublin, 13 Brick and Se the middie ages, Street (rev.) 338 Bricks, hollow, Vabre's, 252 Bridge: 88 fall ant 345 ridge, Cbelsea, progress 3 Bridge, Cologne, 141 Brage, suspension, Niagara falls, 160, 211 Bridge, Westminster, progress of, 277 Bridges, iron, Dredge, on, 174 Bridges, stone, proportioning ef, 183 Bridges, suspension, Goodwyn (rev), 26 Bridges, Liverpool Jan stage, 147 Bridges, metropolitan, ysis of evidence, Bri metropolitan, waterway of, 75 Brighton, Queen-square chapel, 298 Bristol, fall of bridge at, 111, 174, 245 British association, 253, 264, 293, 347 Brunel, on metropolitan bridges, 21 a ae report on Great Western railway, Brunlees’ railway drawbridge, 83 Brunleea, on sea embankments, 97 Bryce, on glacial phenomena of lake dis- trict, 360 Caisson Bentham on, 77 Calculating machine, Scheutz's, 356 Calvert, on alloys of iron, 410 Calvert, on iron manufacture, 389 Calcalus, Waugh on (rev.) 93 cei of operations, Carmichael on (rev.) Cameron, on compass deviation, 887 Camp at Kildare, 252 Canal of Marseilles, Rennie on, 65 Canals of American lakes, 269, 271, 287 uu and fire-arms, Whitworth’s pat. 273 Cape Town dock, 174 Capillary jon, influence on projec- tiles, 357 Carmichael, on calculus of operations (rev.) 166 Carr s pat. railway crossinge, 392 Carter's pat. boilers and furnacea, 345 Cast-iron beams, formula for, 336 Cawley, on town drainage, 59 Cathedrals— Basas, 286; Cologne, 170 Castle—Balmoral, 402; Loughcooter, 141; Wartburg, 141 Cement and mortar, Gaskell's pat. 323 Cement, effect of tension of, 330 Cement manufacture, Fullwood’s pat. 127 "Cement for moulding, 259 Cemetery chapels, Doncaster, 204 Chalk, water supply from, 6, 64 mak, Homersham on water supply from, Cbapel— Barnsley, 237; Craven hill, Bays- water, 281; Doncaster, 204; Hackney, 68; Nottingham, 68; Pimlico, 142; Queen- equare, Brighton, 293; Smethwick, 63 Chase, on metropolitan bridges, 25 Cheetham new town-hall, 105 Chelsea bridge, reas of, 277 Cheshire es, Dickinson on, 77 bar steam-engine, Armstrong on, 8 ca and fire-places, Corbitt’s pat. Christian tombs at Di 405 Chronology of the moon's , 966 Church warming, 105 Churchee—Brechin, 143; 142; L te, Todmorden, dots Bt Margaret's Woltmtnster, removal, 801; St. Nicholas, Durham, 68 Clarine's pat. securing pulleys to shafts, 8 Clark’s railway machinery (rev.) 185 Clarke's English dictionary (rev.) 184 Clarke's grammar (rev.) 184 CA pote and hollow bricks, 262 Cleland’s boring machine for blasting, 66 Cliff, on town S 69 Clifford's method of lowering ships’ boats, 172 Cloud . of steam and air, Shock on, 74 Coal, ancient usage as fuel, 130 . Coal mine explosions, Dobson on, 352 Coal in H „177 Coal mines (see Mines) Coast of England (south) alluvial forma- 8 hipe bottoms, C 3 ting 8, Cram's pat. 32 Coates pat. rails, 393 €ochet, on christian tomba at Dieppe, 405 Cofferdams, air lock for sinking, 156 College, Trinity, Dublin, 48 Collters, Allen on steam and sailing, 137 Collieries (see Mines) Colling’s design for bookcase, 112 Culling’s designs for tables and chairs, 112 Cologne museum, 174 Colosseum, sale of, 141 Colour, principles of, Ruskin on, 52 Colour, theory of, Minifle (rev.) 287 Composition for coating ships' bottoms, Cram's pat. 323 Compass deviation, Cameron on, 387 Compass committee, Liverpool, 383 iae adobe 68, 102, 142 Condenser for distilling fresh water, 317 en ir eee Hepburn ou, 315 Conduits, flow of water through, 98 Conic sections, Puckle (rev., 432; Salmon rev.) 432 Connell's dew-point hygrometer, 390 Conybeare’s levelling staff, 373 Constantinople, description of, 163 Constantinople, Sta. Sophia, 162; ancient cisterns, 163 Construction, Laxton's examples (rev.) 319 Cooke v. Whea*-tone, 42 Cooke, ou inveation of electric telegraph, 42 Cooper, ou pipe drainage, 298 Corn ball, Lyun, 8 Corbitt'5 pat. warming and ventilating, 430 Copper ores, reducing, 2.4 - amm m p——Á—— nd 2 = ERE n 5 ü Abergavenny, Bath, 102 Braintree, 175 Colchester, 68 Doncaster, 204 Prol 63 xis ing's Lynn, Paddington, 68 Soham, 142 Toxteth park, 142 Wells, 102 Weymouth, 102 Cottage architecture, Wheeler on, 821 Cowburn's oscillating safety-valve, 280 Cox, on strength of arches, 241, 94, 330 Craven hill chapel, Bayswater, 281 Crampton's pat. furnaces, 430 Crimea, huts for, 835 Crossings and switches, Burleigh on oon- struction, 172 Crossings, railway, Carr's pat. 392; North's pat. 893; Woodhouse's pat. 429 Currents of seas, depouits formed by, 391 Curves, railway, 414 Cuttings and embankments, slopes for, 335 Cubitt, on metropulitau drainage, 46 Decoration, Griffith on, 199 Density of the eartn, experiments on, 72 Deodorising sewage, "Sinith’s pat. 137 Derby coal inines, Morton on, 113 Design, present state of, Hay on, 261 Detroit water supply, 134 Dew- point hygrometer, Connell'a, 390 Dickinson, on coal mines of Lancashire, 77 Dictionary, English, Clarke (rev.) 184 Dictionary, imperial, Ogilvie rev.) 184 Dictionary, English, French, and German Tolhausen (rev.; 184 Differential calculus, Carmichael on rev.) 166; Waugh on rev.) 93 Dinisdale's pat. gaa manufacture, 285 Dintingvale viaduct, 112 Distilling fresh water, condenser for, $17 Dobson, on relation between revolving storms and coal mine explosions, 352 Docks, Birkenhead, 372 Dock, Cape town 174 Dock extension, Liverpool, 96 Dock, Leith, 111 Dock, Portsmouth, 233 Docks, Dundee, Walker on, 304 Dockyards, continuous work 1n, 360 Dome of Muliammed's tomb, Beejapore, 36 Domes, Fergusson on, 37 Donaldson, on town drainage, 55 Doncaster „ chapels, 204 Donlron, on town drainage, 57 Dover harbour of refuge, 186 Drainage ground of metropolitan bridges, T5 Drainage, north of metropolis, 45 DnA:NAGRE WoRKS— Blackbarn, 278 Harrow, 11 London, 45, 282, 297 Soutnampton, 153 Tynemonth, 9 Town diainag»—Baylis on, 60; Bazal- vette on, 58; Bidder on, 61; Cawley on, 59, Cif on, 59; Donaldson on, 55; Doulton on, 57; Lord Ebrington on, 65; Gibbs on, 61; Hawksley on, 57; lay wood on 55; Lovick on, 58; Mayon ou, 60; Netherway on, 55; Newlanda on, 61; Plum on, 60; Rawlinson on, 55, 62; Ritchie on, 57; Roe on, 62; Smith on, 98; Stephenson on, 60 Draw) ridge, railway, over the Leven, 83 Drawing and designu, Miuifie (rev.) 287 Dray's pa . warty, 429 Drecge, on iron bridges, and the causes of their deouuction, 174 Dredg es auspeusion- bridge system, 27 Dre ine timber, Napier ou, 388 Daiin water supply, 13 Dublin, Trinity college, museum buildings, 45 Dundee harbour, proposed improvements, .)4, Walker on, 304 Duuu's pat. ateam-boilers, 276 Eart'juake, instrument inteasity, 176 Barciyaukes, Hopkins on, 204 Er zon (Lord) on town drainage, 55 B c.ro magnets, experiments on force of, for measuring Er veirie light, submarine, 176 F... 11. telegraph (See Telegraph) Bais. ou analy ucal geometry, 375 Linowukiuneuts, Bruulees on, 97 E nb. tuxinents, slopes for, 336 Lovins, momentum, German's $50 [dm a, puuipiug, U. 8. 129 Js avings, hand x for amateurs of rev.) 137 INDEX. N Epilogue on architecture, 216 „Norfolk, 112 Fairbairn, on boiler explosions, 852; on construction of furnaces, 169; on con- struction of steam boilers, 156; on ma- chinery of Paris exhibition, $61; on „ 159; on stre of iron lates, 352; on steam and ts applica- ions, 108 Feed and brine apparatus for boilers, 290 Fenton's pat. axle and piston-rods, 822 Ferguson, on dome of Sultan 'Muham- B med’s tomb, 1 x ew, on metropo ‘an bridges, Files, Power's pat. 427 Finch’s pat. iron maste, 411 Finch’s mode of raising ing girders, Fireproof rofing, Mulholland's 85 wn Fletcher, on Landore viaduct, 215 Float valve, Bellhouse's, 280 Floating caisson gates, Bentham on, 77 Floating lighthouses, Herbert on, 436 Flour mills at Paris exhibition, 868 Flow of water through pipes, ie on, 98 Force-pump, double action, 817 Force, sources of, Hopkins on, 69 Forces, subterranean, Hopkins on, 204 Forging sheets of iron, Bertram’s pat. $21 Forinula for cast-iron beams, 336 Foucault's gyroscope, 1 Fowler, report on Oxford and Worcester railway, 115 Framing of gasholder, Philadelphia, 285 Framing of ateain-engines, Stetson on, 888 French, on the nimbus (rev.) 28 French scientific expedition to Babylon, 61 Freyberg, mineral wealth, 176 Friction hammer, Kitton's 44 Fuel, supplying and regulating in steam boilers, Carter's pat. 345 Fullwood's pat. cement, 127 Furnace, Carter and Symon' s pat. 845 Furnace, Crampton's pat. 430 p Fairbairn on economical working of, 169 Furnace, Gardner's amoke consuming, 422 Furnace (hot water) self-regulating, 288 Furnace, puddling, Hipkiss’s pat. 285 Furnace, reverberatory, Bird’s pat. 285 Furnace, smoke consuming, $87 Furnace, smokeless, Bow on, 95 Furnace, supply of air, Gilbertson's pat. 127 N Furniture, library, 112 Gall, on influence of capillary attraction on projectiles, 357 Garduer’s smoke-deflecting furnace, 422 Garrick's railway signal light, 290 Gas battery, Symons' 390 Gas companies and the Emperor Napoleon, 307 Gas from peat, 229 Gas lighting, Lady Bentham on, 95 Gas manufacture, Dimsdale's pat. 284 Gas manufacture, experiments by the Em- peror of the French, 107 Gaskell's pat. cement and mortar, 322 Gateshead quays improvements, 41 Gearing of machinery, Dray's pat. 429 Geometry, analytical, Ellis on, 376 Geometry, plane co-ordinate, Todhunter (rev.) 432 Germany, architecture of pre-gothic age in, 321 Getty's pat. shipbuilding, 431 Gibbs, ou town drainage, 61 Gilbertson's pat. supply of air to furnaces, 127 Girders, economic distribution of material, 173, 211, 236, 300, 329 Girders, Finch's plan of raising, 245 Girders, N Bow on, 300, 329 Glacial phenomena of lake district, 360 Glass, perforated, Hartley's pat. 285 Gold fields in Peru, 177 Goodwyn, on suspension bridges (rev.) 26 Good year's pat. mouldings of gutta percha, 401 Gorman’s momentum engine, 350 Gorman's water meter, 850 Gould, on metropolitan bridges, 24 Government neglect of science, 293 Government school of wt, Wolverhampton, 69 Governors, Taylor's pat 428 Gradients, American, 413 Grammar of English tongue (rev.) 184 Grant, on pipe drainage, 298 Great Western rauway, report of Mr. Bru- nel, 76 Grithehs' screw prepeiler, 171 Guide framing of gasholder, Philadelphia, Gully-trap, Austin’s, 48 98 arearms, Whitworth» pat 212 Guns and eio Adams on, 88 spiked t for, 856 T E. AN Guy, on metropolitau bridges, 34 Gyroscope, Foucault's, 128 Hall, on Gateshead improvements; 41 Hall, Thornton, Bucks, 405 Halifax, railway station, 286 Halifax, mansion near, 829 Hammer, friction, Kitson’ Harbour and docks, D $04 Harbours, Boult on periodical surveys, 888 Harbour of Dundee, proposed improve- mente, 284 44 ee, Walter on, Hare, on metropolitan bridges, 34 dae on sedimentary rocks of Scot- 888 Harmonic law of nature, BM on, 5, 167 Harrow, pig ra ak Hartley, on Birkenhead docks, 372 Hartlepool, proposed harbour of refuge, Hartley's pat. perforated glass, 285 Harwich harbour of refuge, 187 Hatfield, on Hope for cuttings and em- bankments, 33 Hawksley, on town d Hay, on barmonic law of nature (rev.) 5, 167 Hay, on present state of the art of design, 261 Hayward, on architecture of pre-gothic age in Germany, 221 Haywood, on town drainage, 55 Heat, Hopkins on theory of, 69 Henry, on testing building materials, 871 Hepburn, on lightning conductors, 818 Herapath's pat. sewage manure, 127 Herbert, on floating lighthouses, 486 Hill's bridge, Bristol, fall of, 111, 174, 245 Hill'a bord -consuming stove, 44 Hipkiss' pat, puddlin 5 285 Hoare’s s iding rule, Hoisting apparatus, Bellbonse'a pat. 823 Holcroft's pat. cement and mortar, 328 Holdon, on rarefied air for steam-engines, 360 Holstrom's air-lock for sinkiug hollow pilos, 156 Homersham, on water-aupply from chalk, 15 Homersham, on waterway and drainage ground of metropolitan bridges, 75 Homes for people in suburb and country crev.) 321 Hopkins, on source of physical power, 69 Tlopkius, on subterranean forces, 204 Hooghly, suspension bridge, Goodwyn on, 26 Hoop-iron bond, Tverman's pat. 400 Hoosac tunnel, U.S. 133 Houghton, on waterworks in United States, 13 House's printing telegraph, 275 Hull royal institutiun buildings, 1 Hull subscription library, 1 Hutchisou's pat. artificial atone, 426 Huts for the Crimea, 335 Hydraulic engines at Paris exhibition, 362 Hydraulic lift, Bessemer's, 494 Hydraulic tables, Neville rev. 94 Hydropathic establishment, Ilkley Wells, 221 Hygrometer, dew-point, 390 Idiots, asylum for, New York, 329 Ilkley wells hydropathic establishinent, 221 lliumination, artificial, Lady Beutham on, 95 India- rubber mouldings, Goodyear' pat. 401 India-rubber valve, Thomson's, 385 Infiltration of salt water to springs, 215, 249 Institution buildings, Hull, 1 Intercepting sewerage question, 282 Inventors’ Funds and Pateut Laws Com- mittee, 352 Tron beams, economic distribution of mate- rials, 173, 211, 234. 300, 329 Tron (cast) beaina, formula for, 336 Iron bridges, Dredge on, 174 Iron, Calvert on alloyr of, 410 Iron foot pavement, 161 Iron forging and welding, Rertram’s pat. $21 Iron houses, demerits of, 177 Tron lighthouse, 375 Iron manufacture of Great Britain, Tru: an rev., 319 Iron manufacture, Calvert on, 889 Iron maste, Finch’s pat. 411 Iron pavement, American, 425 Iron Fairbairn on strength of, 352 Iron, from oxidation, 852 Lion pu , Nasmyth's pat. 127 Iron roof, way station 97 Iron (railway) Produce, U.8. 115 Iron sleepers, 175 Isherw on setting land boilers, 14 Isthmus of Suez, proposed ship canal, 247 Isthmus of Suez question, 341 Italy, notes of a tour in, Street (rev.) 888 Jackson, on metropolitan bridges, 25 Janson, on metropolitan bridges, 25 Je S of Dinting vale viaduct, 112 bour of refuge, 187 Serie ud exploration of (rev.) 187 Johnson's pat. roofing, 431 Jones, on pumping engines at Kensington waterworks, 129 Joule, on force of electro-magnets, 366 Jonval turbines, experiments on, 131 Jurod, on salubrity of towns, 111 Kelsons, Liverpool landing-stage, 145 Kensington (U.8.) waterworks, 129 Kitson's friction hammer, 44 Krupp’s pat. railway wheels, 401 Lake district, glacial phenomena, 360 Lake Fucinoo proposed drainage, 176 Lakes of America, 269, 271, 2 T Lamports's pat. iron masta, 411 Lancashire coal mines, Dickinson on, 77 Lancaster on coal mines of Scotland, '150 Land boilers, Isherwood on getting, 14 Landing-stage, Liverpool, 145 Landore viaduct, 215 Landslip, California, 286 Lattice and Warren girders, 178, 211, 236, 800, 329 Lavancy' s expanding bridge, 438 Laxton’s examples of building construc- tion (rev.) 319 Leaden pipes, effects of water on, 131 Lead, relations to air and water, 131 Le Groe' pat. preserving wood, 20 Leicester, coal mines, Morton on, 113 Leith dock commission, 111 Leslie, on flow of water through pipes. 98 Lesscpe \de) on isthmus of Suez question, 341 Levelling staff, Conybeare’s, 378 Leven railway drawbridge, 33 Library buildings, Hull, 1 Library furniture, 112 Lift for strong-rooms, Bessemer’s pat, 394 Lighthouses, floating, Herbert on, 436 Lighthouse for West Indies, 375 Lightning conductors, early history of, 164 Lightning conductora, Hepburn on, 318 Limestone, Sorby on structure, 410 Lithographs by means of photography, 390 Liohography made easy rev.) 137 Liverpool compaas committee, 383 Liverpool corporation landing- stage, 145 Liverpool dock extension, 96 Liverpool, report on wells of, 401 izard serpentine, 424 Loc Ax Boarps or or— Accrington, 121 Alfreton, 122 Alnwick, 125 Altrincham, 118 Alvaston, 126 Arnold, 119 Asliby-de-1a-Zouch, 126 Aylesbury, 128 Baildar, 121 Banbury, 126 Bangor, 126 Barnard Castle, 121 Barnsley, 119 Batley, 122 Battle, 126 Beaconsfield, 118 Berwick upon-Tweed, 116 Beverley, 123 Bilston, 124 Bolton, 122 Boulton, 128 Burnham, 124 Burslem, 119 Bradford, 117 Braintree, 122 Brecon, 119 Bridyend, 125 Rridgworth, 122 Bristol, 116 Bromyard, 118 Brynmawr, 126 Calne, 122 Carli cle, 119 Carmarthen, 118 HEALTH, EX TINA Loca] boards of health, expenses of— boards of health, expenses of— Museum buildi Trin, Coll. Dublin, 48 Patent slip, 8 , 825 Castleford, 119 Tewkesbury, 138 Museum, Cologne, 174 Patent laws 3 Cardiff, 116 Th 23 Patent laws, alteration of, 352 Chatham, 11T Tormoham uay) 120 Napoleon III. experimente on gas manu- | Patents, com oners 805 Chelmsford, 119 Torrisholme, 1 facture, 107 Patents, commissioners reporte, American, Cheshunt, 117 Tottenham, Napoleon and the Paris gas companies, Chilvers Coton, 125 Towyn, 118 307 leuts, list of new, 31, 67, 102, 143, 178, rough, 126 outh, 117 Napier, on drying timber, 886 218, 258, 290, $26, 868, 402, 488 Clevedon, 125 xbridge, 123 Napier boat plug, 385 Paterson, on cultivation of sand-hills, 411 123 Wakefield, 128 Naamyth's hammer for pile-driving, 266 Pavement, cast-iron, 161 Coventry, 126 Walsoken, Nasinyth's pet 27 Pavement, iron, American, 119 Waltham, 125 Nature, May on, harmonic law, 5, 167 Pavement, Nicolson a, 295 Crampeall, 124 Wallasey, 121 Netherway, on town drainage, Paxton's proposed arcade round London, 118 Ware, 117 Neville's hydraulic tables rev.) 94 241 | Dartford, 118 arwick, 123 Newlands, on town 1 Peat, applications of, Derby, 1 Watford, 124 New York Asylum for i $29 Peel statue, Chea ide, 288 Dewsbury, 119 Wavertree, Niagara falls suspe ge, 160, 211, | Poel institution, Accrington, 181 Diss, 1 Wednesbury, 117 Nichol, on chronology of moon s Pendulum experiments, 72 Doncaster, 120 Welchpool, 1 865 Perforated glase, ne 27. pat. 285 Dorchester, 119 West ord, 128 Nicholson’s pavement, 995 «« Persia,” launch of, 287, 858 Dover, 125 Weymouth, 128 Nimbers, notes on, French (rev.) 28 Philadelphia gasworks, framing of gas- Dudley, 125 Wigan, 122 Norfolk estuary, 112 holder, 285 Durham, 116 Wisbech, 122 North’s pat sw! and crossings, 398 Phillipe, on iron roof, railway station, Bir- East Retford, 125 Witham, 125 Norton’s railway i 25 mingham, 97 Edmonton, 126 Wolverhampton, 117 Norton s rifle shot, 216 Photogra Thomson’s alto-relievo, 128 Elland, 124 Woolwich, 118 Notation, mechani Babbage on, 856 Physical , Hopkins on, 69 Ey, 119 Worcester, 12 Nottingham coal mines, Morton on, 118 Picture galleriee, arrangement of, 112 Enfield, 124 Worksop, 122 Pile driving, Buruell on, 265 Epsom, 124 Worthing, 1 Oar blades, Ewbank on form of, 337 Piles, air-lock for sinking, 156 Exmouth, 120 York, 124 Obituary, 142, 177, 211, 258, 826 Pipe sewers, working of, 297 , 120 vie 8 sup to imperial Pipe sewers, report of board of health on, Gainsborough, 119 Local boards of health, expenses, 116 (rev.) 184 155 Gaywood, 121 Local school of art, 110 Openwork ers, Bow on, 800, 299 Pipes, mould for casting, Elders nm , n Locomotive wheels and axles, Btrong's pat. Oppert, on ch expedition Babylon, Pipes, flow of water je on, 308 hester, 118 London basin, water bearing strata of, 6, Ornament, Griffith on, 199 Piston rods and axles, Fenton's pat. $22 Great Grimsby, 111 Oscillating safety-valv 280 Pitch com for screw Great Yarmou 23 on's pat. lift for strong - Tom, $94 | Outline, principles of, ‘Raskin on, 49 Platometer, new form of, 101 Halfax, 126 Lovick on pipe drainage, 291 Oxford 23 dustrlal schools, 2 Plans, List of, for rivate bills, 39 Halstead, 124 Lovick, on town drainage, 58 Plews, on metropo itan 21 Hartlepool, 125 Lydgate church, 257 Paddles, Ewbenk on form of, 837 Plum, on town drainage, 60 Harrow, 125 Lynn corn-ball buildings, 8 Page, on metropolitan bridges, 2 Plug for boat, Napier, 385 astings, 121 Palace, Stu . 116; Westminster, 801 Polytechnic institution, 101, 141 Havant, 128 Panopticon, institution, 101 Pompeii delineated, (rev.) 187 Haworth, 1 McDongall’s pat. sewage d „121 | Paper, new materials for, 177 Pontoons, Liverpoo landing-stage, 146 Heanor, 120 Machinery of 1 Paris exhibition, Fairbairn Paris Exhibition, 102, 110, 176, 217, 289, Portland harbour of refage, 187 Heckmondwike, 122 on, 861 326, 361, 395, 48 Pott'a system of pile driving, 268 Hexham, 1 Mackworth’s ** Metra,” 352 Paria gas supply, 107, 307 Potters in Liverpool, Mayer on, 433 Hitchin, 121 Mackworth, on coal mines of south-west, | Paria imrovements, 141, 176, 217 Power, Hopkins on sources of, 69 Holbeach, 120 189 Paris, water supply, 111 Power's pat. files, 427 be, Magnets (electro) J oule on force of, 366 Park Battersea, progress of, 276 Preserving wood, Le Gros pat., 20 Kendal, 117 Manchester (Cheet ) town-hall, 105 Park (St. James’; proposed encroachments, Projectiles, Adams on, 385. 1 Keswick, 119 Mansion, Manor heath, Halifax, 829 876. Projectiles, influence of capillary attraction Kingston-upon-Hull, 124 Mancuvring steamers, Mills', $51 on, 357 Knighton, 121 Manure manufacture, Herapath's pat. 127 Parexts— Pro blades, Ewbenk on form of, 387 Lancaster, 119 ure man ure, Wickatead’s pat. 20 Axles and piston roda, Fenton, 832 Propeller, application 1o galling ships for Marble and brick in the middle ages, Streat 6 Axles, Mowbray, 429 Boilers, Dunn, 376 Boilers and furnaces, Carter and 8y- Launceston, 184 Layton-with-Warbrick, 124 Leamington, 118 Marblea, American, Henry om, 377 nnie on, 349 Prussia, architectural examination in, 409 Leicester, 116 March, on acrew-vent for spiked guns, mons, $45 Puckle, on conic sections (rev.) 432 Littlehampton, 123 856 Bond, hoop-iron, Tyerman, 400 Puddling furnaces, Hipkiss s pat., Litton, 125 Marine propulsion, Ewbank on, 387 Buildings and sewers, purifying, Ander- Puddling iron, Naamyth's pat., 127 Llanelly, 118 , Rennie on, gon, 336 Pulley uring bo , 123 Martin, on shingle beaches, 392 Cannon and firearms, Whitworth, 272 Pump (force) double-action, 31 Cement for moulding, Scott, 252 Pump engines, Kensington U.S.) water- 121 Masts and spars, Robb's pat. 427 Macclesfield, 120 Masts, iron, Finch's pat. 4 Cement manufacture, Fullwood, 127 works, 129 Maidenbead, Mather and Platt’s borin machinery, 248 Crossing, railway, Carr, 892 i sewers and buildings, Anderson's March, 119 Max wells new platometer, 01 gs, Woodhouse, 429 pat. 336 l te, 124 May, on town drainage, Ex pansion engine, Seguin, 828 Pym, on metropolitan bridges, 22 Merthyr Tydfil, 120 Mayer, on end in Liverpool, 438 Files or raspa, Powers, 427 Mileham. 125 Mechanics institute, Accrington, 181 Forging and welding, rtram, 821 Morpeth, 124 Mechanical notation, Babbage em- 6 Furnaces, Crampton, 430 Quarrying rocks, Sim on, 358 Nantwich, 117 Modiseval decorations, Griffith on, 199 Furnaces, fuel in, Gilbertson, 197 Quays, Gateshead, 41 Newark, 117 Meigs, on Washington water supply, 193 Furnaces, puddling, Hipkiss, 285 Newmarket, 1 Mersey survey, Boult on, 388 rnaces, reverberatory, Bird, 285 Newport, 12 Meter, water, Gorman s. 35 Gas manufacture, Di e, 284 RxPORTS— MEN i Gearing, Dray, 429 hitectural exhibition, 326 Newton-heath, 121 Meteorological association, Scottish, 289 2 Metropolitan bridges—Analysis of evi-| Glass, perforated, Hartley, 285 Page, Chelsea bridge, 277 Norwich, 123 dence, 21 Governors, Taylor, 428 e Nuneaton, 123 Metropolitan buildings act, 198, 809 Hoisting apparatus, Bellhouse, 328 Civil E lnatitution, ann 122 Metropolitan drainage, 45 India-rubber and gutta-percha moulding, Cubitt, drainage of metropolia, 45 Ottery 8t. Mary, 126 Metra, description of, 352 Goodyear, 40 Dickinson, coal mines of Lancashire 77 Penrith, 120 tia buildings, Ric ond, T6 Locomotive wheels and axles, Strong, 308 Fowler, Oxford, Worcester railway, 115 . Penzance, 125 Mills (flour) at Paris exhibition, 368 Masts and spars, bb, 427 Hartley, Birkenhead docks, 812 Poulton Bare, 120 Mills, on manceavring steamers, Masts, wrough:- iron. Finch, 411 Inventors funds and patent laws com- Preston, 128 Mines (coal) reports on— Manure manufacture, Herapath, 127 mittee, 354 Reading, 118 Lancaghire, Cheshire, North Wales, y7 | Mortar and cement, Gaskell, 323 Jee, Dinting vale viaduct, 112 Redruth, 119 Scotland, 160 Pipes, metal, Elder, 427 Lancaster, coal mines of Scotland, 150 Romford 119 South-Western district, 189 Puddling iron, Nasmyth, 187 Mackworth, coal mines of south-west, Rotherham, 125 Staffordshire, W and Sbrop- Pulleys securing to , Clarine, 8 189 Rugby, 120 shire, 151 Rails, Coates, 393 Meigs, supply of water to Washington, Rasholme, 1 York, Derby, Nottingham, Leicester, Reaping and mowing machines, Atkins, 193 Rt, Helen's, 124 and Warwick, 113 90 Morton, coal mines of Yorkshire, &c., 113 Roof coverings, Johnson, 431 St. Thomas Apostle, 129 Minifie, on colour (rev.) 287; on drawing Salisbury, 115 and design (rev.) 287 Roofing, waterproof, Mulholland, 431 Page, Westininster bridge, 211 te, Momentum engine, Gorman's, 350 Sewage deodorizing, Smith, 127 Patents commissioners, 805 Sawtry, 123 Moon, chronology of the formation of, 365 Sewage manure, W icketeed, 20 Patents commissioners, American, 399 Selby, 120 Mooring chains, Liverpool landing-stage, Sewers and buildings, purifying, Ander- | Penuethorne Battersea park, 276 Sheerness, 11 148 son, 326 Rawlinsou, drainage of ‘Tynemouth, 9 Sherborne, 11 Mortar and cement, Gaskell’s pat. 822 Ships, Getty, 431 Rendel, harbours of refuge, 188 Shipley, 118 Morton, report on coal mines, 118 Ships for water ballast, Russell, 876 Rennie, Norfolk estuary, 112 Shirley, 1 Morecambe bay reclamation, 9 Ships’ bottoms composition, Cram, 328 Roe drainage ol Harrow, 11 Sleaford, 128 Morse and the eloctric telegra b, 273 Stone, artificial, Hutchison, 426 Roe, drainage of metropolis, 45 Southampton, 121 Motive power by expansion, n's pat. | Stone, artificial, Ransome, 393 Stephenson, drainage of metropolis, 45 Stockton, 123 323 Stove, smoke-consuming, Hill, 44 Stewart, harbour of Dundee, 234 Stratford-upon- Avon, 120 Monlds for casting pipes, Elder's pat. Switches and crossings, North, 393 Walker, Dundee harbour and docks, 304 Street, 126 427 Telegraph, submarine, Rankine and | Walker and Burges, harbours 0! refuge, Swaffham, 122 Mowbray's patent axles, 429 Thomson, 374 186 Swansea, 120 Vuhammed's tomb, Beejapore, 36 Warming and ventilating, Corbitt, 430 Water supply of Detroit, 134 . Taunton, 321 Mulholland's pat. roofing, 491 Wheels, railway, Krupp, 401 Wynne, coal mines of Staffordshire, &c. Tenby, 123 Murray, on retaining walls (rev.) 398 Wood preserving, Le Gros, 161 co ok ee e ay” — n l | I t 1 lv Rails, Coates’ pat. 893 Railway—Alexandria, 102; Memoranda on American, 418; Calcutta, 142; Cape of Good Hope, 877; Cornwall, 178; East Kent 142; Great Western, 16; Leeds and Bradford, 142; Limerick, 178; Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton, 115; Portsmouth, 477; South-Eastern, 177; Staines and Wokingham, 177; Swedish, 178; United States, 102 Railway Acta of 1854, 40 Railway bridge, Niagara falls, 160, 211 Railway Vine ela pat. 892 Railway depot, y, U.S. 27 Railway drawbridge, Ulverstone, 83 Railway extension, Liverpool, 96 Railway iron produce, U.S. 175 Railway machinery, Clark (rev.) 185 Railway signal-light, 290 Railway station, Halifax, 286 Railway switches and crossings, Burleigh ^ Roofing, Johnsou's on construction, 172 Railway tuunel, 204 Railway viaduct, Dinting vale, 112 Railways, Adam'a improvements in, $87 Rainfall, Simmonds on, 372, 419 | Ro SA on lithographs from photography, | 90 Rankine, on objecta of mechanical section of British Association, 348 Rankine, ou operation of patent lawa, 352 Rankine's pat. submarine telegraph, 374 Ransome’s pat. artificial stone, 393 Rarefied air, working steam-engines by, 360 Rawlinson, on drainage of Tynemouth, 9 Rawlinson, on town drainage, 55, 62 Reaping aud mowing machines, Atkin’s | pat. 20 Redman, on alluvial formations, 88 Reflectors, ailvercd porcelain, 431 Reid, on ventilation of public buildings, 175 Rennie, on cana) of Marseilles, 65 Rennie, on screw propellers, 349 Retaining walls, Murray rev.) 398 Revel, description of town, 141 Reverberatory furnaces, Bird's pat. 285 Reversing turbine, Weir's, 336 REviEws— Archæologia, tracts relating to antiquity, | 286 Architecture, styles of, Tarbuck, 185 Arundel society's collection, 434 Athen's, history of, de Laborde, 186 Brick and marble in the middle ages, Street, 338 Bridges, suspension, Goodwyn, 26 Calculus, differential, mathematical essays on, Waugh, 93 Calculus of operations, treatise on, Car- michael, 166 Coioar, theory of, Minifie, 287 Conic sections, Puckle, 432; Salmon, 432 Dictionary of English language, Hyde Clarke, 184 Dictionary, supplement to imperial, Ogil- vie, 184 Drainage of towns, 47 Drawing and design, Minifie, 287 Kaxvincers pocket book, Adcock's, 433 Luvravings, hand-book of, Le Blanc, 137 Examples of building construction, Lax- ton, 319 Grammar of the English tongue, Hyde Clarke, 184 Harmonic law of nature applied to archi- tectural design, Hay, 167 Homes for the pore in suburb and country, Wheeler, 321 Hydraulic tables, Neville, 94 Iron manufacture of Great Britain, Tru- ran, 818 Jerusalem, exploration of, Salzmanu, 137 Lithography made easy, 137 Man's material civilization, Kleinm, 169 Meteorology, practical, Drew, 289 Nimbus, notes on the, French, 28 Patents commissioners, American, 399 —— —— äZK——ẽſ — ô—wm . — Plane co-ordinate geometry, Todhunter, 432 Pompeii, doacribed and delineated, Bre- ton, 137 Tottery in Liverpool, Mayer, 433 Railway, Lisbon, report, 433 Railway machinery, Clark, 185 Retaining walls, Murray, 398 Saturday half-holiday, Taylor, 434 Spires and towers of mediaval churches, Wickes, 237 Suez, isthiuus of, De Lesseps, 341 Technological dictionary, Tolhausen, 184 Telegraph, electric, who invented? Cooke, 42 Thames improvement, Robinson, 433 Usetul aris, illustrations of, Tomlinson, 400 Water supply of Detroit, 134 Year book of Facts, Timbe, 137 Revolving storms and coal mine explosions, 352 INDEX. Rifle, self-capping, 62 Rifle shells and balls, Gall on, 857 Rifle shot, Norton's, 216 Rifles for English army, 43 Ritchie, on town drainage, 5T Ritchings, on metropolitan bridges, 24 River Thames, condition of, 282 Roads of Romans, 257, 325 Robb's pat. masta, 427 Robinson, on application of screw propeller to sailing shipsfor long voyages, 159 Robinson, on es improvements, 438 Rock blasting and boring-machine, 66 Rocks, Sim on quarrying and blasting, 358 Rocks of Scotland, sedimentary, 388 Roe, on drainage of Harrow, 11 Roe, on metropolitan drainage, 45 Roe, on town drainage, 62 Roman roads, Thomson on, 257, 325 Roof, railway station, Birmingham, 97 pat. 431 Rooting and flooring, Mulbolland's pat. 481 Roque-favour, aqueduct of, 65 Rosser, on warming of churches, 106 Ross, on aurora borealis, 410 tary engine, Gorman'a, 350 Royal Academy, architecture at, 181 Royal institution buildings, Hull, 1 Ruskin, on principles of colour, 52; on prin- ciples of outline, 49 Russell'a pat. ship for water ballast, 376 Safety-valve, oscillating, 280 Sailing colliers, Allen on, 137 St. James's park, proposed cncroachment, 376 St. Lawrence, navigation of, 269, 271 Salmon, on conic sections (rev.) 432 Salomans, on metropolitan bridges, 22 Salt-water, infiltration to springs, 215, 249 Saltash railway bridge, 169 Salubrity of towns, 111 Santa Sophia, Constantinople, 162 Sand-hills, cultivation of, 411 Scheutz's calculatiug machine, 356 Schinkel, statue of, 141 School, industrial, Oxford. 2 School of art, Wolverhampton, 69 Schools of art, local, 110 Scieuce, neglect of by government, 293 Scotland, Lancaster on coal mines of, 150 Scott's pat. cement for moulding, 252 Screw propeller, strength of, 290 Screw propeller, application to sailing abipe for long voyages, Robiuson on, 169 Screw propeller, Reunie on, 849 Screw-vent for spiked guns, 356 Sea embankments, Brunlees on, 97 Seasoning timber, Bentham on, 235 Sediment-box, Austin’s, 48 nr pat. vapour eugine, 328 Selfe, on metropolitan bridges, 24 Serpentime, lizard, 421 Sewage manure, Herapath'a pat. 127 Sewage manure manulacture, Wicksteed’s pat. 20 Sewage deodorising, Smith's pat. 127 Sewers and buildings, purifying, Ander- son's pat. 336 Sewerage works ‘see Drainage" Sheffield school of art competition, 63 Sheffield theatre, 400 Shells and balls, Gall on, 357 Shingle beaches, Martin on, 302 Ship building, Getty's pat. 431 Ships for water ballast, Russell's pat. 376 Ships’ boats, Ciifford's method of lowering, 172 Ships’ bottoms composition, Cram's pat. 323 Shock, on cloud combination of steam and air, 74 Shock, on timber-bending machinery, 48 Shropshire coal mines, Wynne on, 151 Sicily, notes of a tour in, 247 Signals, Norton’s, 252 Silvered porcelain reflectors, 431 Sim, on quarrying and blasting rock, 358 Simmonds, on rainfall, 378, 419 Simpson, on drainage of Southampton, 153 Sirrell's surveying instrument, 38 Skaife, on formula for cast-irun beams, 836 Sleepers, iron, 175 Sliding rule, Hoare’s, 252 Slip for vexsels, Sydney, 336 Slopes fer cuttings and embankments, 335 Slopes of sea-walls, Brunlees on, 97 Smith, on condition of Thames, 282 Smith, on town drainage, 58 Smith, on metropolitan bridgea, 25 Smith's pat. sewage deodorizing, 127 Smoke consumiug stove, Hill's, 44 Smoke consumption, 225, 387, 422 Smokeless furnaces, Bow on, 95 Smyth, ou trausmission of time signals, 356 Snow plough, 63 Surby, on deposits formed by currents, 391 Sorby, on lunes*one, 410 Southainptou, Simpson on drainage of, 153 Spence, on cond.nser for distilling fresh water, 317 IBS— Architecte’ benevolent, 141 Architecta Royal Inst. of British, 5, 36, 111, 173, 199, 203, 221, 407 Architectural publication, 210 Arundel, 484 British Association, 253, 875, 888, 410 Engineers, institution of civil, 6; annual report, 7; 64, 83, 97, 187, 169, 211, 249, 436 Meteorological association, Scottish, 289 Scottish Society of Arta, 66, 95, 290, 317 8 Society of Ape 487 | landing 145 pecification, Liverpoo -Btage, Spence, on stereotype moulding for casting brass nails, 317 Spence, on strength of screw-blades, 290 Spence's feed and brine apparatus, 290 Spinster, or rifle shot, Norton’s, 216 Staffordshire coal mines, Wynne on, 161 Staff, levelling, Cony beare's, 373 Stark, on writing inks, 290 Sn railway Halifax, 286; Troy, U. S., 9 Station roof, iron, Birmingham, 97 Steam and its applications, Fairbairn on, 108 Steam "ab air, Shock on cloud combination 0 9 Sion polar, Fairbairn on construction, Steam-boilers, Dunn’s pat., 376 Steam colliers, Allen on, 187 Steam-engine furnaces, notes on, 216, 318 Steam-engine framing, Stetson on, 333 Steam-enyine governors, Taylor's pat. 428 Steam-engines at Paris exhibition, 361 Steam-jet experimenta, T9 Steam ship ** Persia,” launch of, 287, 358 Steam ships, Getty's pat. 431 Steamers, Mills on mancwuvring, 351 Stephenson, on metropolitau drainage, 46 Stephenson, on town drainage, 60 81 moulding for casting braas nails, 31 Stetson, on framing of steam-engines, 838 Stewart, on Dundee harbour, 234 Stokers, instructions to, 256, 318 Stone bridges, proportioning of, 133 Stone, artificial, American, 424 Stone, artificial, Hutchison's pat. 426 Stone, artificial, Ransome's pat. 393 Stove, Hill’s smoke-consuming, 44 run water-bearing, of the London basin, ’ Street, on brick and marble in the middle ages (rev.) 338 Strong’s pat. for removing wheels and axles of locomotives, 308 Submarine telegraph, Rankine’s pat. 374 Submarine telegraph, Whitehouse on, 384 Submarine wire, mson on electric cur- renta, 38T Subter aneau forces, Hopkins on, 204 en (isthmus) pro ship canal, 247, 34 Sunderland bridge repair, 397 Surveying instrument, Bournier's, 341 Surveying (rapid) instrument for, 58 Suspension bridge, Niagara falle, 161, 211 Suspension bridge, wire, 161 Suspenaion bridge, Goodwyn (rev.) 26 Susquehanna bridge, U.S., 281 Swedish calculating machine, 856 Switches and crossings, Burleigh on con- struction, 172 Switches and crossings, North’s pat. 398 Sydney, patent slip, 336 Symons’ pat. boilers and furnaces, 345 Symons’ gas battery, 390 Table and chairs, Colling’s design, 112 Tarbuck's styles of architecture (rev.) 185 Taskers self-regulating water furnace, 288 Taylor's tool-holder, 66 Taylor's pat. governors, 428 Telegraph, electric — to Constantinople, 132; disputed invention, 42; Mediter- ranean, 326; single wire, 164; Thomson on, 387; Whitchouse on, 384 Telegrapha, electric, American, 273 Tension of cement, 230 Thames, Smith ou condition of, 282 Thames, local changes, Redman on, 88 Thames improvement, Robinson on, 433 Thatch, substitute for, 249 Theatre—Dessau, 141; Sheffield, 400 Thomas's pat. hoisting apparatus, 323 Thomson, on elecuic currents in submarine wires, 387 Thomson, on india-rubber valve, 385 Thomson, on motions at surface of alcoholic liquors, 359 Thomson, pat. submarine telegraph, 374 Thomson, on roads of the Romans, 257 Thornton Hall, Bucks, 405 Timber, Bentham on seasoning, 235 Timber- bending machinery, 48 Tanber drying, Napier on, 386 Time signals, Smyth on transmission, 356 Tite, ou metroplitan bridges, 23 ee condition of architecture inEngland, Todhunter's geometry (rev.) 432 Tool-holder, Taylor's, 66 Tombs, christian, at Dieppe, 405 Tomlinson's illustrations of useful arte (rev.) 400 Town hall, Cheetham, 105 Town drainage (rev.) 47 Towns, salubrity of, 111 uu (ancient) mechanical principles of, Tracts on steam, 286, 818 Trap, Austin's, 48 Tauns, on proportioning stone bridges, 3 Trees in Mexico, 177 Trestle wire suspension-bridge, 161 Truran on iron manufacture of Great Britain (rev.) 319 Turbine, reversing, Weir's, 336 Turbines, experiments on, 181 Tunnel, Hoosac, 133 Tunnel railway, metropolitan, 204 Tunnels, railway, 414 Tunnelling, railway, M‘Cally on, 402 Tyerman’s hoop-iron bond, 400 Tynemouth drainage, Rawlinson on, 9 Tyrrell, on metropolitan bridges, 26 Ulverston railway drawbridge, 33 United States waterworks, 129, 180 Valves, safety, Fairbairn on, 159 Valve, Bellhouse’s oscillating, 280 Valve, self-acting, Tasker's, 288 Valve, india-rubber, Thomson on, 886 Vapour engine, Seguin's pat. 328 Venice, mosaic work in, 340 Ventilation of coal mines, 78 Ventilation of public buildings, Reid on, 175 Ventilating and warming, Corbitt's pat. 430 Verona, description of, 339 Viaduct, Dinting vale, 113 Viaduct, Landore, 215 Wales north) coal mines, Dickinson on, 77 Walker on Dundee harbour and docks, 304 Walls, retaining, Murray (rev.) 398 Warming and ventilating, Corbitt's pat. 430 Warming of churches, 105 Warwick coal mines, Morton on, 113 Warren and lattice girders, 173, 211, 936, 800, 329 Wasbington water supply, 193 Water, flow through pipes, Leslie on, 98 Water, decomposition by electricity, 390 Nn bearing strata of the London basin, 4 » Water furnace, self-regulating, 288 Water jet experimenta, 78 Water meter, Goriuan's, 350 Water supply works— Detroit, 184; Dub- lin, 12; Paris, 111; Washington, 193 Water aupply to towns, Bateinan on, 391 Waterlow s hinged account-book covers, 112 Waterworks-- Ryde, 63; Kensington, U.S., 128; of United Staten, 130 Watt, mechanical inventions of, 230 Waugh, on differential calculus (rev.) 98 Weir's reversing turbine, 330 mesi machinery, Mather & Platt's, Wells under London, infiltration of salt water to, 215, 249 Wells of Liverpool, report on, 401 Welding sheet irou, Bertrain's pat. 821 i rud Palace, proposed extension, Westminster new hridge, cas of, 277 Wheatstone v. Cooke, 42 ES Wheels of locomotives, removal of, 308 Wheels, railway, Krupp's pat. 401 xd celer,on cottage architecture in America, 26 Whitehouse, on electric cable, 384 Whitley, on aneroid barometer for mea- suring heighta, 269 Whitworth's pat. cannon and firearms, 272 Wicksteed's pat. sewage manufacture, 20 Williams, on coal mines of Scotland, 151 Wilson, on metrupolitan bridges, 24 Wire suspension bridge, 118 Wolverhampton school of art, 69 Wood preserving, Legros’ pat. 20 Woodhouse's pat. crossings, 429 Worcestershire coal nines, Wynne on, 151 Workhouse— Bradford, 102; Kings Lyun, 102 Whiting inks, Stark on, 290 Wrought iron beams, economic distribution of material, 178, 211, 236, 300, 329 Wynne, on coal mines of Staffordshire, &c. 151 Yandell’s pat. trestle wire suspension bridge, 161 Year book of facts rev. 187 Yorkshire coal mines, Morton on, 113 Alluvial formations, 85-6-7-8-9-90 Engine, 924, 362 Arch 133, 294-5, 930-1-2-8, 309, 310-1-2 Axle, 428 Barrack, 76 Boat plug, 374 Boiler, 18 Bookease, 112 Book, hinged, 112 Bond, boop- iron, 400 Bridge, 28, 161, 245 Boring-rod, 248 Cannon, 272 Chair, 112 Chair, railway, 393, 429 Chapel, 204, 237, 281, 299; Church, 257 Crossing, 393, 429 Dome, 37 , 295 INDEX. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pavement, iron, 161 Exchange, 9, 435 Pavement, wood, 996 Furnace, 127, 288, 322, 499, 428 Piston, 233 Gasholder, 285 PLANS— Gauge, boiler, 945 Barrack, 76 Gearing, 428 Boiler, 345 Girder, 245, 300 | Brace, 300 Governor, 429 Bridge, 161 Gully trap, 48 Drawbridge, 39 ' Gyroscope, 128 Engine, expansion, 324 Hammer, steam, 44 Furnace, 288, 345 Hydropathic establishment, 221 Inktitute, 1, 181 ^ Landing stage, 145 Institute, 1 Library; 1 Mansion, 369 Museum, 48 Quay, 1, 41 School, 2 School of art, 69 Town hall, 105 " Hydropathic establishme Street improvements, 41, 301 Paddle, 338 Propeller, 233 Pulley, 8 Quay, 41 Rail, 393, 429 Railway wheels, removal for repair, 306 Rifie-dhot, 216 School, 1 School of art, 69 Sediment- box, 48 Stove, smoke consuming, 45 Switch, 393 | Table, 112 Telegraph, 165 Tower, 168 Towi hall, 105 | Valve, 280; 345, 385 (00 Ventilating apparatus, 428 Viaduct, 83 Wheels, railway, arrangements for repair, 308 INDEX. LIST OF PLATE ENGRAVINGS, AND DIRECTIONS TO BINDER. * Plate | Opposite page 1, 2.—Royal Institution Buildings, Hull B Lg $.—Corn Hall Lynn n ies x S 8 4, 5.—Railway Drawbridge over the Leven . 88 6.—Gateshead Quays and Improvements 41 7.—Museum Buildings, Trinity College, Dublin 48 8, 9.— Government School of Practical Art, Wolverhampton 69 10, 11.—8urrey Militia Buildings, Richmond 76 12, 13.—Town Hall, Cheetham, near Manchester .. 105 14, 15.—Library Furniture—Bookcase, Table, and Chairs ... 118 16, 17, 18.—Liverpool Corporation Landing Stage... 45 19.— Peel Institution, Accrington, Lancashire .. 181 20.—Ilkley Wells Hydropathic Establishment... — ... 221 21.— Barnsley Independent Chapels and Schools .. 287 22.— Lydgate Church, near Todmorden, York . 287 23.— Whitworth's Improvements in Cannon and Firearms ... 272 24.—Craven Hill Chapel, Bayswater ... . 281 25.— Tasker's Self- Regulating Hot-water Furnace .. 288 Plate Lipa 26.—Queen Square Chapel, Brighton ... Sie jus . 298 VF to the New Palace at Westminster T —. 901 | 28.—Strong’s br ann pg Wt Locomotive Engines — ð . . 908 29.—Seguin’s Patent for Mare Motive Power by Expan- sion... -— e —. 824 90, 31, 38.—Mansion at Manor Heath, near Halifax... . 829 32.—Carter's Patent Improvements in Boilers and Furnaces... 345 34.—Carr's Railway Crossings—North's Switches and Cross ings—Coate's Improvements in Rails ... ... ... 393 35.— Thornton Hall Bucks ... T: e 925 ... 405 36.— Finch and Lamport's Patent Wrought Iron Maste ... 412 37.—Elder’s Patent Mould for Casting Metal Pipes — Taylor's Patent Steam- Engine Governors Woodhouse's Patent Railway OCroesings—Mowbray's Patent Bearings for Axles of Railway Wheels—Dray's Patent Gearing of Machinery Driven by Horse Power—Orampton’s Steam Boiler Furnaces—Corbitt's Patent Warming end Venti- = ————— — —. — . -—— — — — — Na rm RE a n m —ę—-¼¼. —¼.ãꝛ —— — — a RE — — — — — Werne eren — ꝙß⅛———— ]. 7, 7 = =A — — — YS, K EN ERLANG Je eS 5 10 « V me 9 [^ y T f zg ONG ^ Eie TA: uff Pavese un Cu n Te » , eu > 2 j 8 A E » V 82 N Sya ny? 1 a Leese f — pe — ire m ie 18 rr ern ——— —— — 8 —„-—¼¼ —. u —„—-—¼ĩ — ʃ—L— —-—̃ d —vyęV— — — ͤ — —e—¾ 7 5 SITUA TH | es || wet. 14 22 Scale 6 Feet to an Inch. JR. Jobbins. 3 Warwick Ct Holborn | _vigtized y Google — M — D — - THE CIVIL JOURNAL. ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S OXFORD INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. — EpwaRD G. Bruton, Esq, Architect. FRONT ELEVATION, ROYAL INSTITUTION BUILDINGS, HULL. (With Engravings, Plates I. and II.) Tux Royal Institution building, erected jointly by the Hull Literary and Philosophical Society and the Hull Subscription Library Association, was opened with a bazaar in aid of the building fund in the early part of November last. The building covers an area of 2200 square yards. The principal facade, the subject of our large Plate, which for a ground-story structure is classical and imposing, is 160 feet long, and is entirely built of stone. Thestyle of architecture is Roman, and of the Corinthian order, and the centre part is deeply recessed with ten coupled columns in front, disposed after the manner of the Louvre at Paris. The wings slightly project, and have pilasters and iments on them, the whole standing upon a bold rustieated ment, and surmounted by an attic and balustrade. The entire colonnade will be crowned by a group of figures, from the studio of Mr. Thomas Earle, of London, representing the Arts and Sciences. The plan (see Plate II.) is well , and contains an apartment 90 feet by 65 feet, for a museum. The central part of it consists of an Ionic arcade, decorated and pricked out with colour in the polychromatic mode. Adjoining the museum is the large lecture-hall, which will seat 600 persons. It is semicircular in form, with a panelled No. 250.—Vor. XVIIL—JANUARY, 1855. ceiling, and is lighted from the side walls above the seats; and behind this are the laboratories, lecturer's room, and committee- room, the whole of which, like the other mn of the building, are now nearly in a state of completion. e library consists of book-rooms calculated to hold upwards of 60,000 volumes, a reading-room, entrance-hall, committee, deposit, and other rooms, .the whole quite separated from the Royal Institution. The reading-room and entrance-hall are surrounded with Ionic and Corinthian columns and pilasters. Both institutions are heated with hot water. The lib books now number about 30,000 volumes. Mr. Cuthbert B ick, of Hull, is the architect, and Mr. John Brown the clerk of the works. ‘The painting and decoration of the interior of the buildings, including museum, library, lecture-hall, &., were executed by Mr. Wi Wardale, of Hull. The columns in the corridor are fac-similes of red granite, the capitals white and edged with gold, the cornices wrought out with various shades of colour, and the panels of ceiling light ultramarine. The mouldings of panels are covered with fo in colours, and other kin ornaments. The plinths or bases of the columns are in verd-antique. Messrs. Simpson and Malone executed the mason work; Mr. B., Musgrave, the brick and plaster work; Mr. Margison, the wood work; Dawber and Sons; slaters; Mr. Merrikin, plumber; and Messrs. Thompson and Stather, iron-founders. 2 2 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL OXFORD INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. | | | : Wm - Ad 4 [Fe] ala M i — 9 v Ww X X U x KK Dot a y T a : 3 » u L " - R M * a P . - r ERIT —T:3 * E = G H = K K m ul i oS a EM : A B C D A — — uni FIBST FLOOR PLAN. COMMITTEE —~S 77 „. Ji ' ^ ^ * ^ > i| GROUND PLAN OF THE HULL SUBSCRIPTION LIBRARY. Y AND PHILOSOPHICAL BUILDINGS. OF THE SOCIETYS B HULL LITERAR GROUND PLAN ARCH! CUTH BERT BRODRICK, 100 F^ J.R.Jol ~ N Google 1 9 * an www i "959 sh — :: — 00 0 „E — — — — — — — — ——— — ——— —ññ;ĩx7.«ö THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 8 THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, OXFORD. We give the elevation and plans of the Industrial Schools, Oxford, which are nearly completed. The following letters refer to corresponding letters on the plans: References to Grownd- Floor Plan. A. Class- Rooms. N. Boys’ Recreation Ground. B. Matron’s Room. O. Gateway C. trance Hall. P. Stable. p. Superintendent Room. R. Corn-Room E. E. ms for Infants. S. Cow-Sh F. Schoolmi à . Kitchen G. Girls’ Schoolroom. U. Wash-House H. Boys’ Schoolroom. V. Laundry. I. Schoolmaster. W. Bakehouse and Oven. K.K. Work Rooms. X. X. Baths. L. Girls’ Recreation Ground. Z. Larder and Scullery- M. Dining Hall. 4, 4, 4, 4. Wards. References to First- Floor Plan. A. A. Girls Dormitories. H. Cutting-out Room. p. B. Boys’ Dormitories. I. Gardener's Bedroom. C. Committee- Room. Farmi res D. Superintendent's Bedroom. E. Matron's Bedroom. F. Schoolmistress. G. Schoolmaster. The building bas been visited by the Vice-Chancellor and 5 inspector, and approved of by them. ward . Braton is the Architect. L. L. Wards. M. Nurse. N. Passage. — ĩ3a—]ä — THE ARCHITECTURAL EXHIBITION. GALLERIES or THE SOCIETY OF BRITISH ARTISTS, SUFFOLE STREET, PALL MALL. Ar length we may congratulate the gem and the public on the revival of the ‘Architectural iti Pre : É too, to welcome it in its new—its more eligible—locality, and to perceive, in the statement prefix since “ the committee have taken these galleries for three months successful (for 1t is well known that these efforts during the in- terval have been untiring), and if by the present arrangement its j 1 a summer life, we know there seem but one alternative- Suitable premises are nowhere to be ob- and ev i we think, done wisely, after canvassing such suggestions as were particularly one for the estab- lishment of 2 rmanent building for their own and kindr urposes (which at one time it was hoped might be brought to beni: in securing these rooms for a time of year when such heavy drawbacks are less in force, and when from there being fewer rivals in the exhibition field, there is less to fear from counter- The Suffolk-street galleries consist of a suite of five rooms, three of which are now devoted to Drawings, and the other two to terials.” Of the former class there are 340 contributions, and of the latter less than 30. i tectural books, models and portfolios on the tables complete the collection. The series is, on the whole, an interesting one, aD happily all the objects are 80 laced that the merita of each may be fairly tested. In the hanging of the drawings, while it was of course desirable to have an eye to the ensemble effect it has been gained in some case be conjoined, either as forming part of one get, or, in cases of com- , for the sake of comparison. It well to bear this 1n mind on future occasions, that & primary aim of the Exhibition may not be unduly gacrificed. May we add another word OF two before roceeding to & sspecitic analysis? Competition drawings should form an im- rtant item in a rofessedly Architectural exhibition. Apart from the interest w ich naturally attaches to publie works con- i useful to trace different minds on & given theme, and too often necessary, with shame be it spoken, to bring the decisions of influenced com- mittees to the im i j more universally olt, instead ha or so of such drew i we shoul have scores. Then, à in some degree to be concerned, and than on the resent, notwithstanding the nt well organised; and, by-the-bye, only one-half of the local secre- taries are themselves exhibitors. The London Committee is sadly at fault in this respect. In our examination of the several rooms We shall classify the subjects of the drawings 88 much as possible, for the sake of on venient reference, as well a8 compari Of public buildings, either in the shape of designs or authentic drawings, there is a large re, Let us, however, remise that, as several drawings of this class, and others, have been already discussed in our o rvations on the Royal Academy, and other exhibitions, & glance in passing will often suffice, and some may be altogether passed over. Corn Exchanges and Town Halls seem to take the lead in point of number, and in conn i the names of Messrs. Bidlake and Lovatt are more than once Dra o. 8); all, Melton Mowbray,” (& competition design, for which the second acca was awarded), 18 a E i iti (86), “The New Markets and Public Bui dings, Bury St. unds, Suffolk,” which obtained, in competition, the first premium, par” i : Jt is of two stories, each in » arcades, the lower being rusticated throughout; the upper, red brick with white dressings. The management of this story ially is ve good, and the balance of the whole group excel- lently preserved: central turret is the least satisfactory rtion of the design; not that it is objectionable in itself, but scarcely in keeping with the rest. For eir “ Design for the rn Exchange at Coventry,” they also obtained the gecond premium. The perspective view (98) is a capital drawing i he style adopted is Italian, rather villa- are tower rising above the roof breaks the outline very agreeably. Almost identical with this design, is“ View of Public Rooms and Corn Exchange, Kid- derminster, DOW erecting.” The façade is in both cases divided in width into three, by orinthian pilasters occupy) the whole mediate ones are road and single, but have à second pilaster inst the face. In execution this never looks right, if the entablature above 18 unbroken. The princi i in the centre of the front. and in it the outline and Propo a of i j ments are repeate, only that viding the triple windows becomes, in the door- way, a circular column, but also rustica This, in a feature 89 small and detached, i8 unsatisfactory- Messrs. Bidlake and Lovatt 0 mouth, now being erected,” which is but a plainer version of those we have just examin j i plans, showing the general outline and arrangements. Perhaps this hint may not yet be too late. There are several designs for the new Preston Town Hall in the Exhibition ; the first in the catalogue is (12) T. Goodchild. It presents & rontage of four columns etached from the wall, with the entablature broken round them, surmounted by figures. There i8 nothing remarkably original about it, excel the way in which the drawing itself is got up. The general co ouring is in- tensely muddy, 8° etails of the architecture, and all the rincipal lines, are re-drawn on the 3 with white body colour! Ene design looks better in the outline elevation (188), hung in the adjoining room. E. B. Lamb's design for the same Town Hall is of a differ- ent kind, and clever both in idea and drawing. Considerable originality is displayed in the minor details, but the profusion © rustication empl ed, especially in the archivolte to the windows, o gives an effect of heaviness. (95 and 96) are the other elevations, 9* | | . —— mar" 4 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND AROHITECT'S JOURNAL. section, and 8 the series. (200) is a design for view which should accompany it is hung quite in another place, the same ding by Beavan. It is too minute to be criticised closely, and does not call for icular remark, except that red granite columns pus to be intended on the principal floor, a8 at the Carlton 1 ub House, Pall Mall. One of the * Premium Designs” (or rather two), by Mr. Wm. Hill, of Leeds, is exhibited in (294), (295), and (299), superbly-finished drawings, which are about to be sent to the French Exhibition. The site on which the Hall is to be built is fortunately a one, being T all round, and the sum pro to be laid out is liberal, so at we may hope for a handsome, 1 edifice. In the views before us this would appear to be realised, especially in (299). It strikes us, however, that the tower, a very elegant peristyle in two stories, is needlessly high, more fitted for an ecclesiastical than a civic structure. Mr. Cuthbert Brodrick’s fine view of the Town Hall he is now erecting at Leeds, which attracted so much attention, reappears in (97) with an equally careful interior di ras in (20) This latter reminds one of the St. George's Hall, Liverpool, simplified. The ceiling is in one span, semicircular, springing from coupled Corinthian columns, and has five large coffer panels in each division. The end is also semi on plan, with correspondent dome ceiling in radiating ribs. This recess contains the organ. (28) * Design for the Interior of a Banking Room,” by E. H. Martineau, is appropriate, though its plainness gives ita ess of look. The treatment of the skylight-ceiling has some novelty. There are two “Designs for the Carlisle County Lunatic Asylum” (competition), one by Mr. Joseph Clarke (9), and the other by Mr. E. W. Tarn (76). The former is a bird's-eye view, well grouped, of the thorough domestic red-brick character. The chapel has a lofty tower and spire, which is awkwardly connected with a part of the house building. Mr. Tarn’s drawing would have looked better had it been half the size. It is a very tame affair throughout. Chimneys are wanting, except a cluster on each of the wings, and there they look very shy. A cumbrous square tower forms the centre building, from which rises a dwarf spire. The angles of the tower are chamfered, till, at some little way from the top, octagonal turrets, pinnacled, are corbelled out on the Scotch principle ;—verily, notions differ! The “ West of England and South Wales District Bank” (33), W. Hill, is a very beautiful drawing: every part of the design is well studied. Still, the elevation has more the air of a private mansion than a public office. The same remark holds in reference to another design for the same building (46) by Messrs. Rowe and Smith, a very so-so affair. (147) introduces us to another compe- tition drawing, “Town Hall, Burslem,” which is excessively heavy and r, more so than some other works which Mr. Stevens exhibits. We allude more especially to the oft-repeated flat pilasters, facise, and stinted mouldings. There can be little question that (44) is an Academy Medal drawing, from that extensiveness in design and infinity of columns which from time immemorial have constituted the staple in such productions. It is called a Design for a Royal Academy,” by Henry S. Legg; the longitudinal section is hung in another part of the room (248). There is no little merit in this design. Another Medal design is (64) by Arthur Allom, “ Perspective View for a National In- stitution of Fine Arts,” which we believe was pre for the Gold Medal of last year. The decastyle portico and its stylobate are the best features; the attic above is heavy, and the open uadrangular finish detracts from the prevailing grandeur. aryatid figures are employed in the flank elevation, which has considerable play. The accompanying drawings (62) and (68) are charming sketches for portions of the interior. Two other draw- ings, by Mr. A. Allom, must also be mentioned. (149) is entitled * Architectural Composition,” a kind of day-dream, wherein piles of building are seen massed on the bank of a river, which is spanned by a bridge. Save a few errors in the perspective, it makes an excellent picture. The other contribution is a * Design for Metropolitan Baths," which both as respects playful originality of idea and masterly colouring, is one of the gems of the Galler? It is to be sent to the Paris Exhibition. Everybody stares at the * Sketch Design for a National Gallery," W. G. Smith (55), won- dering what such an absurdity means; whether the author is to be pitied or blamed, and what the people were thinking of who allowed it to be hung; but—deponent saith not! There is not much to recommend in (72) “ West Entrance pro- 555 for the Norwich Fish and Poultry Market, by Nobert itton; the chimneys and attic are exceedingly bad. By that strange perversity which we have before instanced, the perspective viz. in the second room (252); this indicates t want of care on the part of the Committee, and is a slight to the 5 pe themselves. (81) “ Design for a Railway Station,” by G. H.O. e, prettily tinted in sepia, is rather too much in the lengthened-out villa style. The plainer elevation is the best. Mr. Burges Watson has an “ Ideal Sketch for a National Monument to commemorate British Valour” (110), which combines mausolea both naval and military, and monumental temples, wholly of green and red por- hyry, respectively. (Are these colours selected in allusion!) tween the Temples is a Doric rostral column, resting on a large cubical plinth; on the top is perched a diminutive * Monument of Lysicrates, —a very unbecoming terminal, to say the least. The contributions of Messrs. Deane and Bailey, Gray, and others, are of that decided character, that they are sure to be either cordially approved or as thoroughly disliked. Unbroken wall surface is evidently a chief aim; and red brick, in its simplest form, a favourite medium. Horizontal bands of darker-coloured brick, occasionally in chequered patterns, with a slightly enriched deep cornice of the same, are elements doubtless suggested by continental study, and they have at least the recommendation of common sense, cheapness, and durability in the use of an abundant material. The drawings before us (50, 132, 285, 286, and 287) are specimens of this kind of treatment. Messrs. Deane an Bailey’s “ Vague Notions,” have not much sympathy with the * Ideas from Paris, Anglicised” (82, 85, 131, 222), of Mr. Dwyer, which, however clever in their way, we care not to see introduced among us. Mr. Dwyer's other drawing (225), * A Corner from the Rue Richelieu, Paris,” is a curious old bit, in true continental feeling. Speaking of ornamental brickwork just now, we might have remarked on the vast stride which this material is making in public estimation. Look down our new streets, and one will con- tinually see some new work of the kind peering forth; and look round this Exhibition-room, and not a few skilful applications meet the eye. Mr. Gray has several drawings of such, which are set off to the best advantage by the tact of the artist. Chandos Chambers, Buckingham and Duke Streets, Adelphi,” (92), is one of the best of these, a well designed corner block of building, whose ground story is in narrow bands of red and light bric alternately. A bold string mtervenes between this and the next nee where red brick is but sparingly used. The next floor level is marked by another facial band, in which encaustic tiles are introduced, and others form part of the enrichment of a deep crowning cornice. The windows have all semicircular heads, and in detail are well studied. A good-looking porch marks the entrance. The question yet to be solved in the use of parti-brickwork is, how long it will preserve its distinguishin colours? London streets are different from continental ones, an so is the atmosphere. Mr. Gray also has (21) “ Waterloo-terrace, Gloucester-road, Regent's-park;" (43) “ A House at Chelsea: (45) * Villas at Tottenham," very pretty); and another at Tulse- hill (212); varieties in the handling of the materials. Of his design for Tulse-hill Church (223 and 226) we cannot speak so favourably. No. 136 is a “ Design for a Town Hall,” by Mr. J. Murray, who is a liberal contributor, and whose style of outline, though sketchy, and in pencil only, is unusually powerful. There is considerable skill in the grouping of this design, which is founded on the foreign Hotels de Ville, and partakes in a great degree of their free Gothic detail. The lower story (which pro- jects) has a plain horizontal parapet, which clashes with the lavish irregularity of the rest of the lines. The Coventry Corn Ex- change, now erecting,” is well depicted in a series of plans and views (233, 234, 239). (Another design for this bailding has been already adverted to). In that selected and now in progress, both the plan and elevation are entitled to especial praise. The site, as the former shows, must have been a most awkward one, yet advantage is taken of this difficulty to secure very ingenious yet regular shapes for the interior rooms. The exterior is by no means expensively detailed, but what features are introduced are . judiciously managed. The style is Italian.—(236) is the approved design for a “Corn Exchange and Markets, St. Albans,” a plain, straightforward building. On other strainers, Mr. Murray has collected some smaller sketches of other works;—churches of picturesque character for Warwick, Stratford-on-Avon, &c.; several schools erected at Coventry and elsewhere; and some half-timber cottages.—{176) Metropolitan Convalescent Hospi- tal, erected 1854, at Walton-on-Thames,” Joseph Clarke, architect, is a long Italian frontage of red brick, relieved by a few white = Li — —— — », — — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 5 tle, | dressings and rusticated quoins, but as prim & looking & Mr. Truefitt is another individual who has studied and success- E mass 46 could be devised. Nor can we much commend Messrs. fally ap lied iron to architectural purposes. In the present exhi- wüs | Ashpitel and Whichcord’s “ Kiddermi hs and Wash- bition there are Bev specimens of this. In connection with Reade, | houses,” which look little better than common dwelling-houses houses, we may point to (163) and (172). Also, in a shop front edant converted to a new P . Public buildings should each have at Worcester (165), an iron table (166); and in a new room in a ‘atin | a distinctive r; they are not 80 lentiful that they must Manchester Bank (171). There is evidence of d taste in unte needs be 232, 235, 2 ) Desi for New Publio allthese. The « Additions to Barlow hester” (164), J and Building, Newcastle-on- e,” force themselves on our notice aa b the same author, are in keeping with the original; an the mas tasteless and. tawdry in the extreme. Mr. Benwell’s notions of View of lately erected at Thorne Coffin” (170), 18 im] colour must be of a most extra i kind. ers may decidedly characteristic and quaint. But Mr. Truefitts most m form some opinion from some quotations from the “ Notes of con- 5 drawing is (297) “A Font, aims for the French rt en“ Walls, freestone, red te, and green Irish marble. hibition. The metal work interlacing below the bowl is most T Roof (internally) wholly of iron, the panels enamelled blue, with y treated; but not so the fi of children at the feet n stars in gold. Ribs painted with diamonds of ruby colour, on of an angel who is standing on one edge of the font, and pen yh white. also of iron, painted wi ine blue, downwards into it. The propriety of this latter de ineation w d lined with c cloth” Glowing painted glass windows are admits of more questions than one. Mr. T. Allom has two ba. aleo threatened ! Happily this outrageous tration is nO (127) and (298), both of which have been exhibited w 3 destined to be In the View of the « School of Practi fore, and whose ost only value rests in the masterly hand- m 3 Art, Wolverhampton,” (237) the building is not at ; of the brush. The last of these, “ Design for the East end be? architecture 18 more strictly classic than in most modern works. of & Choir,” a most florid piece of are itect composition, is p The windows, We remember, are filled in with very large sheets of about to be sent to Paris. . J. Colling ar bn a b. his T p. The architect is Mr. E. Banks. (284) « Design for & River “ Alterations to Hooton Hall, Cheshire” (10), W ich has a better 7 ier” by C.R Dillon, is, with the ex tion of the covered way, & place here than in the Royal Academy ; with an additional 10 j ry treatment of a rarely-thoug t-of subject. The sheet of Interior View of the Conservatory » (182). The roof is entirely he Sections (302) is on an opposite wall ‘Design for a Public Hall," of glass, carried on light iron beams, orated. Mr. Tite also : G. Lufkin, is well drawn and designed. The stepped gable is sends (137) his ** Composition of the works of Inigo Jones,” which i heavy, and rhaps too closely follows those abroad to agree has here a fair chance of being seen, and will well repay * close with the thoroughly English character of the reat, of the elevation. study. T There are seve i Designs for the Fakenham Corn Hall in- The Rev. J. L. Petits six water-colour sketches (121—6), are cluding the approved one by Mr. Brown, of Norwich (278). In quite per ee. It is really astonishing what wonderful effects are j the interior the Roman style is adopted to decorate a large square produced by a few dashes of colour, without the least pretension : room, which communicates with another by an © 1 to detail goreen ; the former is lighted by 8 dome skylight over the whole The same gentleman, in connection with Mr. T. Hill, has i The exterior (329) is decidedly ugly- very angle is stu- ed his thoughts into another channel, of which we shall have i diously round off, so that sharpness of outline and marked somewhat to say anon. | shadow are im asible E. B. Lamb's design in the same Meanwhile, as our is exhausted, we must conclude, and M competition (301) is by no means one of his most successful efforts. recur to the subject next month to finish our review of the Mr. . Goodman’s “ Palladian (7) Composition” (303), is over- Drawings, and also to examine the specimens 1n the “Practical | loaded both in masses d ornamentation. There are nevertheless De ent,” which we are sorry to see 80 rly represen some very pretty pits. (328) “ Design for & Ball-room,” J. J. The advantages of such a medium of communication seem to Gompertz, must be noticed, if only for the amount of labour little known or 3 Better next time, we hope. The Exhibi- bestowed. The ive is careful and co tion does not close till the 24th of February, but let not any Mr. Edmeston, one of the Hon Secretaries to the Exhibition, one on that account delay to visit it. gends (19) his * View of the Clock Tower for the Market Square, iron and earth Geelong," a novel combination 9 iron which we have ascertained the following parti à tran — 9 THE APPLICATION OF THE HARMONIC LAW work con 5 Finch wie rig ak rea terra-cotta slabs 1$ n thick, whic 1 into grooves form im | the uprights. The slabs have & joggle-joint, and when bedded in OF NATURE IN THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF ARCHI- cement or common mortar are rfectly weather- roof. The iron TECTURAL DESIGN. framework of the Tower is put together wit out the use of By D. R. Har, F. RS. E. wrought-iron bolts, ne ee recommended by Messrs. Sylves- - ter and Co., of Great ell-street, the contractors for the work. [Abstract of a Paper read at the Royal I nstitute of British The sills, uprights, transoms, an are conn by Architecte, Nt ovember 13th, 1854.) means of dovetailing and Se^ which allows of the werk ed Ix this communication Mr. Hay showed how the harmonic ut together with greater facility and more accuraty . n could law, described and applied to the front elevation of the Parthenon attained by the use of bolts, which are further objectionable at Athens, in his former Paper,” might be similarly applied and on account of the rapid decay to which wrought iron, e liable in made to operate in the construction of & Gothic elevation; his such situations. The interstices of the dovetails will eventually object being a further attempt to prove that there y does be run w but, even 85 now temporarily erected, the exist a mathematical law coinciding with the harmony always building possesses a high Oe of rigidity. Its considered by found in nature, cal that this law can be applies ^ im the architect that the combination of earthen ware with iron orthographic beauty to architectural structures of any order or i recommends itself particularly for buildings intended for style. the colonies. The earthen’! ane conductor, 18 & m, He explained numerically the simple nature of the law of better defence t the alternations of heat and cold than iron harmonic ratio—* law which is found operating in the force o buildings, while all the advantages of the latter material in its vity; in the planetary movements; in heat, g ht, electricity, strength, rtability, and facility of erection, are, retained by and chemical affinity; in the forms of animals and plants; and in Messrs. Sylvesters mode of framing. The building in question 18 the reeptions of the human min now tem rarily put meet at the Sekford Wor near The first numeri rule is, that any number, to be harmonic, John's Walk, Clerkenws" In Mr. Edmeston's otber buildings must either be one of the four first multiples of 1—Yiz» 2, 3, 5, and made and 7—or a multiple of ope i these simple numbers. This (38) and (145) iron construction is extens vely used, visible ; 80 also is Messrs à glass. it is tion are great. h „ The employing of iron architecturally is yet in its infancy; that the three first numerals of harmony, and it is by their simplest modes of union that the above four governing elements a Ths 8 per i harmonic numbers, pae application of these brmed into a series of scales * Read February 7, 1853. (See Journal, Vol. XVI. p. 122). — RR Le — 3 — - = -——— — — - 6 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. arranged in such a manner that the most simple be made to form the primary or governing elementa. The third rule is, that, in employing these numbers as divisors, the parts of whatever is divided must be integral parts. The simple elementary figures which may be combined in an architectural design are— The square, and its curvilinear figure, the circle. The oblong rectangle, and its curviliner figure, the ellipse. The isosceles triangle, and its curvilinear figure, the composite ellipse. The basis of his theory being that the eye estimates propor- tion not by distance, but by angular direction, it follows that each of these figures is governed in its individual proportions by & particular angle, and that their harmonic combination in architecture is likewise governed by angles. This being the case, there must be a fundamental angle, to which all other . angles so employed should harmonically relate as an integral rt. Now, as the employment of these figures in architectural com- position demands that their axes, whether equal or unequal, should be in the horizontal and vertical lines, and as the meeting of these lines makes the right angle, that angle must, in this case, necesssarily be taken as the fundamental angle. The manner of applying the law of numerical ratio, in the construction of these six elementary figures, having been fully explained in his former communication, as well as in several of his 5 works, he confined his illustrations to a few simple examples of its effect in harmoniously arranging groups of rectangles. Four scales of harmonic parts of the right angle being obtained by dividing the quadrant of a circle by elementary harmonic numbers, some of these are employed to form diagonals to a series of rectangles. It is the nature of harmonic ratio, as applied to form, to require that, when any two geometric figures are placed in juxta-position, in order that a proper contrast be produced, their respective proportions must bear a distinct and definite ratio to each other. (This was illustrated by eight groups of rectangles, selected from the foregoing series). The east end of Lincoln Cathedral is, in the general arrange- ment of its parts, decidedly a vertical composition, while that of the Parthenon is decidedly a horizontal one. The first is composed of seven vertical parts, divided horizontally into bases, windows, and tracery, ending in a series of seven acute angles. The second is composed of three horizontal parts, vertically divided into columus, triglyphs, and metopes, and surmounted by one obtuse angle. Notwithstanding the difference of charac- ter thus existing between these examples, it is confirmatory of the truth of the system, and the great scope of its usefulness, to find that the proportions of the one style are as susceptible ofthe application of this harmonic law as those of the other. The fundamental angles in the front of the Parthenon had been shown to be the following:— 0 GO O Qo Qo C) ) 1 1 a . f th ONES 00 abe. (Pe) Those he had employed in the construction of the Gothic front are:— oo O O O OW) ene ; : j Right Angle. The Parthenon being, as already observed, a horizontal com- sition, the principal angles were made with the horizontal ine. In the present case, the composition being vertical, the paripa angles, nine in number, are made with the vertical ine. Having in recent works pointed out the operation of this law of nature, in the constitution of that beauty of form and propor- tion by which the human figure is distinguished above all other works of creation, as also the application of the same law by the ancient Greeks, in those inimitable sculptures by which they represented the figures and attributes of their various deities during the best period of art the world ever knew; having after- wards discovered that the same law, similarly applied by the same people during the same period, governed the general form and the relative proportions of all the parts, as well as all the curves, of the details of that unequalled monument of architec- tural chasteness and beauty, the Parthenon of Athens; and having on the present occasion shown that the same law, similarly sys- tematised, is equally calculated to govern the form and propor- tions of Gothic architecture, it might be asked what further proof is required to establish the fact, that there really is a mathematical law coincident with the harmony of nature, and Ape to building! illustrating this latter proof of the existence of such a law, he adopted the design of one of the most beautiful and perfect remains of those interesting monuments of the piety of our ancestors which he could find; and although not enabled to ascer- tain with sufficient certainty that the law in question was really applied in the execution of this design, yet the approximation to a perfect development is so close as to suggest that it reall was, although perhaps in a less perfect manner. From this latter fact, the probability suggests itself, that & system of applying this law of nature in architectural construction was the only great practical secret of the Freemasons; all their other secrets being connected, not with their art, but with the social constitution of their society. It can scarcely be doubted that there were some such practi- cally useful secrets amongst the Freemasons, or early Gothic architects; for we find, in all the venerable remains of their art which exist in this country, symmetrical elegance of form per- vading the general design—harmonious proportion amongst all the parts—beautiful geometrical arrangements throughout all the tracery—as well as in the elegantly symmetrised, foliated decorations, which belong to that style of architecture. But it is, at the same time, worthy of remark, that whenever they diverged from architecture to sculpture and painting, and attempted to represent the human figure, or even any of the lower animals, their productions are uniformly such as to con- vince us that in this country these arts were in a most degraded state of barbarism—the figures are grossly disproportioned, and often much distorted in their attitudes; the subjects they represent are paltry in composition, and puerile in conception; while their representations of animals and chimeras are whimsically absurd. It would therefore appear that architecture, as a fine art, must have been preserved by some peculiar influence from partaking of the barbarism so apparent in the sister arts of that period. Pythagoras, who is said to have acquired his knowledge of the harmonic law of numbers from Egypt, formed, it would appear, a system much more perfect and comprehensive than that ractised by the Freemasons in the middle ages of Christianity; or it was as applicable to sculpture, painting, and music as it was to architecture. This perfection in architecture is strikingly exemplified in the Parthenon, as compared with the Gothic structures of the middle ages; for it will be found that the whole six elementary figures already enumerated as belonging to archi- tecture are required in completing the orthographic beauty of that noble structure,—and, amongst these, none conduce more to that beauty than the simple and composite ellipses. Now, in the architecture of the best periods of Gothic, or indeed in that of anv after period (Roman architecture included), these beautiful curves seem to have been ignored, and that of the circle alone employed. Be these matters as they may, the great law of numerical harmonic ratio remains unalterable; and a proper application of it in science and art will never fail to be as productive of effect as its operation in nature is universal, certain, and continual. ER — INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. December 5.—JameEs Simpson, Esq., President, in the Chair. THE paper read was ''On some peculiar features of the Water- bearing Strata of the London Basin." By P. W. Barlow, M. Inst. C.E. The author first described the extent of the London basin, which, assuming the boundary line to pet from Folkstone, through or near Hythe, Ashford, West Farleigh, Sevenoaks, Reigate, Godalming, Pewsey, Devizes, Swindon, Wantage, and Tetworth, to Cambridge, would embrace a district of about eight thousand square miles. The water- bearing strata within the basin, and generally wherever the London clay existed, was stated to be found in tbe following order :—1. Tne Plastic Clay, or Lower London Tertiary. 2. The Chalk. 3. The Upper Greensand. 4. The Lower Greensand. There were certain lines of elevation and disturbance which, in places, deranged the regularity and interfered with the dip and natural flow of the water in the strata; but the general features were as enumerated, and Mr. Prestwich’s work — ‘On the Water bearing Strata of London, was quoted as an authority until the evening of the 9th inst. The abstract of will, therefore be Dec. 19.—The ual The plastic clay to the west of London, where the upper beds crop out, was shown to consist principally of impervious ; the upper beds were wanting. Hence it resulted, that the superficial area through which the rain infiltrated, and from which the supply for leading events the Artesian wells in London was derived, was only about twent four war, We miles; whilst the area East of London, o was cut off by tho engineering works, although awd consisting of pervious beds, and extending over 195 tools and stores of all kinds for the use of the army, the navy, 8n the ded nothing to basin, mercantile service. 'The fact o i uare north and south line of disturbance, as described by Mr. Prestwich, but would account satisfactorily for the abundance of water found by the the expen found to yield about 1,800,000 gallons Age diem. The project was op- into the man large works of civil engineerin that the water must be derived the same source a8 the mill-streams, and therefore the quantity umped from Bushey Meadows must be abstracted from their water- wer. By the supporters of the scheme it was contended, that the rings which sup ‘ed the streams were derived only from the upper um of the chalk, and that if the well was rendered water-tight for à depth of 60 or 70 feet, no effect could be produced on the surface streams; the lower channels not having, according to their view, any connection with the upper supply. The discussions, both before the Parliamen Committee and at the Institution of Civil Engineers, produced muc valuable evidence, from which Mr. Barlow culled many passages in gup- port of his views. An examination was then entered into, from the best ta at present afforded, as to the actual discharge of the River Lea, as compared with the superficial area whose drainage it represented, in order to determine whether all the water infiltrated, was again given out from the springs to the river, and whether any water supply obtained from wells in that district had actually influenced the adjacent streams. The result showed, that the discharge of the river represented less than two-thirds of the infiltration, but the author considered, that the experi- menta, for ascertaining the amount of infiltration, should have been made on a larger scale, and that the results obtained were not to be implicitly n. A description was then given of the geological features of the district to the south-east of London, with the intention of showing how pecu- liarly it was adapted for affording a water supply. This was evident, from the fact of acarcely any of the springs reappearing in the form of surface streams, most of them emptying themselves into the Thames, at The drainage area of the water thus wasted in the eastern district, weat of the Medway, was estimated at 190 square miles, and it was assumed that it would yield a daily supply of sixty millions of gallons ; whilst from the 320 square miles east of the Medway, there might be drawn a daily supply of one hundred millions of gallons. A description waa then given of Mr. Prestwich' investigation of the lower greensands, from which source it had been estimated that a daily supply of thirty or forty millions of gallons might be drawn, and that it probably rise to a height of 120 to 130 feet above the surface ; arguing, then, from the success which had attended the sinkin artesian well at the Plaine de Grenelle, Paris, it was urged how i it would be to try à similar experiment in some spot of the London basin, tion by his investigations into the sources of the best supplies of water for the locomotives on the South-Eastern Railway, and by feeling that there was a public demand for a more copious and purer supply than diminish and become more polluted daily; and as the population of the metropolis had increased from 674,000 souls, in 1701, to 2,362,236 more copious supplies of water could be obtained; therefore the author directed the attention of wp to the district under consideration. At the Monthly Ballot, the following Candidates were duly elected :— Messrs. J. Robertson and T. Wynne, as Members; C. R. Drysdale and Dec. 12.— The discussion was resumed on the above paper, and was continued throughout the evening; but such diversit i ; y of opinion was expressed, and so many members appeared anxious for an opportunity of speaking, that the farther consideration of the question was adjourned but on the the meeting proceeded east, the lower strata were arenaceous and permeable, and in that quarter Medals an feeding mains of supplies of the best was pointed out, that it supply of water, at a their contents should as to preclude the n excepting for 2 limi and thus the noble metro being 80 extensively sought for, in author on the line of the North Kent Railway. was alluded to, an the cases in whic i i i i duced so essentially to mutual ben Report of the to the election of the President, Vice- efit were shown. as the great made to the novel expedient of sending out a corps of navvies and e argumenta for and against other artizans to lay, a8 from Sebastopol to ublished in our next number T the entire discussion retiring Council was read, and Presidents, the Council for the ensuing year, after which the awarded were 5 The ch political world and particularly ving tended other hand, the m cal engineers it was expressed, «(he first section of the etersburgh.” The production of the ught of the Home Secreta of the metropolis was noticed, wi stems and the nostrums and baseless schemes which were now sie thrust forw The extensions of the water for domestic purposes, was noticed; and it as was racticable for a stream sarily subject to some degree of A slight sketch was given of — in the Colonies,— America, —and, in mem and in every q nestly pursuing their being extended, 80 a8 hours’ journe of our countries. The railways in the taken any great extension during the ards at Sydenham was noticed; an rosecution, and the support o on members to send only such m els and speci machinery, 48 should sustain tistics of railways in Great Britain was then given. ially the civil engineers could con- and manufacturers. A sketch of the sta It was also represented how essenti tribute to the investigations of diately reporting to the Antiquarian during the course © to that society, for a repo lection of the British Museum. Sketches were then Bu“ during the past 8 ed ession, f excavations, rt, before Beardmore, was now only necessary to afford such an ample sufficient elevation, on the north side of the metro- the sewers to be constantly flushed, and that Tham at positions, 80 low down mechanical lifting of ear, although litan river might be rendered a8 pure , the main lines were f Europe within & few whilst the electric telegraph accom- mercial and political importance; the great d 000 feet in length, acture 10,400 tons of iron. The Norwegian an California had been favourably received. d was asked for the is in 1855; the council had given their of the British engineers antiquaries and archeologists, by imme- ck, which, in th were duly presented; the president the examination by Society the finding of any objecta and by transmitting the objects foun depositing them in the national col- en of the subjects of the principal papers read had been Henderson, Smith, Hobbs, and Yates; Messrs. Harrison, Clark, Simpson, e course of the evening, D- noticing the advantages to de Mr. Henderson of the great steamers - anji MES aoe d 8 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. and other large vessels of the present day; alluding also to that now building by Mr. Scott Russell, under the direction of Mr. Brunel, V. P.; the valuable inquiries opened by Mr. Harrison’s view of the state of the drainage of the district south of the Thames; Mr. Beardmore’s and Mr. Peniston's account of the works of improvement on the Lee, and of a tunnel on a railway; Mr. Pigott Smith’s paper on apa cime. the streets of towns; Mr. Simpson, jun., on the smoke question; an Mr. Chadwick on water meters; all subjects of importance in a sanitary point of view; Mr. Clark's description of the novel mode of po exhibited by the Enterprise, intended especially for the Deep-sea Fishing Company; Mr. Hobbs on locks, eulogising parti ularly the honesty of purpose, and the temperate enunciation of startling facts exhibited in the communication; and Mr. Yates's paper on the decimal coinage, &c., in the investigation of which much industrious research had been shown. Numerous valuable presents of books, maps, charts, &c., were an- nounced, as also the presentation of the portrait of another Past- President; Mr. Joshua Field; special allusion was made to the bequest of the late Mr. B. L. Vulliamy, Assoc. Inst. C.E., of a large and very valuable collection of works on horology, second only to the collection in the library of the Clockmakers’ Company. The thanks of the meeting were unanimously given, with a vote of condolence to the family on the loas they, in common with all his friends, had sustained in the decease of Mr. Vulliamy. The past year had witnessed extraordinary mortality among the members; the decease of two honorary members, nine members, and nine associates being recorded. Among them were the first honorary of the Institution, a distinguished Prussian minister, some very old and well-known members an associates, as also some younger men who promised to become ornaments to the profession, and an a880- ciate member of council (Mr. C. Geach, M. P.), well-known and esteemed by all the Iustitution as one of those energetic, iia Figs. men, who gave vitality to every speculation in which they engaged, an who, by the uprightness of their transactions, and the justness of their views upheld worthily the credit of the British capitalist and manufac- turer. The great mortality in the royal and other societies was also noticed; and allusion was made to the intelligence brought by Dr. Rae of the melancholy fate of Sir John Franklin and his devoted companions, martyrs to the cause of science, and the meeting was called upon to unite with the council in the expression of sorrow for the sad termina- tion of the career of a man who was equally distinguished by his devotion to his duty as an officer, his enthusiasm in the prosecution of scientific research, and his general public and private worth; and as a parallel case exhibiting the devotion and the noble sense of duty of the officers of the British army, the case was cited of that ''noble old man," the late Colonel Moore, who on the event of the burning of the vessel bearing towards the Crimea part of the 6th Dragoon Guards, ‘‘ with none of the excitement of action, or of the glory and enthusiasm of the battle-field to animate him, faced in cold blood the most terrible death that man could meet, and refused to leave the burning ship while any of his men were alive upon it." The deceases announced were Messrs. Arthur Aikin (the first Honorary Secretary) and Peter Christopher Wilhelm Beuth, Honorary Members; Edmund Scott Barber, George Watson Buck, John Donkin, Alexander Easton, Henry Fowler, Daniel Pinkney Hewett, William Radford, William Stuart, and James Trubshaw, members; John Armstrong, Charles Geach, M.P., Nathan Gough, Benjamin Louis Vulliamy, Alder- man William Thompson, M.P., Colonel John Neave Wells, R.E., Lieut.-Col. John Augustus Lloyd, Captain Joshua William Coddington, R.E., and Lieut. William Chapman, B.E., Associates. Memoirs of the deceased members of all classes were ordered to be printed as an appendix to the Annual Report. The resignations of fourteen members and associates were announced, The financial statement showed the funds of the society to be ina very prosperous state since, by the voluntary contribution of the mem- bers of all classes, the printing debt had been paid, and after giving the detail of a special general meeting of members, convened for the purpose of introducing some modifications into the bye-laws, which had, how- ever, been demonstrated to be unnecessary, and therefore were not made, the rt concluded by announcing that two parts of Volumes XI. and XII. (together upwards of 800 pages) of the Minutes of Pro- ceedings had been issued, and the editing and printing of all the remainder would proceed with all dispatch. The thanks of the Institution were unanimously voted to the Pre- sident, Vice-Presidents, and other Members and Associates of Council; as also to the auditors, the scrutineers of the ballot, and to the secretary for their several services. The following gentlemen were elected to fill the several offices in the council for the ensuing year:—James Simpson, President; G. P. Bidder, I. K. Brunel, J. Locke, M.P., R. Stephenson, M.P., Vice- Presidenta; J. Cubitt, J. E. Errington, J. Fowler, C. H. Gregory, J. Hawkshaw, T. Hawksley, J. R. M‘Clean, C. May, J. Penn, and J. S. Russell, Members; and H. Hensman and Sir J. Paxton, M.P., Associates. The meeting was then adjourned until January 9th, when it was announced that the ballot for members would take place, and the dis- cussion would be resumed on Mr. P. W. Barlow's paper. SECURING PULLEYS TO SHAFTS. CHARLES CLARINE, New York. U.S., Patentee. Tg invention eonsists in casting a recess within the bore of the hub, and introducing therein a amall roller: one end of the recess is e deeper than the other, so that when the wheel is turned in one direction, the roller will move towards the shallower end of the recess, and bind the shaft and wheel together in the firmest manner possible. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of a pulley thus attached to a shaft; fig. 2, a semi-perspective sectional view of a cog wheel on the same shaft; fig. 3, a side elevation of a portion of the pulley and shaft united. Similar letters of reference indicate the same in all the figures. a is the shaft, b is the pulley, “ is the cog wheel, c is the cam-shaped cavity, d is the roller. the use of this improvement, pulleys and wheels of all kinds may be secured to their shafts, without the use of screws, or the labour and expense of cutting seats and preparing keys. They may be also removed entirely, or shifted and adjusted to any other part of the shaft in a moment. In casting the wheel or pulley, a small cavity or recess, c, is left on the inside of the hub. One end of this recess is sea than the other, which gives it a cam shape with reference to the shaft. Into the recess thus formed, a piece of round iron, forming a roller, d, of a diameter just equal to the deepest Reg’ of the cavity, is dropped, and the wheel shoved upon the shaft. Now, by turning the wheel, the roller, d, advances towards the shallower end of its recess, and consequently causes the wheel and shaft firmly to bind. By re- versing the wheel, the roller returns to the deeper end of the and the wheel may be again removed. The average ex- pense of attaching wheels and pulleys of about 18 inches or two feet diameter, to shafts, by keys in the ordinary manner, is esti- mated at about one dollar, irrespective of key seating machinea. The expense of such attachments, by the use of the present im- rovement, is only the cost of the roller, d, a mere nothing. Besides this the superlative convenience of Mr. Clarine’s method will be apparent at a glance. The inventor believes that manu- facturers of cotton machinery, and all other kinds of mechanism where large numbers of wheels and pulleys are employed, will be able to effect important savings by the adoption of this improve- ment. THE NEW CORN HALL, LYNN. (With an Engraving, Plate III.) Tug New Corn-hall building will soon be completed. The architect is Mr. Maberly, and Mr. Edmunds the contractor, both of Lynn. The building will be corporation property, and the amount of the contract is 2450/., including the materials of the former building. The hall will be 161 feet in length, 51 feet in width, and 40 feet in height, with glass roof, 5 by iron illars at the sides, bearing a series of twenty-four ornamental iron spandrils. The front is of stone, in the Ionic style. The capital will be surmounted by a large stone figure representing Ceres, with a sheaf of corn and sickle. This figure is nearly finished, and is the work of Mr. Paterson, statuary, of London. wea l * — 9 * c E ^ O Gn js “NOILWA313 L1NOHJ ANV IH ON NWOD NNIT — — —-— — Ce a — — — . ——— -— . ——............ Mr e - — — — M — — — — Á—À — ———— — FCC ³˙ÜÜmꝛ A EE —̃ lu—-— e §⏑—%Ü[—ð,ßz ̃‚ — — Scene (ome) D a— / am —ÁÀ — "Sg qv qu swa SONVEJXS NWO © Ke|ieqey T Digitized by Go LU THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 9 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE OF TYNEMOUTH. Report of R. Rawuiyson, C.E., to the Tynemouth Local Board of Health. Ox the 8th July, 1853, I received a communication from the town clerk (Thomas C. Leitch, ee stating, that “at a meetin of the Council of the Borough of Tynemouth I was appoin engineer to lay down a plan of main sewers for the borough, and to superintend the necessary works, &c.” On Monday, the 18th July 1853, I met the committee to confer as to future proceedings. The district has been most carefully examined, and local pecu- liarities have been fully considered and provided for. Your sur- veyor, Mr. Fenwick, has promptly furnished all needful assistance and information on the site; and your late chairman, Dr. Headlam Greenhow, has given me the benefit of his local knowledge from time to time. To both these gentlemen I am therefore indebted for valuable information and useful assistance. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE DisrnicT. The borough of 5 is bounded on the south by the River Tyne, and on the east by the sea, the ground rising some- what abruptly almost from the water-line to a comparatively flat table land. There are means to obtain a good fall over the whole area. The natural water-shed is down to the Tyne and to the sea; this necessitates outlets on these sides, and I have conse- quently provided them, as shown on the plan, and as described in another part of this report. Tynemouth is not an easy place to sewer and drain. It is true, water and sewage will readily enough flow down steep gradients, but there are contingencies to be provided for, some of which are rendered difficult and more costly by such facility of flow. The lower parts of the town, as Union-quay, Bell-street, Liddell- street, Clive-street, Duke-street, Bull-ring, and part of Dotwick- street; are all within the influence of tides. Any sewers laid down in them must be closed or *back-watered" during portions of high tides; and storm waters from above must not at such times be allowed to enter these low sewers. To resist upward pressure, hydraulic shocks, and tendency to bursting, the lower sewers within reach of tides will be made of cast-iron; overflows and flood outlets being provided. Due pre- caution will be taken to against cellar flooding. Cel may be most effectually drained by means of self-acting flood water-valves which, in use, are both simple and secure. The sewers, as proposed, will consist of cast-iron, brick, and earthenware pipes, as the case may be. The lowest cellar will be drained, as also all streets, lanes, courts, yards, houses, and other buildings. There will not be any duplicate system,* but street and yard gullies, down-spouts, yard-drains, house-sinks, &c., will water or refuse direct into the drains and sewers. Means will be adopted to prevent any direct indraft communica- tion betwixt houses and the drains. The sewers will be freely ventilated at all the higher parts of the system, and in such other places as may be needful, and in such positions that any escape of gases will be harmless. All sewers and drains will be laid in right lines from point to point; also, as to 5 means of ready and full inspection wil be provided by man-holes, lamp-holes, &c., placed at all junctions and alteration of line or gradient; light will thus be reserved throughout the entire system, affording every fucility for inspecting all main and branch sewers. Side junctions will be provided and inserted in all sewers and drains for house drainage and other connections. They will be properly closed and protected until required for use. It is proposed to make available the existing sewer running through (and from) the railway tunnel down East Percy-street towards the Low Lights. The invert, however, will have to be altered, so as to reduce the sectional area at that part to concen- trate the water turned in, and thereby improve the scour and flow. The cost of such alteration is included in the general estimate. As far as ible the sewers are laid with such inclinations as will prevent deposit; the gradients of the whole are so arranged as to allow of any refuse or sediment being effectually removed by water; flushing reservoirs and chambers are provided to com- mand the whole. Gullies, yard-drains, sinks, &c., will be arranged in such a manner that they may be flushed direct from the surface to the sewers. * There will be short lengths of independent eurface-outlet for storm water at the lower levels to relieve the loweat line of sewer. At all inlets into the drains and sewers provision will be made to prevent the admission of large substances which may impede the flow in the sewers or stop the drains. Cast-iron sewers will be circular on section, brick sewers will be egg-shaped or circular, and earthenware pipe sewers will be circular. The earthenware pipes will not exceed 18 inches diameter, and none will be cad or street sewers of less diameter than 9inches, and those only in short lengths with favourable inclinations. In all cases of Junction the lesser diameter will dis- charge into the greater. Pipe junctions of equal diameter even will be avoided as far as it is possible. The iron sewer pipes will be jointed with iron collars, and the whole will be coated with Dr. Smith’s patent varnish to prevent rust. The pipes will also be bedded in and covered with puddle, to prevent the action of salt water to which they would otherwise be subjected. Radiated bricks will be made expressly for the sewers, and of such radius as will suit the curve required. All brick sewers will be set in the best hydraulic mortar. Earthenware pipes will be “half-socket” or “butt-jointa.” The joints will be made good in ordinary ground and in orinar adients with clay puddle. In difficult or steep ground they wi e bedded in concrete, and jointed with hydraulic mortar, cement, or asphalte. The work throughout is intended to be sound, and in wear capable of long duration. The following is a description of the proposed outlets, sewers, flushing arrangements, &c. OUTLETS. It is proposed to have four main outlets and two relieving outlets for North Shields; as also two main outlets for Tynemouth. 1. From Union Quay to Low-Water Mark at “Peggy's Hole.” —This will be the main outlet for the sewage of North Shields. I have marked on the plan, north-west of “Clifford’s Fort,” an alternative outlet, which will discharge the sewage more seaward. I have been informed this may be very objectionable to bathers who resort there; and as it would add to the cost of the work to convey the sewage to low-water mark at that point, I purpose making available the shorter length of sewer required to reach low-water mark at Peggy's Hole. It will be better to discharge the sewage constantly into tidal water at Peggy s Hole than to cut short the alternative outlet north-west of Clifford's Fort, and discharge it on the shore at low water, which would be the case, unless the extra expense be incurred necessary to carry an outlet to low-water mark. 2. From Liddell-street to Low-Water Mark on site of Proposed Quay.—This will be an outlet for sewage from the principal portion of the old town. It will also discharge such portions of the sewage from Union-street and parts of ord-street, Church- way, and Camden-street, as cannot be intercepted and conveyed by the Tyne-street sewer. 3. From Market Place.—Is an existing outlet, proposed to be retained, making it available for sewage from the New-cut. This relieves outlets Nos. 2 and 4. Sewage from the upper part of Waterville-road may also be intercepted and discharged by this outlet. 4. From Bull Ring.—Discharging into river at low water, near to Messrs. Pow and Faweus' anchor works, is for the sewage of all streets south-west of the Market-place. 5. From Clive-street to River on site of Projected Quay.— This outlet will always discharge the sewage from Clive-street, and by a proposed arrangement of overflow-chamber to be placed at the junction of Liddell, Bedford, and Clive streets; whenever outlet No. 2 is charged by storm waters or otherwise, this outlet will be brought into action to aid the discharge of flood waters from above, and in preventing damage to the sewers by sudden pressure, to which they will be liable on account of the great inclination at which they must be laid, there being from the junction of Union and Bedford streets to the junction with Clive and Liddell streets, a fall of 36 feet in 100 yards, or about one in eight and a half. 6. Is an existing Outlet near the Old Glass House-lane.—]t is proposed to adopt this solely for the purpose of carrying away storm waters; and from a careful examination of the streets and ground to the south-west, I consider that such provision is neces- sary. During heavy rain-falls, streams of water descend from Pit-row, Old Waggon-way, &c., and as the point at which I pro- pose to retain the flood water outlet is the lowest, and the ground rises to the junction with Collingwood-street, I consider the arrangement indispensable to prevent damage to property in 8 10 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dotwick-street by surface flood waters. The overflow will also act as a relieving sewer to No. 4 outlet, as the water it will dis- charge would otherwise have to be discharged at No. 4. 7. At Tynemouth, on the Shore at Black Maddens, about 150 feet from High-Water Mark.—This outlet is for the entire sewage of Tynemouth, except a portion of the Back-street and houses on the road to the Two-gun Battery referred to hereafter. PROPOSED SEWERS. Sewers discharging into the Main Outlet No. 5 from the “outlet chamber” on Union-quay, a new egg-shape brick sewer, 3 feet by 2 feet, will join the existing sewer from the railway-tunnel, which is laid down East Percy-street and Brewery-bank. From the junction with the railway sewer, in the cutting on the north-east side of the tunnel, a 2-feet brick sewer will be carried (in a direct line with East Percy-street) to the Tynemouth-road, and thence westward, past the junction with the road to the Tynemouth-lodge, Union Workhouse-road, Spring-terrace, to the junction with Waterville-road. These sewers will provide for the conveyance of all sewage and drains from streets north of Albion-street and Tynemouth-road, and will be available for the drainage of Churton when required. The sewage from streets lying between Albion-street and the railway-tunnel will be conveyed through the tunnel sewer to outlet No. 1 into Peggy’s Hole. The sewage from that portion of North Shields bounded on the east by t Percy-street, west by Linskill-street, north by the railway-tunnel, aid south by Lower Pearson, Charlotte and Bird-streets, will be intercepted: and carried by a sewer on the south side, having an outlet from Bird-street to Brewery-bank sewer, and thence to Peggy’s Hole. The next portion of the town sewage discharging at outlet No. 1 is bounded on the east by Beacon and Stephenson streeta, west by lower parts of Ho -street and Church-way, north by the railway tunnel, and south by part of Saville-street and Tyne- street, to the junction with Beacon-street sewer; the whole being intercepted at the southern level, and conveyed from the Beacon- street junction to an outlet-chamber on Union-quay. A further portion of the sewage having the same outlet extends from the outlet-chamber on Union-quay to Bell-street, oe the old chapel, at which eee it is proposed to have a flushing-pipe from the high level of Tyne-street, referred to hereinafter. The last portion of the sewage discharging at outlet No. 1 is from the Low Lights and ground to the north-east, and will embrace the drainage of Percy-square. Sewers Discharging from Liddell-street Outlet No. 2.— The sewer eastward along Liddell and Bell streets, as far as the old chapel, and to the north-west along Liddell-street, up Bedford- street, to the railway-tunnel. It also embraces Union-street and arts of Camden-street, Churchway, Bedford, Nile, Wellington, Raville, and Little Bedford streets. Sewers Discharging from Existing Outlet No. 3 (Market-place). —The only new sewer to be connected with this outlet is from Market-place, but the level of the sewer in Clive-street is so arranged, that though usually discharging into outlet No. 5; if at any time the water entering the overflow-chamber should rove more than can be readily discharged by outlets 2 and 5 and rise to a given level in the overflow-chamber); Clive-street sewer will then act as a relieving sewer, having an outlet at No. 3; thus giving every security where, without ample provision, much damage might ensue from heavy falls of rain. Sewers to be Connected with the Bull-Ring Outlet No. 4.— Considering the sewer running up Collingwood-street to Trinity Church as the main, this outlet will receive the whole drainage to the north-east of Duke-street and Ropery-banks, and to the south-west Dotwick-street, Mount-pleasant, Pit-row, North-street, Middle-street, and Milburn-place. The relieving outlets Nos. 5 and 6 having been referred to, the sewers at Tynemouth may be described. Sewers Discharging from Black Middens Outlet No. 7.— The sewers along Prior’s-terrace, Tynemouth-place, the Front, Middle, and Cross streets, and the SPI part of Back-street. On my first examination of Tynemouth (not having the levels), I thought all the houses might be drained into outlet No. 7. Having since obtained the levels, I find that such a result cannot be accomplished without increasing the depth of the sewers in the Front-street to an undesirable extent. The houses which I propose to provide for by a separate outlet are situate at the lowest part of Back-street, and towards the Two-gun Battery. By referring to the plan, and levels marked thereon, it will be obvious, that in the event of houses being built upon the land coloured green, an outlet will have to be made near the Two- Battery.” It is therefore proposed to drain the existing ouses referred to by a temporary outlet north of the Short Sands," as this sewer may be extended at any time, and to such length in the direction of the Two-gun Battery,” as desirable. FLUsHING ARRANGEMENTS. The sewers are 80 as to lines, levels, and Juncuons that with water at three or four given points the whole may be flushed. The charge for water at North Shields being so very high at present, it is proposed, with a view to the most strict economy, to make the water from your newly-constructed baths and wash-houses available for flushing deeds At the junction of Saville-street with Churchway, a flushing tank or reservoir may be constructed below the level of pavement to receive waste water from the baths. This reservoir will command the inter- cepting sewer along Tyne-street to outlet No. 1; the sewer down Union-street to outlets 2 and 5; and by the flushing pipe from Tyne-street, down the slope of the old chapel, it will flush the sewers east and west along Bell-street and Liddell-street. ABSTRACT OF WORKS. There are 3667 lineal yards of brick sewers, 1402 lineal yards of cast-iron, and 11,093 lineal yards of earthenware pipe sewers provided for; making a total length of 9 miles 322 yards. The estimate also provides for a “junction” to be inserted in the main sewers for all houses to be connected with them, and includes 150 man-holes and lamp-holes (with flushing sluices) three flushing reservoirs, and 600 gullies; the total cost of which (including engineering salaries of resident and inspector, repairs and alteration of existing sewers, &c.) I estimate at 13668/., which, if borrowed at 4 per cent, to be repaid, principal and interest, in thirty years (by equal annual payments) will require a sum of 790“. 98. 34d. per annum. REMARKS. In forming this estimate, I have provided throughout for the greatest depth of sewer that can be required, but as there are streets, the houses of which are without cellars, the inclinations and depths of some of the main sewers may perhaps (in carrying out the work) admit of such favourable alteration as to effect considerable saving in the sect Having fully considered the levels of the whole district, the proposed sewer-levels are arranged not only with reference to the streets in which they will be placed, but also to outlying land which may yet be built upon; and the general arrangements are such as to admit of any future extension in the proposed works, which works will form a complete system of sewerage for present purposes, and a basis for extension according to future require- ments. If the local board desire it, the contracts may be let this year, materials may be prepared for commencing with vigour in the spring, and if this be done, the work will not only e executed eaper, but the main sewers may be completed by next Sep- tember. The principal objects to attain by town sewerage and house drainage, are, immediate and safe removal of all surface waters, and also of all soil and slop refuse from houses to such outlet as shall be the least means of nuisance to the inhabitants. One common outlet for the whole of the sewers will be an advantage, especially if the refuse can be dealt with for agricultural purposes. This has not been lost sight of in devising the sewers as pro- posed; but at present the board may not care to meet so large an extra expenditure as would be involved by a low-water intercept- ing sewer and pum v eae Outlets are therefure provided, as shown on the plan. The time may arrive when it will be deemed advisable to connect the outlets, and pump the whole refuse inland for agricultural use; or the greater portion of it (from the higher part of the district) may be intercepted before it descends to No. loutlet, thereby saving for that portion consi- derable expense in lifting power. The application of towns’ refuse, either fluid or precipitated, and in the solid form, is now engaging the attention of companies and of private individuals. When the works of sewerage and drainage are completed in Tynemouth, the local board will be in a position to treat with any company or party for the refuse of the district. Westminster, October 12, 1854. Robert RawLiNsoN, C.E. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 11 DRAINAGE OF HARROW. Report of J. Rog, C.E., to the Harrow Local Board of Health. FoR reasons which were deemed sufficient, I have deferred until now the pleasing duty of reporting to you the consumma- tion of what you have earnestly striven for—namely, the forma- tion of the drainage of Harrow; the construction of private drains; the destruction of cesspools, and the substitution of pan-closeta and proper apparatus in lieu thereof; all of which has been carried out to an extent seldom equalled, never, I believe, exceeded, where works of the kind have been performed. About three and a half miles in length of main sewers have been laid down; private drains from 345 houses have been formed; 256 cesspools have been cleared out and filled up, and altogether the sanitary improvement is such that I may well congratulate you who have so zealously aided the good work. The profitable application of the sewage, whether from obtain- ing the solid contents contained therein or using the foul water for irrigation, is a matter of great importance to farmers as well as to the inhabitants of towns. Harrow is favourably situated for the most profitable method of using sewage for manure— namely, irrigation with the sewer water at the least possible cost. That this prove a source of considerable profit hereafter, I do not doubt, and it is gratifying to find the example of commence- ment has already been given. There is one peculiarity in your new drainage which at the present time seems to require from me a more extended notice than I should otherwise have given it in this report. Discussions have lately occupied the attention of many profes- sional men as to the relative merits of pipe and brick sewers, and as it happens that the whole of your new drainage is com- puo of pipe sewers, it will not, I hope, be deemed irrelevant if e e a little on this subject, particularly as I am addressing a local board of health whose chairman 1s the principal of a school wherein are congregated so many youths, some of whom will probably be actively engaged in carrying out works of this description; others who will hereafter become members of the legislature which presides over sanitary affairs, forming not the least onerous of its duties. During a period of near twenty years, I served under the Com- missioners of Sewers, the first part thereof under the Com- missioners for the Holborn and Finsbury divisions, and after- wards as Chief Surveyor, under the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, until the state of my health induced me to resign that situation. From my first entering on the duties of my office, I began a series of close observations on the pee of the water through the ramification of sewers in the Holborn and Finsbury divisions. I was thus early made aware of the necessity of much improve- ment in this description of works, and sought to introduce remedies. In the commission of the old Holborn and Finsbury districts were many talented and unprejudiced men, and it is to their candid and energetic conduct in considering and enabling me to carry out my views that the metropolis and other places are indebted for the various improvements now universally adopted. Some of these I briefly name: a better lime—namely, blue lias; cemented blocks for the inverts; half-brick sewers for short streets;* small sewers for courts and alleys; side entrances to the sewers in lieu of man-holes in the centre of the streets; flushing the foul deposit away instead of bringing it to the surface; curved junctions in lieu of at right angles; a better form of gully- hole, shoot, and grate; a better foni of sewer, &c. Some estimate may be formed of the benefit accruing from these improvements on the extensive works since carried out, when I state that these, with some minor ones, enabled a saving of upwards of 70001. per annum to be made in the works then executed in those divisions; and, in evidence before the Sanitary Commission, it is stated that a saving of 12,0007. per annum was made in the Westminster divisions by following out these improvements. The introduction of stoneware pipes for general drai arose from a suggestion made by Mr. Chadwick to me, in his desire to * I have found old half-hrick sewers in many parta of the Holborn and Finsbury divi- sions, some that had evidently been built prior to the records of that commission, and had not needed cleaning or repairing. One in particular, which I have no doubt was formed when the priory for monks of the Carthusian Order was built, which is now called the Charter-house, The sewer was of the egg shape, the small end downwards, and waa perfectly clear of deposit and in excellent repair. A considerable length of it was taken up at the time when the sewer from St. John-street along Charterhouse-lane was put in at a greater depth. obtain a smooth interior surface, and the first pbs made for that urpose in the metropolis were for the Holborn and Finsbury ce in consequence; and looking at the general state of the drainage of very many towns and villages, and the peculiar inta that have to be dealt with in forming sewers for the same, it is not too much to say that an immense benefit to sanitary measures has been afforded by the use of these e pipes where judi- ciously applied and the works properly execu So applied, they have in the case of Harrow enabled the i to be carried out at about one-third that it would have cost had brick sewers, large enough for men to go through, been deren in the streets, and this after allowing for the subsoil and Another fca tUe in your drainage is, that greater part of the sewers have been formed at the back of the houses, thus shorten- ing the length of private drains, so as to prove a considerable saving to individuals in the length of drain. There has been much discussion in the metropolis on this point, which is called * back drainage," but, like the extremes of brick and pipe sewers, it should be viewed with regard to the locality drained: Almost every locality requires a somewhat different treatment to another in some of its details, and in atown different portions require or will allow of different methods of carrying out the object required. It is the duty of the engineer to point out, without a prejudice in favour of one set of opinions or the other, what he sees to be best, efficiency and economy joined. Whilst referring to this, I may name that the Commissioners of Holborn and Finsbury, although mainly desirous to have front drainage, yet allowed back drainage where it could be usefully ado ted, when individuals who had much drainage to perform & plied for it; and one of the commissioners, now an alderman of the city of London, spoke to me very much in its favour when such an application was made. That back drainage, when properly applied, is not attended with all the disadvantages pointed out by the adversaries to ite adop- tion, ia certain. About thirty-six years since, the Holborn and Finsbury Com- missioners allowed upwards of 200 houses on one estate to have back drainage, on the owner building about 500 feet of outlet sewer to receive the drains. No complaint of the vanes has come to the office during the period that has since elapsed. There are other instances in those divisions of its successful ip laying out an entirely new district, and in many country towns and places, back drainage may be usefully adopted; on the other hand, there are situations in old towns where ita adoption would be worse than an absurdity. That it is considered an advan in its use, even when the parties adopting it are obliged to make a large sewer in the front as well as the drains at the back of the houses on either side of the street, I need only refer to the fact that one of the most extensive builders in the Finsbury district, and who has made a large fortune in his business, has, when obliged by the commissioners' regulations, not only built a first- size sewer in the centre of his streets, but has at the same time used back drainage, alleging the advantage of avoiding the e of drains with foul matter under the houses as his chief inducement; the drains passing under a clear space at one end of the street into the main sewer. Reverting to the remark, that for the drainage of each locality a somewhat different treatment may be required, it fortunately happens, as regards cost, that Harrow is peculiarly favourably situate for the application of the pipe system; whereas Eton College and precincta, from certain local and periodical circum- stances, required brick sewers of considerable size. The inclina- tions of the sewers at Harrow are very great; the sewers at Eton (with the exception of a small portion near the river) have no inclination, yet the drainage at Eton College is as perfect for the passage of the sewage as that of Harrow. The sewers were pat down twelve years since, and not a spadeful of foul deposit has accumulated in any of them. This result has been obtained by continuing one feeder on a level with the sewers for half a mile, until it reached the River Thames above the Brocas, and another to a backwater at the Timberhalls; so that in dry weather many thousands of cube feet of water through these sewers every hour. At Harrow, the t inclination of the sewers requires only a fair supply of water to prevent deposit from accumulating. In a few minutes excretia will from the inlet to the outlet. Eton Town, drained in 1850, from similar local circumstances 3* , and that there is a saving > 12 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. that affect the 1 precincts, has one of its main sewers of con- siderable size, the others are some half-brick and some pipe sewers. In this case anything but back drainage would have been par- Again, Windsor has one portion of its drainage in brick sewers and the other portions consist of pipe sewers, laid down in 1850-1. To have formed all in brick sewers would have been a waste of money, but the main line required a capacity too great for pipes. A due application of the two (brick and pipe) has afforded a drainage at a moderate cost * and of undoubted efliciency, if the sewers have a fair supply of water, but as the water was not laid on to every house, I caused a small tank to be formed at the head of each long line of pipe drain, to enable them to be flushed periodically, and if this (which may be done at a trifling cost) be properly attended to, no stoppage will ever take place. unprovement; yet it is certainly gratifying to you to be enabled to save many thousand pounds of the ratepayers’ money by the use of a method which will, if fairly dealt by, be in good working condition 500 years hence. The pipes are remarkably good. The surveyor. It is mainly owing to the independent and zealous conduct of the latter gentleman that 80 much has been done in getting rid of the many cesspools and other baneful nuisances, I have stated that during the period I was with the Commis- sioners of Sewers I had made continual observations on the passage of water through the sewers. When, in 1848, I applied to the Earl of Carlisle for permission to recire from the situation of chief surveyor to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, of which his lordshi was then chairman, I stated that if my health permitted I would form the resulta of and also mature my pan for intercepting the Sewage of that portion of the metropolis north of the River Thames. Those objects I have accomplished. Your drainage is in accordance with the principles of the Table. In May of last year, I informed the Earl that the General Board of Health had applied for the Table, and I had furnished itto them. Also, that in the week before I had laid my plan for the northern drainage before the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, with which they appeared pleased. Although the com- munication to that body was afterwards neglected, yet, as I know it to be a more efficient plan than the one lately adopted by them, and that it may be carried out at half a million less cost than is estimated for their plan, and lessen the rmanent expenses by it I shall endeavour to save the ratepayers’ mone by bringing the matter forward again whenever there is a proba ility of the works being carried out, as I have told the chairman of that commission. When I began to introduce improvements in sewer matters, it e case, to meet with opposition of various degrees, and my Table has not escaped. There is something amusing in the manner in which the advo- cates of the respective systems have noticed the Table I have fur- nished. One advocate of the pipe system is of opinion that the sizes given in the Table are very much too large. An advocate of the brick sewer system states that he considers them very much too small. The former states his opinion to the Institution of Civil Engineers. The latter writes to Lord Palmerston. To the former I write showing the evils of lacing sewers too small for their work. He at length acknowledges his conviction of the truths I advanced. To the party who stated that the cominission could not accept the Table, from an opinion that the sizes were too small, I write to tell him that he never made a more grievous mistake, or came to a more fallacious conclusion, than what he did in his statement to Lord Palmerston, and asking him to give me the name of any person, foreign or native, that had formed a theorem for calculating the sizes of sewers for various localities, based on observations made on the passage of water through a * By the use of back drainage and pipe sewers the saving h - allowing for the cost of subsvil and road drainage. Ving has been near 50002., ramification of sewers. My Table is formed from such observa- tions made during a period of twenty years. The point of greatest importance in & calculation for such a purpose has been almost universally overlooked. I have lenty of excellent proof for the extreme parties (when they shall have sobered down to the happy medium) of the safety and economy of using my facts for the construction of sewers. I may notice that Mr. Hawkesley, Engineer to the Nottingham Waterworks Company, stated to the Institution of Civil Engineers that he found the results of my Table very similar to those of his own, which he had worked out for the Sanitary Commission. Returning to the drainage of Harrow, the following list shows the length and sizes of your new main sewers:— Feet. 223 of pipes, 18 inches diameter. 2,900 92 1 5 » 3? 6, 9 l 2 3 1 2 33 » 7, 766 2» 9 » » 653 M 6 3 99 Total...... 18,464 Mr. Winkley informs me that a rate of 3d. in the pound will y off in thirty years the principal and interest of the money rrowed to enable you to construct your works. It will be remembered that you began your operations before you decided to borrow money, and when you wished to do so, you did not wish to stop your works for the time the preliminaries in address- ing the Board of Health would require; on that Board being made acquainted with the state of the case, every facility was afforded you, so that no time was lost. A similar state of things occurred with the Eton Town Board, and similar facilities were atforded in that case by the General Board of Health. Taking a block of houses, eleven in number, I find that for clearing out and filling up fourteen cesspools, forming new drains, and placing new pan-closet apparatus, the cost has been 30/. 65. The rateable yearly value of these eleven houses ig 126/. A part of your drai was formed in 1851, and a large portion in 1852. Before closing my report, I addressed a letter (last week) to request your surveyor to send me an exact account of the state of the denas at this time. The following is a copy of his reply:— ES **Harrow-on-the- Hill, July 11h, 1854. ““Sir—I lose no time in writing to inform you that our drainage acts well, and, from what I know, gives every satisfaction. Various were the opinions of parties in the parish as to its efficiency. The following were some of the many questions asked in the district respecting it:— “1. Will the drain pipes be sufficiently large to carry off the whole of the sewerage and also the surface water? “2. Should we have much dry weather, will there not be many stop- pages in the pipes for want of water to flush the sewers? ‘3. Will not the substitution of closet-pans, without water laid on, be a greater nuisance than open privies with cesspols under; being liable to stoppaye. 4. Many of the privies being exposed, will not the frost crack the pans, and consequently common closet-pans be constantly broken ? J may state that the great floods we have had, the great drought, and the severe winter since the most part of these works have been finished, has been sufficient to test the whole. I wil endeavour to answer each question as they stand in rotation:— “1. We have had floods of water from heavy rains, floods from melting of snow, and I have watched the result, and we have never had & stoppage; the sewers and drains carried off sewerage and surface water, and I never, at the greatest flow, saw the pipes two-thirds full.* 2. There has been sufficient water from private drainage to meet the case, even in the greatest drought. The only difference scen has been in the colour of the sewer water at the outlets, were it is continually running; nor does any sediment rest in the pipes, although we have turned all our surface water into the pipes. 3. Few persons have water laid on the pan-closeta, but, by a little attention, sufficient waste and slop water is thrown down, which carries everything away; it only requires cleanliness and attention. In the whole district, the stoppages in the pans have not exceeded ten, and upon examination, we have found it in every case arose through care- lessness—by things thrown down by children or servants, which would have caused a stoppage if water had been laid on. 4. Of this last question I myself was fearful, forin exposed places, amongst cottages with the door constantly open, and perhaps only a few * There is a six-inch iron pipe drain of some half mile in length, which takes the drainage from onc of the large cow-yards of the Inetropolis, and also the drainage from thirty large houses. This drain was laid down upwards of thirty years since, and from that time, and until the spring of this year, it has not required any attention, and then only trifling.—J. R. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 13 feather-edged boards between the pan and the open air, there was a danger; but I have never heard of one in any way affected or frozen so that it could not be used, and I have examined numbers for my own ence. „Thus, I have given you my candid opinion respecting our system of drainage. Some places that were a disgrace and dangerous, and where fever was constantly recurring, are now wholesome and healthy. I am aware there are some closet-pans that are dirty, which Dr. Lewis saw, bat very generally they are kept clean. “Any er information you require I shall be pleased to give. (Signed) „WILLIAM SMITH.” This is very satisfactory, yet not more than I expected; as to the use of pan-closets, I am certain, from the experience I have had where endeavours have been made to relieve the poorer classes from nuisances, that it will take but a short space of time toinduce all to use the means of cleanliness put in their way, when they see that there is a feeling of regard for their comfort unequivocally evinced. JOHN Ror, C.E. Tite Hill, Egham, July 17th, 1854. — — WATER SUPPLY OF DUBLIN. Report of T. BRAziL, C.E., to the Corporation of Dublin, on the Proposed Water Supply of the City and Suburbs. GENTLEMEN—In placing banne you my views on the subject of the supply of water to Dublin and its ababa I shall endeavour, as concisely as possible, to review the subject, without entering into detailed calculations only fully intelligible to the professional reader; but at the same time I wish it to be distinctly under- stood that I have given the general question of water supply much attention, and that I am quite ready to go into the detail of the subject in an engineering point of view when required. Considering all that has been written on sanitary questions within the last few years, I feel it unnecessary to draw your attention to the pressing necessity of procuring a copious supply of pure water; and from your acquaintance with the history, present state, and yearly cost of the existing inadequate and polluted supply, I purpose passing over that important part of subject also. tis now very generally admitted that all attempts to suppl a large city with water by a series of wells or boriugs must fuil: even where there are basins peculiarly suited to such under- takings as at London, Paris, New York, &c. In London we have some breweries supplied by artesian wells, which alone have reduced the springs at & continuous rate of 4 feet per annum; and at New York the system of well sinking was totally abandoned 80 far back as the year 1824. As Du. water cannot be got in quantity after percolatin through the soil, it becomes requisite to store surface water, and with this view we must cast about fur extensive gathering grounds of a suitable geological nature at a level fully commanding the city by gravitation, without either the assistance of steam power, the construction of heavy embankments or aqueducts, or the necessity of purchasing up numerous mills or a quantity of valuable land. d it is also most essential that the gathering und should be free from lead mines, paper mills, flax mills, and sufficiently remote from the Soke of town. It is my opinion that distance in such a case is a matter of secondary con- sideration, provided there are no great engineering difficulties in the line of conduit, and the works are designed with a view to utility only; and though we should avoid such massive and unne- 1 works as were executed at the Croton and at Rome, we should not be deterred from going at least an equal distance, if requisite, when we eonsider the object, to supply the great and increasing population of the metropolis with so important an element of life and health. Some of the twenty Roman aqueducts brought water from a distance of over sixty miles, and the Croton aqueduct, a modern work, is over thirty-eight miles in length. Within the last few years we have Mr. Rawlinson proposing a conduit for Liverpool sixty-four miles in length. Captain Vetch proposes fifty-four miles of aqueducts for London, and in Scotland and the north of England the custom of storing surface water at a distance for the supply of towns has become quite general, it being found that water thus obtained is free from matter in solution, and of a greater degree of softness than that procurable in any other way. It is thought by some that the covering of reservoirs is essential in all cases, but I am not of that opinion, as I know that when water is 10 to 12 feet in depth the evaporation is B being balanced by the rain and dew falling. In like manner, when conduits are in rural districts, and have a velocity sufficient to prevent vegetation, it is unnecessary to arch them in; but I am strongly of opinion that when they approach a city within two or three miles, they should be quite inclosed, so as to preserve the water free from the various offensive polluting matters, which it is impossible to walk along any of our canals or other open watercourses without noticing. Previous to drawing your attention to the locality which I consider most suitable as a source from which the metropolis may be supplied with water, I beg to refer to some other districts iih are available also, but which are not in the same degree igible. 'The district which has attracted most attention of late years is that which is unwatered by the Dodder; a river more uncertain in its discharge than any other in this country—at one time a destructive torrent, while at other periods it is nearly dried up. Along this river and the Poddle, which is a branch thereof, there are a number of mills, and though at each the water is ponded as best it can, the irregularity in supply is very great. In 1844 the Commissioners of Public Works were memorialised to have the district examined, under the 5th and 6th Vict., cap 89, and Mr. Mallet, on their order, furnished an elaborate report on the subject. He proposed a heavy embankment and large reservoir, for the purpose of storing flood waters for the use of the mills in dry seasons. This work has not been carried out, and it haa been since proposed to form a receiving-tank at the point Eu gested by him, and turn the factory water to city use. To suc a project there are numerous objections, of which I will mention a few immediately occurring to me. In the first instance, the Dodder is not the natural feeder of Dublin, but is a mountain stream, the ponding up of which by a long bank 80 or 100 feet in height, would be a very dangerous undertaking, and, if not executed in a very substantial manner, would be likely to be suddenly destroyed, with much more than the dreadful consequences attending the failure of the Holme Firth Reservoir. The fall to the proposed tank is so steep that a second very large settling reservoir would be absolutely essential to prevent the delivery of the water in a turbid state. Along with the enormous sum such proposed work would actually cost, the purchase of mill property would amount to a very heavy item in addition, and the south-west end of the city, which is at present intersected by the Poddle, would, however 5 it may be now, become in a great degree worse on being deprived of the only stream that removes the debris of vegetable and other matter from that unsewered district. We have also, at tlie north side of the city, a small river called the Tolka, which rises in the County Meath; its waters have been lowered from time to time for drainage purposes, and any attempt to pond them up would be attended with the destruction of a vast extent of most valuable property. There is the Vellow River and Upper Boyne in the King's County and County Kildare, and the catchments supplying the summit levels of the Grand and Royal Canals; but 1 sources are all objectionable, not so much from their great distance as from the geological nature of the country. The water is in general hard, and im- regnated with carbonate of lime and other deleterious substances eld in solution, and which cannot be removed by filtration. I shall now describe the nature of the source from which I propose to procure a supply, the extent thereof, the quantity and quality of water available, the level of the outfall above the city, with the nature and cost of the works I consider requisite for the constant supply of water in a filtered state, and with sufficient pressure to command the highest houses in the city. Dublin being built on the Litley, it is to the source of that river I would look for a supply, and the point I select is below the Poulaphucea Water-Fall, where the river runs precipitately down the ravine between Lower Blakestown and Bishop’s Land, in the counties of Wicklow and Kildare respectively. The river at this point is 430 feet above the Ordnance datum or low-water mark, and the sides of the valley rise sharply up for a height of 125 feet more. This valley I propose to pond up to a depth of 50 feet at the lower end, and for a distance back stream of one mile, thereby obtaining a reservoir of 39,600,000 cubic feet, or 246,708,000 gallons. The catchment basin or gathering ground above this point extends in the County Wicklow northward to Britas and Talbotstown; at the east it is bounded by Kippure, 14 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Sally-Gap, and Wicklow-Gap; and at the South b the Table Mountain, As well as the Liffey, it contains the s River, the Great and Little Douglass, the Glensemore, Ballylow, and a number of other rivers. The upper portion of the gathering ground is of the granite rock, DeL part of the range of hills extending from Kingstown to the County Wexford; the lower is of the clay-slate formation. The district is free from objectionable manufactories, and contains an area of 115 square miles, or 73,600 statute acres. There is no mill near its mouth, except one at Ballymore Eustace, and this water power, as on the Bann, the Shannon, and other Irish rivers, 18 ncm ed, in con- sequence of the distance at which the site 1s ava ble from any market or manufacturing town, and the water is left to take its flow along the flat country, through Kilcullen, New- bridge, &c., to Dublin being turned to very little account in ita course, because of its reduced velocity and the extreme flatness of joining lands. SNO as to the quantity of water available from the above- mentioned catchment basin. The rain-fall not having been gauged with regularity for the requisite neste of time, I have to take it for this report at an amount falling on lower and admittedly less humid districts; and I consider it of little matter if I make the assumed quantity much under the actual, as this inquiry is not to determine the amount to be carried away in flood time as in works of drainage, but to ascertain the quantity which can be relied on for supply. Suppose, then, that for some very dry season the fall of rain does not exceed 24 inches (in hilly districts it is generally more than double), and that only two-thirds or 16 inches enters the reservoir, there will be due for the catchment 12,711,474 cubic feet, or 79,192,482 gallons of water per day. By the last census the population of Dublin and suburbs amounts to 278,000 inhabitants. It has increased for the last ten years, and it is to be expected it will continue to increase; but taking it as at present, the above discharge would give 285 gallons of water per head daily, or over eight times the uantity required or that has been proposed for any city in Great Twil now show that with even the minimum rain-fall I have assumed, and with the natural valley I propose to turn to a reserve basin, that at times when there is a continuance of dry weather there will be a supply more than amply sufficient for the j ts of the city. a N here to 9185 into the subject of rain-fall in general, and to show the quantity falling in what is called the dry season, its evaporation, and its absorption by different strata, I should enter into calculations unsuitable in length to a preliminary report of this kind. I shall therefore only refer to the most recent authentic 1 un 9 1 5 = E ee rofession b , „who or some years ae is dt the rain-fall in the ‘Ballinrobe drainage district, 1n the County of Mayo. He found from careful gauging in that catchment, which is underlined by a porous limestone, the dis- charge was, for an average of thirty-four days per year, so low as 026 of a foot per acre per minute, which, for a gathering ground of this extent, would give sixty-two gallons per day for each individual (twice the quantity required), and this without drawing on the reservoir, which, except for a settling and regulating tank, will only be used for a few days in some extrao dry season. vel of the bottom of the reservoir at Blakestown, I Bete 9 an open conduit, for the most part in slight cutting, lined with mason-work, and with a sectional area suitable to eac ient. This line of conduit would run through Bishop's Land by Ballymore Eustace, through Kimmans, Flem- mingstown, Swordstown, and Killashee; then to the north-east through Tipper to Kill, and on by Rathcool, Saggart, and Jobs- town, and in a north-easterly direction to Crumlin, where I would have tanks from which to supply the pipes of the city by a line of cast-iron main. Crumlin is two miles south of the present city basin; in level 170 feet above the sea, 94 feet above the head of the present supply, and 30 feet above the top of the highest houses in the most elevated part of the city. The amount of fall suitable for conveying water to the tanks (twenty-two statute miles) would not exceed 25 feet, and 30 feet for filtering-beds; and as the difference of level between the top of the proposed tanks and the bottom of intended reservoir is 260 feet, there would remain 200 feet of fall, which could be dis- tributed, chiefly in the Dublin district, in mill sites of 543-horse power, calculated on the discharge in dry seasons; and which in steam-power, working only twelve hours per day, would cost 99004. per annum. But as in this paper I wish to avoid every Source of error in excess, even at the risk of falling into the op site extreme, I will only estimate the letting value at one-third of the actual, or 3300/., which, at twenty-five years’ p amounts to the sum of 82,5001. And I wish it to be.particularly observed that a large portion of this power is distributable on the Dodder, where manufactories exist, and that I vi ann a branch of one mile from Jobstown to Old Baun Paper Mill (the upper mill on the river), by which the surplus water can be let down from the proposed conduit to the Dodder as required; while the supply for the city pipes would go on direct from Jobstown to Crumlin; and though the waste water of manufactories should never be allowed to mix with that for human consumption, it would be most beneficial in dry seasons in keeping up a constant run in the sewers. The principal seat of manufacturing industry about the metro- polis is between Old Baun and Dublin. Here we have calico printing, iron manufacture, cotton spinning, cutlery, paper making, cloth making, as well as saw mills, flour mills, oi mills, Re The present water power is quite irregular, and for over three months of the year the mills are not only silent about one-third of the day, but each mill owner is dependent on those above him; for when one lets down his sluice to refill his pond, he immediately cuts off the water of all below. Steam power is used by some when water fails, while others throw their hands idle, until the elements become propitious. Any measure calcu- lated to prevent this inconvenience and loss must tend in some user to increase the producing power and general prosperity of ublin. My estimate of the expense of the proposed works amounts to 105,256/.; and though I have not been instructed to make the requisite surveys and working plans to enable me to estimate in detail, I feel no hesitation in stating that the whole of the works can, under proper engineering control, be executed in a creditable manner within that amount. 3 In conclusion, I have to observe, that for the population of the city and suburbs, it is only proposed to divert and use one-thirty- eighth of the water entering the River Liffey in the driest season; the lands along its banks will not be deteriorated, but, on the contrary, with the artificial lake proposed, and from which the water can be let down as required, the flat valuable alluvial valley between Kilcullen and Dublin will, to a t extent be freed from the inundations to which it is now liable. Tuomas BRAZIL, C.E. Dublin, August 29th, 1854. — — SETTING LAND BOILERS. By B. F. IsueRwoop, Chief Eng., U. S. Navy. Tux following detail of some comparative experiments made at the Washington Navy Yard, with the “ordinary” mode of setting cylindrical land boilers, and with the mode patented by Henry . Baker, are of considerable value to mechanical engineers, both as regards the positive results obtained, and as definitely explod- ing a false theory. The “ordinary mode," shown in fig. 1 of the diagram accompanying this article, is 80 well understood as not to require description: Mr. Baker’s method, shown in fig. 2, is described in the following “claim,” forming his patent, dated May 30, 1846, viz. ** What I claim and desire to secure by Letters Patent, is one or more reverberating chambers (made and arranged as above set forth) in com- bination with the fire-place and boiler, the same being made to revolve and retain the volatile products underneath the boiler, long enough to be consumed thereunder, as above explained; and I also claim, the manner of arranging the air distributing boxes with to the bottom of the boiler in combination with the curved deflecting bottoms of their tive chambers, in order that the flame produced by combustion of the volatile gases, or other matters, passing over the perforated plates of said air boxes, may be blown in jets against the bottom of the boiler as set forth; the said mode of arranging the said air boxes consisting in giving each of them an inclined position substantially as represented in the drawings and as above specified. * The level of the proposed conduit will enable the Clondalkin, Killeen, Blue Be Drimnagh, Golden Bridge, Island Bridge, and a nuinber of other mills to be suppli: also. f An Account of some Com ive Experiments made at the Washington, D. C. Navy Yard, April, 1854, on the ordi mode of setting Land Boilers, and on mode patented by Henry F. Baker. [From the ‘Journal of the Franklin Institute’). — ns — — ———— ——— — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 15 In the above claim, the object to be attained by the reverberat- ing arches or chambers, is “to revolve and retain the volatile products underneath the boiler long enough to be consumed;" and in the pamphlet published by Mr. Amory, the general agent of this patent, he says, “the improvement with Baker's is to be accounted for by the more perfect combustion of the gaseous pe of the fuel, which by the reverberations are retained onger and brought more intimately in contact with the atmo- sphere, thereby converting much carbonic oxide (which in ordinary furnaces escapes into the chimney) into carbonic acid, and occa- sioning & great saving of caloric. Now, according to the above, Mr. Baker's arrangement is an attempt to remedy a defect which does not exist, as nothing con- nected with steam boilers is better determined than that with the ordinary proportions of practice, and even with proportions differing extremely from them, no carbonic oxide is formed in the flues; this has been the unvariable result of a considerable number of chemical analyses of the products of combustion in the flues and chimneys of steam boilers. The only manner in which car- bonic oxide can be formed, is by deficiency of atmospheric air to furnish the n quantity of oxygen to completely oxidise the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel; but the ordinary proportions of practice is found to furnish about twice as much atmospheric airas is required for perfect combustion; consequently, so far from carbonic oxide existing in the flues, there is always found in them a large quantity (about ten per centum) of free or uncom- bined oxygen. Supposing, however, that carbonic oxide did exist in flues, it kald not be converted into carbonic acid, by the manner pro by Mr. Baker, which is by presenting to it a further supply of oxygen from the atmospheric air admitted at the bottom of his arches through the orated plate; but cold atmospheric air resented to carbonic oxide at the moderate temperature of the Rues, will not saturate it with oxygen in the short time they remain together in the boiler; consequently the only effect of these 55 plates will be the injurious one of cooling the boiler y the amount of cold air admitted. This effect seems to have been observed by the patentee, as the “perforated plates" are omitted in the arrangement of the chambers beneath the experimental boiler at the Washington Navy Yard, and a new feature is introduced not patented; viz., the front of the ash pits is closed, and the air for vombustion is delivered beneath the grates through a pipe which first traverses beneath the inverted arches through a space filled with the heated of combustion, so as to supply the fuel with heated atmospheric air. Again, as fas as regards the “revolving and retaining” of the heated gases by means of the arches, it is quite certain these will not be at all revolved or retained, but instead of follow- ing the shading in ng. 2 representing their course, according to Mr. Baker, they will follow in a straight line, taking the shortest and most direct route from furnace to chimney, and leaving the arches beneath the dotted line, fig. 2, filled with quiescent gases. In a word, the reverberating chambers of Mr. Baker do not rever- berate and cannot, as arranged, be made to do so. Could these chambers be made to readily do their supposed office, that is, retain, revolve, and mix up the in the flues, they would be highly beneficial, but not for the reason supposed by Mr. Baker, whic is the conversion of carbonic oxide into carbonic acid; but for the following reasons, viz: When a mass of heated through or beneath water (as in the case of steam boilers) only a thin film of its periphery or envelope can be in contact with the water, consequently, the heat can be extracted (which is quickly done) from this film only, leaving the heat of the central portions of the mass unextracted, until by their less specific gravity, the result entirely of their higher tem- perature, they rise, displace the already cooled film, and present another film, from which the heat is in turn extracted, when it obeys the same law and sinks, its | pepe being supplied by still another film, and so on. This is the only mode in which the caloric of the mass of hot gases can be extracted, and this mode is due solely to the action of gravity; were there sufficient time allowed, the gases being retained in contact with the water, their heat would undoubtedly be thus extraeted down to the tempe- rature of the water; but time is the very element impossible to be obtained; the gases in the flues of boilers are constantly flowing on to the chimney with considerable rapidity, even with the slowest combustion, not only rendering the interval of time elapsing from their leaving the furnace to their arriving at the chimney very short, even in the longest boilers, but neutralising the action of gravity among their particles by the momentum imparted to them by the speed of the current or draught. Hence, with a thick mass of hot gases, or & mass having considerable area of cross section, a great waste of caloric resulta from the interior gases going into the chimney at a high temperature, but by ing the mass thin, this effect is decreased and a greater amount of heat extracted. Now, could any plan be arranged of beating up the gases in the flues, or, in other words of mecha- nically mixing them rapidly together, it is plain the temperature of the whole gaseous mass would be kept about uniform, instead of being of nearly the initial temperature in the interior and comparatively cool at the periphery. The arches of Mr. Baker will not perform this office, and therefore are useless, a conclu- sion fully borne out by the unexceptional experiments made at the Navy Yard and hereafter described. I have frequently thought that in the ordinary horizontal flues a tolerably complete beating up or mixing of the gases might be effected by obstruction, that is, by a ing in the flues, at short distances apart, flat iron plates or bricks, inst which the flowing mass of the would strike and break like water against a board held in a rapid current, and then by eddying around behind produce a mixing up. The flues should of course, have a sufficient cross-section to admit these obstructions and retain draught enough for consuming the requisite amount of fuel. The obstructions should also be so arranged as to admit of their easy withdrawal for sweeping the flues, &c. By the arrangement of the heating surfaces of steam boilers in vertical tubes, these tubes containing the water and standing in the mass of moving, heated which surrounds them, as in the boilers of the Collins’ line of steamships, the breaking up and mixing of the gases are very completely attained, the tubes them- selves acting very efficiently as obstructions; and to this cause alone, I ascribe the very great superiority of this type of boiler, which, when properly proportioned, gives, incontestibly, under the ordinary conditions of practice, the maximum possible econo- mical evaporation, and far exceeds, in that respect any results possible from the other types in use. The results of the comparative experiments hereinafter given, and made by Engineer-in-Chief, D. B. Martin, at the Washington Navy Yard, differ so vastly from the results of other experiments made by different persons and published by Mr. Amory, the general agent of ers Patent Setting, that a brief review of these latter is n In the experiments published by Mr. Amory, we are at once struck by the very large evaporation, considering the type and proportions of the boilers used, stated to have been obtained both by the Baker and the ordinary mode of setting. With a view, therefore, to obtain a precise limit in this direction, it is n to determine the total theoretical evaporation of the coal; that is to say, to determine the number of pounds of water which can be evaporated by one pound of , Supposing its combustion to be perfect, and all the heat enerated by that combustion to be pr puis to the water, none ing lost by radiation or by passing off in heated gas to produce & draught, or in any other manner whatever. It is evident that such a limit exists, and that this limit is the total theoretical evaporation by the coal. The organic combustibles, coal, peat, lignite, and wood, are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, earthy and other matter being merely mechanically or accidentally mingled. The hydrogen and oxygen produce during the combustion no heating effect when they exist in the proportion necessary to form water, because in the decomposition of water as much heat is absorbed a3 is disengaged in its formation; hence results, that the heating power of any coal is in the proportion of the carbon it contains, and of the excess of its hydra en over the quantity required to form water with the oxygen. But this excess of hydrogen when it exists in coal at all, exists in the solid state, and as it volatilises at a low temperature it must be consumed in the furnace in the state of gas: by the very process of volatilisation heat is absorbed or rendered latent, and though no determination has ever been made of how much of the heat generated by the combustion of this hydrogen is required for its conversion from a solid state into gas, yet the amount is so considerable that taken in connection with the very small per centage of excess of hydrogen existing in any coal, its effect may be considered insensible and practically neglected; as may also the effect of the very minute amount of mineral combustibles, sulphur chiefly, occasionally found mingled with the coal. From the foregoing it follows, that practically the 16 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. heating power of coal is simply in the proportion of the carbon it contains: this being the case, it is necessary for our purpose to ascertain the total theoretical calorific power of carbon, which has been done by the following two authorities, viz.: Despretz determined that 1:00 units of weight of carbon is capable of heating 7815 units of weight of water, from the freezing to the boiling point, in other words, of giving out (7815 x (212 — 32) —) 14067 unita of heat. Dulong's similar determination of the heating power of carbon is, 13268 units of heat per unit of weight of carbon. The mean of these two determinations is 13661 unita of heat. Now, 7 the total heat of steam of atmospheric pressure to be 1146˙6˙ Fahr., one pound of carbon will evaporate 13,668 ( 11466 — 212 =) 14:624 Ib. of water from the temperature of 212° Fahr. Let us now inquire what deduction from this absolute theoretic evaporation is inseparable from practice. In the first place, with the usual proportions of boilers, about twice as much atmospheric air passes through the furnaces as is required to furnish oxygen for the perfect combustion of the fuel: also, a large proportion of the air which is required to furnish even the exact quantity of oxygen for perfect combustion, is composed of nitrogen; hence, we have a large amount of useless atmospheric gases to be heated up, and a quantity of heat to be consequently lost, equal to the difference of their temperature on entering aa leaving the boiler. The gaseous products of combustion also necessarily leave the boiler at an elevated temperature, in order to produce the draught; hence, another very considerable loss of heat. "There is also a further practical loss by radiation. These losses, when the temperature of the smoke chimney is as low as about 350° Fahr., may be taken at about 30 per centum of the theoretic heat developed by the combustion, and with a higher temperature these losses will be proportionably greater. First Experiment. The first experiment deserving notice, is by Mr. Wicksteed, engineer of the East London Waterworks, Old Ford, England, with the Cornish boilers of that company. The fuel was “small Newcastle coals of inferior quality.” The data and results are as follows, viz:— Data. : Ordinary. Baker. Duration of the experiment in hours 207 103 Total pounds of coal consumed ............... 64940 31642 Pounds of coal consumed per hour ......... 313:7 293:0 Total pounds of clinkers and ashes made... 3895 2159 Pounds of clinkers and ashes made per hour 18:8 20:0 Total pounds of coal consumed, after de- ducting clinkers and ashes 61045 29483 Pounds of coal consumed per hour, after de- ducting clinkers and ashes 294:9 273:0 Temperature of feed water in degrees Fahr. 954° 90° Total pounds of water evaporated from temperature of feed water 449320 243680 Pounds of water evaporated per hour from temperature of feed water ......... ..... 2170 2250 Results. Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of feed water, by one pound of coal, after deducting ashes and clinkers ...... 7:360 8:205 Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of 212" Fahr., by one pound of coal, after deducting ashes and clinkers ...... 8:277 9:344 From the above table it would appear that the result from the „Baker's Setting" was 12:9 per centum greater than from the * Ordinary Setting," taking the latter as unity; but as we are not informed whether the distance between the bottom of the boiler and the last bridge wall was the same in both cases, it is impossible to say whether this difference is owing to a better s does of calorimeter orto Baker's curves. he reader will be struck with the high absolute evaporation given in the above experiments, considering the type of boiler, and a little examination into it will be well bestowed. Now, Richardson’s ultimate analysis of Newcastle coal, after deducting clinkers, ashes, &c., gives—oxygen, 857; hydrogen, 5'14; carbon, 86°29 per cent. Hence, the total absolute theoretical evaporation of this coal will be (14:624 x 0:8629 =) 12°619 lb. of water from tempe- rature of 212° Fahr. per pounds of coal. Now the coal consumed in the above experiments after deducting for clinkers and ashes, eontained (8:57 ＋ 614 =) 1371 per centum of oxygen and hydrogen; hence the evaporation of 9:3441b. of water per pound of coal with “ Baker's Setting,” will be increased to (58650 — 10:829 Ib. of water from temperature of 212° Fahr. by one pound of carbon; which allows a loss of only 142 per centum of the total theoretic evaporation, due to the draught, radiation, &c. The draught of these experiments was so sluggish, and the combustion consequently so slow, that when the doors of the furnaces were opened for firing, the smoke came out. Second Experiment. The second experiment deserving of attention, was made by Messrs. Borden, Parrott, and Nott ours E committee appointed by an Association of Civil 1 of New England), at the Linseed Oil Mill, East Boston, husetts. The coal used was the red ash, Peach Mountain anthracite of Pennsyl- vania: the average weight of the lumps was 0:229]b. The boiler was a plain cylinder. Each charge of coal was weighed whenever a new supply was needed, and the ashes, clinkers and unburnt coal were carefully weighed when removed. The water was evaporated under the pressure of 46 lb. per square inch above the atmosphere. With *Bakers Setting," five inverted arches were used, and the last bridge wall was 39 inches below the bottom of the boiler: when this “setting” was changed to the * Ordinary" one, it waseffected by simply lowering the second bridge wall two bricks, and the third, fourth, fifth and sixth bridge walls three bricks, the latter being equal, including mortar joints, to a decrease in height of 8& inches, making the total space between the bottom of the boiler and these latter bridge walls 12 inches. From this description it is evident the results cannot be accepted as determining anything in favour of the “Bakers” over the “Ordinary Setting;” for such a determination, it is indispensably necessary that the calorimeter, or distance between the boiler and bridge walls, should be the same; but here we see the calorimeter with the “Ordinary Setting” was nearly three and a half times greater than with the “Bakers Setting.” The heated gases in both cases were passed over the furnace bridge wall through the same opening, but with the “Ordinary Setting” were allowed to immediately expand nearly three and a half times, thereby losing their temperature as a consequence of that expansion, and having a large proportion of their heat rendered latent. The results of these experiments then simply determine the relative economy of the two proportions of calorimeter, and no argument can be drawn from them in favour of the arches. Data. Baker s. Ordinary. Duration of the experiment in hours 48 48 Total pounds of coal consumed ............... 4362 4303 Pounds of coal consumed per hour ......... 90°87 89°64 Total pounds of clinkers made ............... 208 190 Total pounds of ashes made ................. 841 332 Total pounds of partly burnt and unburnt coal fallen through grate bars ............ 232 354 Total pounds of coal consumed after deduct- ing clinkers, ashes and unburnt coal... 3581 8427 Pounds of coal consumed per hour after deducting clinkers, ashes and unburnt c ͤ 74°60 71:39 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the áteam in eilends 276^-90 278°°04 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the feed water... ... Pm 91°°15 89°:07 Total pounds of water evaporated from tem- perature of feed water 81671 24157 Pounds of water evaporated per hour from temperature of feed water 659-81 503:27 Results. Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of feed water, by one pound of coal after deducting clinkers, ashes and unburnt en!!! e epu tor vau 8:844 1:049 Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of 212° Fahr. by one pound of coal, after deducting clinkers, ashes and Unhürnt ce! a reds usi 9:945 1:976 From the above table it will appear, that the results from the proportion of calorimeter used with Baker’s Setting” was econo- mically 247 per centum greater than with the proportion of calorimeter used with the ‘Ordinary Setting,” taking the results by the “Ordinary Setting” as unity. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 17 The composition of Pennsylvania anthracite, according to the ultimate analysis by Richardson, after deducting clinkers, ashes, Ko., is—oxygen, 2:56; hydrogen, 2°55; carbon, 94°89 per cent. Hence, the absolute total theoretic evaporation of this coal will be (14:624 X 0˙9489 =) 13:877 Ib. of water from temperature of 212° Fahr. per pound of coal. Now the coal consumed in the above experiments contained after deducting clinkers, ashes, &c., (256 + 2:55 =) 5'11 per centum of oxygen and hydrogen; hence the evaporation of 9:945 Ib. of water per pound of coal with the proportion of calorimeter used with “Baker’s Setting," will be increased to ( 99409 =) 10:481 lb. of water from temperature of 212° Fahr. by one pound of carbon, which allows a loss of 24:5 per centum of the total theoretic evaporation, due to draught, radiation, &c. Third Experiment. The third comparative experiment deserving attention, was made at East Boston, Massachusetts, by Messrs. Parrott and Nason, on a boiler set, first, in the “ordinary manner" as approved by Mr. Otis Tufts, a manufacturer of steam machinery, and then in the manner patented by Baker. This boiler was a plain cylinder, 30 ft. Gin. long. It was first set in the manner used in mills in the vicinity, but no information is given as regards the calorimeter, either with the “Ordinary” or with "Baker's Setting.” In both cases the boiler was heated up several days before experimenting, to thoroughly dry the brick- work and avoid any error resulting from the moisture contained init. Each charge of coal was weighed from time to time, and as nearly as possible, half a charge (70 Ib.) thrown in every half hour. The clinker, ashes, and unburnt coal were weighed as removed. The water was also weighed as often as the boiler was fed; it was weighed previously to being fed into the boiler, where it was evaporated under the pressure of the atmosphere with open safety valves; the quantity and times of filling with water, were made as regular as possible, for the purposes of comparison, and to avoid mistakes. At the termination of the experiment with the “Ordinary Setting,” it was altered to the “Baker’s Setting,” and an experiment conducted with that, in all respects the same as with the previous one. The coal used was the Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, anthracite, in lumps averaging 0:223 lb. The area of the grate surface was 7:901 square feet, the area of heating surface way 118000 square feet, the ratio being as 1000 to 14935; the openings between the grate bars were each 00618 feet wide. The following are the data and results, viz:— Data. Ordinary. Baker s. Duration of the experiment in hours and | Minutes MM ER 48:30 48:20 Total pounds of coal consumed ............... 3806 3736 Total pounds of wood consuined (for kind- lig. ioco ü edid ten dass 74 99 Total pounds of ashes, clinkers and un- burnt coal male . 1160 1029 Total pounds of Fuel consumed, estimating two pounds of wood equal to one pound rr Cent quA ann ede das 3843 37851 Total pounds of fuel consumed, deducting clinkers, ashes and unburnt coal......... 2683 27564 Pounds of fuel consumed per hour, deduct- ing clinkers, ashes and unburnt coal... 55°32 57:03 Pounds of fuel consumed per hour, deduct- ing clinkers, ashes and unburnt coal, per square foot of grate surface 1:002 1:218 Temperature in degrees Fahreuheit of the Err diea ee ETN 56°°9 62˙·2 Total pounds of water evaporated from tem- perature of the ſeed water 20229 25509 Pounds of water evaporated per hour from temperature of the feed water 417:09 52777 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of the smoke chimney ..................... esee 255":2 379*1 Results. Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of feed water, by one pound of ooal, after deducting clinkers, ashes and unbürnt coal ci oie oe 8 7:540 9:254 Pounds of water evaporated from tempera- ture of 212° Fahr. by one pound of coal, alter deducting clinkers, ashes and unburnt iF. . 8791 10:737 From the above table it appears, that the evaporation with the “ Bakers Setting” was 2214 per centum economically greater than with the “Ordinary Setting,” taking the evaporation with the latter as unity. Supposing the composition of the anthracite used in this expe- riment to be the same as that of the anthracite used in the previous experiment, we shall have for the absolute total theoretic evaporation of this coal (14:624 X 0°9489 =) 13:877 lb. of water from a temperature of 212? Fahr. per pound of coal; and as the coal contained 5'11 per centum of oxygen and hydrogen, the evaporation of 10737 lb. of water from a temperature of 212° Fahr. by one pound of coal, will be increased to (55485 =) 11:315]b. of water from a temperature of 212? Fahr. by one pound of carbon: which allows a loss of 22:0 per centum for draught, radiation, &c, from the total theoretic evaporation of 14'624 lb. of water from a temperature of 212? Fahr. per pound of carbon. It is evident from the temperatures of the smoke chimney and the evaporations, that the calorimeter with the “Ordinary Setting" must have been very much greater than with the Baker's Setting," for this temperature with the former was 255°2 Fahr., while with the latter it was 379?1 Fahr, although 22°14 per centum more heat had been extracted from the coal with the latter than with the former. The difference in the temperatures of the smoke chimney can only be explained on the supposition that the calori- meter with the “Ordinary Setting,” which gave the lowest temperature of the chimney, was so much ter than with the * Baker's Setting," as to allow the heated gases to lose their temperature by a very considerable expansion, rendering a large portion of the heat latent; while the smaller calorimeter used with the * Baker's Setting," preventing any loss from this cause kept the sensible temperature much higher and of course effected with it a much greater evaporation. The standard calorimeter with the *Baker's Setting” appears to be from 2 to 3 inches between the bottoin of the boiler and the last bridge wall; this space is only from one-fourth to one-third of what is used with the “Ordinary Setting," but there is no reason why as small a calorimeter should not be used with the one mode of setting as with the other; hence, as far as these experiments go, they only prove how greatly the evaporation is atlected by proportion of calorimeter, and not the determination of any gain in virtue of the Baker’s Setting" per se. ‘The temperatures of the smoke chimney in the above experiments are only correct relatively, they cannot be taken for the correct temperatures of the escaping gases; that temperature with such a boiler, every engineer knows would be at least double, but when the heated gases are delivered into a large chimney, larger than the calorimeter of the flue, open to the air, they immediately expand and a large proportion of their heat becomes latent and insensible to the thermometer. A comparative experiment was made by “Messrs. Jones and Homer, from the Departments of Engineering and Chemistry in the Scientific School of Harvard University," under the direction of E. N. Horsford, Rumford Professor in the same University, on boilers with the “Baker” and “Ordinary” mode of setting. These experiments are published by Mr. Amory in extenso, and they appear to have been carried on with a great attention to minute details; how accurately they were conducted and how qualified the experimenters were for such a task, plainly appears from the fact, that with the “ Bakers Setting,” an evaporation of 16:431 lb. of water was obtained from a temperature of 212? Fahr. per pound of anthracite, the clinkers and ashes having been previously deducted. Now, we have already seen, that the absolute total theoretic evaporation per pound of anthracite, the clinkers and ashes being first deducted, is only 18'877 lb. of water from & temperature of 212? Fahr. which amount the report of the experimenters exceeds by 15'4 per centum, though itis practically impossible to come within that per centage of the theoretical evaporation under the most favourable type and proportions of boiler. Such experiments it is unnecessary to discuss. All the foregoing experiments, from the very mode in which they were conducted, must contain a considerable error as regards the evaporative results given. ‘This error makes the evaporation appear to be considerably greater than what it really was, and arises from the manner of conducting it, the steam being blown off into the air through the usual safety valve and escape pipe; é 18 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. the inevitable result of this mode of getting rid of the steam is, that as it rushes out from the boiler through the escape pipe with great velocity, it entrains and carries out with a large amount of solid water in a finely divided state or in the shape of spray; and as the feed-water is measured before it goes into the boiler, it is evident, that the more the water is thus foamed or carried out entrained by the steam current, the higher will the apparent evaporation be, though the less the real evaporation will be; because an amount of heat has been lost measurable by the difference between the temperatures of the feed-water and the steam, multiplied by the weight of water thus escaping. It is also evident, that the more rapid the generation of steam is, the greater will be the foaming with the same escape pipe; therefore, in a comparative trial thus conducted, the highest evaporator will appear pro monay higher than it really is. Every 5 engineer of extended observation is aware of the truth of the foregoing, and that the amount of solid wuter carried out of the escape pipe of a boiler, with ordinary proportions, when the fires are brisk and all the steam generated is being blown off, . from one-quarter to one-third of the amount of water in. The experienced engineer knows, also, that with the type and proportions of the boilers used in the foregoing experimen nothing like the evaporations stated can really be obtained, an that their amounts will suffer a very considerable reduction were the experiment correctly repeated. The only proper mode of conducting such experiments 18 by working off the steam through a cylinder, and taking, by an indicator, the pressure at the end f the stroke, then calculating the amount of water from the relative proportion between steam of that pressure and the water from which it was generated. This system, though not free from some slight objections, avoids more than any other, the many sources of error incidental to such experimental inquiries. It is owing to the mode adopted by experimenters on the com- parative steam-generating powers of different coals, of conducting the evaporation by blowing off the steam into the atmosphere through safety valves and escape pipes of ordinary proportions, which mode gives, as has y bean stated, erroneous results, making the evaporation appear too high; that both the compara- tive and absolute evaporative results obtained from various coals as given a e ag Johnson in this country, and by Playfair and De la Beche in England, not only cannot be depended on, but are notoriously contradicted by the every day's experience of steam boilers on a large scale, and under the ordinary conditions of practice. ———— Further Experimente made by D. B. Martin, Engineer-in-Chief, U.S. Navy, April 1854. As a consequence of the very high results presented in the printed pamphlets of Mr. Amory, and stated to have been 5 from es 5 5 c na therein, and which ave been received &bove, the Na e ent was urged b him to adopt the Baker arches" N marine as well 5 for land boilers, Mr. Amory asserting, not only the superior excellence of such an 1 but its equal applicability to all types and lengths of boiler. Still, as these experiments and statements were presented by an interested party, it was n before accepting or rejecting, to verify or disprove them by a really comparative experiment, made by a properly qualified government engineer of indisputable skill and integrity. Such an experiment was made at the Washington Navy Fara, under the the imme- diate direction of the ineer-in-Chief, D. B. Martin, and in the presence of Mr. Amory and a number of naval ineers. The results may be implicitly depended on as the truth, both as regards accuracy of observation, and skill in the conduct of the experimenta. e two pairs of boilers used in making these comparative experiments were precisely alike, such portions only of the brick setting being different as were required for the difference between the “Ordinary” and the “Baker” mode of setting. Both pairs of boilers belonged to the No. 2, stationary non-condensing engine of the Yard; one pair being for present use, while the other might be being cleaned or repaired. Both pairs of boilers delivered their heated gases into the same chimney, which is about 20 inches square. The pair of boilers having the “Ordinary Setting,” is repre- sented in fig. 1. Each boiler is a plain cylinder, 18 ft. 6 in. long and 30 inches diameter, without flues; the distance in the clear between the boilers is 3 inches. There is a bridge wall at each end of the boiler, the height between the bottom of the boiler and the bridge wall at ihe furnace end is 3 inches, and the calori- meter, or area of opening, is 250 square inches; at the chimney end, this height is 14-inch, and the area of opening 125 square inches. The atmospheric air for combustion is supplied beneath the grates through the ordinary ash-pit doors at this point, and the arrows indicate the direction of the draught. Fie. 1. The pair of boilers having the “Baker's Setting,” is repre- sented in fig. 2. Here there are three brick bridges, one at each end of the oilers and one equidistant between them; the T between these bridges are in an inverted parabolic curve, for the purpose of reverberating the heated gases, in the manner shown in the figure. The distance between the bottoms of the boilers and the bridge walls at the furnace end is 4 inches, at the chimney end 2 inches, and at the intermediate bridge 3 inches. e atmospheric air for combustion is supplied beneath the grates through an iron pipe 7 inches diameter, with an elbow communicating with the external air; the ash-pit doors in front are tightly closed up. At the bottom of each 8 curve, there is a circular opening (C, fig, 2), 12 inches diameter. for communicating with the lower closed chamber containing the iron pipes. e arrows indicate the direction of the draught. Fio. 2. In both pairs of boilers, there are exposed to the action of the heat 39 inches circumferentially of the bottom of each boiler, iving the total heating surface for each pair of boilers 117 square feet. The fire grates for each pair of boilers are 4 feet long by 5 feet broad, giving an area of 20 square feet, or a ratio of grate to heating surface of 1:00 to 5°85. Fio. 2. With the boilers set as above described, the sar spe expe- riments hereinafter detailed, were made. The “Baker mode of getting" was personally directed by Mr. Amory, and was made at the government expense, Mr. Amory being allowed to arrange it as he pleased, and itembraces all of what are termed the latest improvements; after it was finished, it was put in use with full coal fires for two days, which fully dried the brickwork, and then the trial commenced with the temperature of the water in the boilers 180? Fahr. The weather hout the trial with the *Baker's Setting" was fine, and favourable for high resulta. The other pair of boilers were set in the “Ordinary” manner, by Engineer-in-Chief, D. B. Martin, in the manner approved by — — — — —— THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL him, and shown in fig.1. For two days previously to com- mencing the trial, a small wood fire was kept on these boilers to warm up the water to the same temperature of 180° Fahr., but it was quite insufficient to dry the t mass of wet mortar and brickwork. During the three days’ trial with the “Ordinary Setting,” the weather was fine on the first day, on the second day cloudy in the morning and rainy in the 00 and on the third day a very hard rain-storm throughout. The coal used in these experiments was the Pennsylvania Lackawana anthracite, carefully weighed, very uniform and free burning, giving about 1°33 per centum of clinker, and 8°79 per centum of ashes. The duration of each day's experiment was the same, and nearly the same amount of fuel was fed to the furnaces at the same intervals. Every precaution was taken to mte the experiments strictly comparative, and as fair as possible. The steam pressures in the boiler and in the valve chest were 19 taken by the gauge; indicator di were taken every hour, and the steam pressure in the cylinder at the end of the stroke was obtained from them. The calculations of the evaporation were made from the steam pressure in the cylinder at the end of the stroke, taking the number of charges of steam of that pe furnished, considering a charge of steam to be the ulk comprised between the steam slide and the piston at the end of its stroke, and between the cut-off and the steam slide valves reduced to the bulk which would be occupied by an uivalent pressure. This aggregate bulk was 1 cubic foot, which was the quantity of steam used per single stroke of piston. In calculating the evaporation, 2 Ib. of wood are taken to be equivalent to 1 Ib. of coal. The diameter of the engine cylinder was 9} inches; the stroke of piston, 36 inches; space displacement of piston per stroke, 1:363 cubic foot; steam cut-off at in cylinder, 10 inches from commencement of stroke. The following Tables, numbered 1 and 2, exhibit, respectively, the data and results, viz:—~ TABLE I.— Data of the comparative iments with the Baker and Experi Ordinary modes of Setting Boilers, made at Washington, D. C. Navy Yard, April 1854. team pressure above ; the atmosphere, Fuel consumed. 4 in lbs. per sq. inch. 2 57. [E i 2 jel¢e | 4 3.123 8 ac 95835 Š 88138 [44]. 72 E :3| F 38 2 32 3 "4/58 3875 333 25 28 35277 a |f 38 23 3 e . 8 E $3 |3 i Hc we] B a — — d H d? — 2 é 48:05 | 5-73 | 803 | 440 798 138° 41:40 | 6°68 | 889 | 274 767 188° 48°20 | 6°48 | 867 | 274 760 188° 2559 | 988 2320 47°76 | 6:87 138? 48:50| 6°78 | 887 | 440 8853 138? 62:84 | 6°53 | 879 | 274 769 138? 49:41 | 5°97 | 8891| 274 7714 138° 26054) 988 23963 —— . —— | —e | oes | ee | Ee —2—ꝙ— 50:90 | 6°45 From the above tables it will be perceived that the “Baker's Setting” was 475 per centum economically better than the *Ordinary Setting," taking the latter as unity; but it is evident that when the more unfavourable state of the weather during the experiments with the “Ordinary Setting," and particularly the more moist condition of the brickwork, are considered, as well as the trifling errors inseparable from all experimental inquiries, it is impossible to conclude other than that the two modes of setting are eque efficient, and consequently, no advan- tages are to be derived from the Baker arches. e influence of the moist brickwork is very sensibly shown by comparing the results of the first with the second day’s trial, in the two cases. With the “Bakers Setting,” the brick- work being better dried at the commencement than with the “Ordinary Setting," the second day's trial gave 475 per centum better result than the first day's trial; while, with the *Ordinary Setting,” the second day's trial gave 14:00 per centum better results than the first day's trial. If the results from the first day's trial in both cases be omitted, and the comparison be made for the last two days only, it will be seen that the two modes of setting gave very nearly the same results, being expressed by 115026 for the Baker, and by 1713560 for the Ordinary; and this, in my opinion, is the proper com- parison to be received. The reader will not fail to observe the very great difference between the absolute evaporation obtained in these experiments, and in the experiments previously discussed, d roe by Mr. Amory. In the experiments of Mr. Martin, although the pro- TABLE II.—Results of the Comparative Experiments with the Baker and Ordinary modes of Setting Boilers, made at the Washington D. C. Navy Yard, April 1854. Absolute Evaporation. Economical and comparative evap'n. 2.5 6 Lbs. of water | Relative econo- PETER | gf Lue lul. 1 11 EN k | fe lan [ay [aa [aE ii ih 5b fing = 2 22. | 35. 35. 33. 35 1 ee s |E EF Hr 425 $22 | $23 | 155 8 SEE Be 3 LEE 153 433 ELI 64:8585 | 5053-6563 | 39635 | 5-11180 | 105978 | 1:10625 65-7126 | 4107-0875 | 40050 | 6-835468 | 1-07061 | 1-15880 64-1542 | 4009-6875 | 8-9987 | 621584 | 106812 | 114173 "195-6019 [12335-1187 4°0048 | 5:26945 | 1°07095 | 114035 63-2826 | 8952°0875 | 8°7890 | 462092 | 1°00000 | 1°00000 19138:27 | 64:8188 | 4050:8313 | 8°9870 | 526766 | 106683 | 118996 1243-48 | 64-5270 | 4082-9875 | 8°9288 | 5:22140 | 105076 | 1718125 192:8665 |12054°1568 1200°52 portion between the heating and te surface was more unfavourable to high evaporative resulta, than in the experiments offered by Mr. Amory, yet the combustion was exceeding slow, averaging only about 5˙1 lb. of fuel per square foot o e surface per hour, and the calorimeter small, and the coal excellent; hence, it will be seen that the results given in Mr. Amory's experiments cannot be the true evaporation by the fuel, but, must express, in addition to that evaporation, the amount of water entrained by the steam current up the escape pipe, and thrown out of the boiler in the solid state. In the Navy Yard experiments, an attempt was made to ascertain the temperature of the escaping gases of combustion as they passed over the last bridge wall, by means of a mercurial thermometer, graduated up to 540? Fahr. but the glass tube broke by the expansion of the mercury within, showing the tem- perature to have been far above the highest graduation limit. The Universal Exhibition of 1855.—The building specially in- tended for the fine arts in connection with the Exhibition, is making considerable progress. According to the Revue des Beaux Arts, it comprises seven galleries of large proportion, with a salon in the centre. 4* 20 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL PRESERVING WOOD. ANTOINE Epovarp PAScHAL Le Gros, Patentee. THESE improvements consist in preserving timber and all kinds of wood, by means of a cheap chemical compound which does not destroy the fibrous structure of wood or otherwise injure it. For this purpose the patentee employs a solution of muriate or hydro- chlorate of manganese, resulting from the manufacture of chlo- rides of lime, and of the bleaching liquid called ley, or water of javelle, or chloride of potash; which residue has no use at pre- sent, and is treated like waste by the manufacturers of those articles. This salt, containing a great proportion of acid, is neu- tralised, by admixture with a sufficient quantity of chalk, car- bonate of lime, or oxide of alumina. The salt thus reduced to a neutral state, gauges, by the aerometer used for concentrated acids, from 30? to 35°. and may therefore easily be carried to the place where it is to be applied as a solution containing three parts by weight of water to one of acid. The acid in the residue may also be neutralised, and the ferruginous matter in it preci- pitated, by means of oxide of zinc. A double salt of manganese and of zine is thus obtained, which has the same (or superior) preserving qualities as the double salt of manganese and of lime produced as above described. This double salt of manganese and zine ia very efficiently applied for absorbing the effluvia of putrid or putrescent matter. For preserving wood, the solution obtained in either of the two ways described is poured into a trough; and the immersion of the logs or pieces of wood is etfected by placing them vertically in the trough, in such manner that they are steeped in the liquid to about three quarters of their length. The wood is thus subjected to the action of the solution during a length of time varying from twelve to forty- eight hours. The solution rises in the fibres of the wood, and impregnates them by capillary force alone, without requiring any mechanical action; whilst a horizontal immersion, under the same circumstances, has been found to produce no satisfactory effect. The timber which has been thus prepared is rendered incombustible; and the changes of temperature have no influence upon it: its preservative effect is more lasting than that of metallic sulphates, which weaken the ligneous fibre, and impart to wood brittleness and a tendency to crack and warp under the action of heat. It will be easy, and, in some cases, convenient, to combine the good effects of creosote with those of either of the two solutions obtained as above described. For this purpose a variable quantity of some tarry or resinous oil is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid; and this solution is then diluted with water, and mixed in suitable quantities with the solution of muriate of manganese, when required. Claim.—Preserving all kinds of wood or timber, or organic matter, by means of a solution of a double salt of manganese and of lime, or of a double salt of manganese and of zinc, used both either alone or with an admixture of creosote, obtained in the manner above described. — — MANUFACTURE OF SEWAGE MANURE. Tuomas WicksTEED, Patentee. In carrying out this invention the patentee precipitates the fertilising matter from sewage water by mixing it with lime and tinely-divided charcoal, in the following manner :—The charcoal is reduced to fine powder, and thoroughly mixed with lime water, so as to obtain a uniform cream or milk of lime and charcoal. This mixture is added to the sewage water by causing a stream of the mixture to flow into a stream of the sewage water by means of two pumps,—one of which pumps in the aforesaid mixture, while the other pumps the sewage water. The pumps work together, and are of such proportions that they may deliver the proper relative proportions of each liquid. The proportions may be varied according to the richness of the sewage water, and the strength of the mixture of lime and charcoal. It is conve- nient to make the lime and charcoal pump of about one thirty- fifth of the capacity of the sewage water pump, and to provide it with an adjustable lever, so that the proportion of liquid raised by it may be varied. The proportion of the lime and charcoal may also be varied by varying the strength of the mixture, which is kept in constant motion, by means «(f an agitator, to prevent the separation of the lime and charcoal from it, and to preserve its uniformity. When the sewage water is not raised by a pump, the lime and charcoal mixture may be allowed to flow into it through a valve or cock, properly adjusted so as to deliver the necessary quantity. The united stream of sewage water and lime and charcoal mixture is conducted through a cistern or cisterns containing an agitator or agitators, by which the whole is thoroughly mixed together, and it then passes into reservoirs in which a precipitate soon subsides to the bottom. This precipitate is the sewage manure, which is collected and dried by exposure to the air with or without the aid of heat, or by means of centrifugal machinery, as described in the specification of letters patent granted to the present patentee, 24th February, 1851. The charcoal above mentioned may be ordinary wood charcoal or charcoal made from peat, tan, or bones, or lamp-black, or the refuse charcoal obtained in the manufacture of prussiate of pot- ash or other description of carbonised matter. It must, in all cases, be reduced to fine powder, and thoroughly mixed with the water. The lime and charcoal may be separately mixed with water, and introduced by separate pumps, but it 1s preferred to mix them together, and to employ the same pump for intro- ducing them. By proceeding in the manner before described, the charcoal and the lime are thoroughly mixed with the sewage water; whereas, if powdered charcoal were simply scattered upon the sewage water in the reservoir, the mixture would be very imperfect and unequal. : Claim.—The mixing lime and charcoal with sewage water, in manner hereinbefore described, in and for the manufacture of sewage manure. ——_— SELF-RAKING AUTOMATON REAPER AND MOWER. JEURUM ATKINS, Chicago, Illinois, Inventor. The Committee of the Franklin Institute, U.S., Report: That they have carefully examined its structure, and have also made trial of it in actual use in grain and grass, in à manner adapted to test its capability of doing its work in verv unfavour- able circumstances: the field on which it was tried being very uneven, and the rye that was cut much beaten down and en- tangled. In the general form and arrangement of its cutting apparatus, this machine does not differ materially from many others in common use; and, therefore, requires no description or remark with regard to these parts. Its peculiarity consists in an apparatus, termed * Self-Raking," which by an ingenious ar rangement that cannot well be explained intelligibly, without the aid of a working model, causes a rake armed with a few long fingers to sweep at regular intervals across the receiving plat- form, from which it gathers the cut grain aud deposits it in bundles ready for binding on the stubble in the rear of the machine, out of the track of the horses when they come round on the next swarth. The combination used to produce these results, appears to be assimpleas the complex movements required will permit; being composed essentially of a few jointed levers which receive their motion from a pivot inserted in the disc of a re- volving wheel These peculiar motions bear a striking resemb- lance to those of the human arm at the shoulder and elbow joints, in the act of being placed a-kimbo: now, by supposing a undle of straws to have been gathered by a scraping motion of the hand, and held by compression between the fingers and the hip, while the person turns on one heel quarter round; then dropping the bundle by extending his arm to an angle of about 40? with his erect body; and while his arm is thus extended, turning on his heel back to his original posture, there to recom- mence these manceuvres, a pretty correct notion of the move- ments of this curious apparatus may be obtained. The intention of the contrivance i8 to save the labour of a man who must be employed on other reaping machines to throw the cut grain off the platform on which it falls as fast as it is cut; and also to diminish the labour of the binders, who must usually follow with rakes to gather the grain into bundles for binding. The trials made 55 the committee show that it can perform completely the duty of the first mentioned operator, and also reduces the labours of the others. In conclusion, as it is believed that this combination is new both in its form and application, it is deemed to be a proper object for the Scott's Legacy Premium, an award of which is accordingly recommended. — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. METROPOLITAN BRIDGES. Analysis of Evidence given before the Select Committee. Evans, JEREMIAH—The immediate opening of Southwark- bridge is required to relieve the traffic over London-bridge. It is expedient to defray the purchase of the bridge from the coal- tax. BRUNEL, Isa ARD Kinapom.— The Thames Tunnel might readily be adapted to heavy traffic; 100,000/. to 150,000/. would have to be laid out in the approaches. The traffic over London- bridge would be relieved by rendering the tunnel available for heavy traffic. Altering the tunnel for the use of heavy traffic would materialy improve the revenue. For the government to buy the metropolitan bridges, and throw them open, is objection- able as an interference in legitimate speculation. The frequent interference of government boards in projected schemes has much checked that commercial enterprise which would have placed half-a-dozen other bridges across the Thames ere this. Believes that if the building bridges for the metropolis was left to an unfettered enterprise, their amount would be soon supplied, and that they would pay when erected. Bridges could be now built at a sufficiently economical outlay to pay the projectors. Circum- stances affecting the present cost of building bridges, the expense is much less than formerly. The low height of tlie new Westmin- ster-bridge is an instance of the latitude government allows to itself, but denies to private individuals. Mr. Bennoch’s plan for a bridge is a good one, but it will require the neighbourhood at the Surrey end to be altered. PLxws, Jons, C.E. — The throwing open the toll-paying bridges would sufficiently relieve the present pressure of traffic. Southwark-bridge ought to be the first thrown open. Being asked his opinion as to the condition of the structure in respect of solidity, witness said—I have taken some interest in the bridge in consequence of the active part which I took while I was with Messrs. Jolliffe and Banks at the time of its construction; I have watched it very carefully, and have seen no symptoms of its failing in any way since it was opened in 1817, neither do I expect that anything of the sort will take place. I know there is an impres- sion abroad amongst civil engineers, that after the taking down of Old London-bridge the washing away of the bed of the river would affect all the bridges; but I am quite satisfied that any engineer who makes himself acquainted with the nature of the foundations of Waterloo, Southwark, and London bridges will at once be satisfied that it does not, because they are so deeply imbedded in the river, and are built in such a way, that, at all events, no natural cause can affect them in any way, The foun- dations of Waterloo-bridge are built upon piles 22 feet long; they are driven into the solid bed of the river; upon the heads of these piles there are longitudinal and transverse sleepers, and between them masses of solid masonry; half-timber planking is spiked upon them, upon which the masonry is built, 8 feet below the bed of the river at the time the bridge was built; so that no washing away can by any Tos affect the foundations of any of the three bridges. ith respect to the alteration in the bed of the river, witness said:— Immediately after the pulling down of Old London-bridge, soundings were taken at the two arches of Waterloo-bridge through which the great scour takes place. They were taken from a datum fixed for the purpose of ascertaining whether any material alteration took place in the bed of the river; and the company's surveyor has very carefully examined them twice a year, and, with the exception of a slight washing through the second arch, which is caused by the steamers pasing there at low water, there is no variation of any conse- quence; I am speaking of the substantial part of the bed of the river. One alteration has taken place: after London-bridge was pulled down, a dips number of steam-boats came up, and the rippling caused by their paddle-wheels has washed away all the mud from the embankments at the edges of tlie river; for instance, I have known places myself where à man would have sunk up to his waist in mud, where you now find nothing but shingle and gravel. I believe that is the only alteration of any consequence that has taken place, at all events in the vicinity of Waterloo- bridge. I have come to the conclusion that the bed of the river is still about 8 feet above the planking. The only variation would be at the second arch, where the steam-boats come through; and I believe that there is a little alteration there, but nothing that affects the stability of the bridge. I may state, that as there has been so much said about the washing away of the bed of the 21 river, the company have been extremely careful, and I suppose that in the last ten years they have deposited a dozen barge loads of ragstone where the bed of the river has been washed away by the steam-boats, and I believe that it is in a better state than ever in the neighbourhood of the bridge. The proper site for a new bridge in the city is between Blackfriars and South wark-bridges. It would be a waste of money to build any new bridge at the west end of London. PacE, TRoMas, C.E.—The traffic of London requires other bridges to be built. The two points where bridges would be most essential for relieving the traffic of the west-end of London are Charing-cross and the Horseferry; and with regard to the City, it would be a question of expense, whether it would be better to build a new bridge (as proposed by Mr. Bennoch) near St. Paul's, or to purchase Southwark-bridge, and make better approaches to Blackfriars-bridge and Southwark-bridge from the west-end of Cheapside. If Southwark-bridge were in the hands of the Corporation of London, they would soon improve it by altering the gradient in Thames-street, and on the Surrey side it could easily be improved in its gradient; at any rate, they could give Southwark-bridge as good a gradient as Blackfriars. In consideration of the increasing importance of Westminster, Westminster itself would be entitled to a bridge on the present site, and the increasing population of London now requires a bridge at the Horseferry; and with regard to the bridge at Charing-cross, that is certainly a metropolitan requirement, for the great line of traffic between Charing-cross and the Elephant and Castle on the Surrey side would be materially altered and improved by a bridge in that locality. The Suspension-bridge might be made into a carriage-bridge. It was a radical mistake of the promoters in the first instance to confine it to a foot-bridge. Witness surveyed a line for a bridge on Mr. M‘Clean’s plan near to the Houses of Parliament, and communicated with Sir Charles Barry upon it, but he objected to the bridge coming so near to the Victoria Tower. Mr. M‘Clean’s plan would be objectionable architecturally, as being a skew bridge over the river. Has a plan of his own, which was made for Her Majesty's Commis- sioners for Metropolitan Improvements, with bridges at Charing- cross and the Horseferry-road. The idea for a bridge near the Victoria Tower was on a basis of Westminster-bridge being dis- pensed with. The plan laid down here for the bridge at Charing- cross is taken from the parliamentary plan for a bridge which the government proposed in 1844. The bridge at Charing-cross, as laid down in the plan, would have an approach from Charing- eross, of which approach the Nelson column would have formed the centre. If the bridge were connected by one approach with Whitehall-place, and another for heavy traffic at Scotland-yard (which could be easily obtained by removing one or two houses), then the line of the great approach to the Nelson column might remain open for future execution. The distance from Westmin- ster-bridge to the bridge at the Horseferry would be 2300 feet, and from Westminster-bridge to the proposed bridge at Charing Cross 1700 feet. At the time he estimated the cost for Charing-cross-bridge at 150,000/., exclusive of the purchase of pro- perty for the approaches; also estimated the cost of the bridge at the Horseferry at 100,0007. The 5 on both sides are not expensive. The approach to the Horseferry could be made at right angles with the bridge, so as not to interfere with the pro- erty in the neighbourhood, and there are very great facilities for coming into the Lambeth-road on the other side. At Charing- cross the approaches would not be very expensive. The approach from Whitehall-place would deteriorate the value of two or three houses at the river end, but would entail no further cost; and the approach from Scotland yard would only require three houses to be removed. The road would run on the south-west side of Northumberland House. The gradient of the new Westminster- bridge he proposed should be 1 in 54. The erection of new bridges at Horseferry and the City is to be preferred to buying Vauxhall and Southwark bridges. Is in favour of a bridge from St. Paul's. It should be on such a scale, and of such a style of architecture, and with such approaches, as to be worthy of the situation, opening as it would, into the cathedral. Such a bridge should be equal to London-bridge in point of appearanee. If it were desidod to build but one bridge, Charing-cross would be the best site. The state of London-bridge will be considerably improved when the alteration which has been suggested by Mr. Buuniug shall be carried into effect. Laying out the bridge by a system of trams, so as to keep the heavy traſfie on one line and the light traſtie on another would much relieve London-bridge, as 22 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. much, perhaps, as the widening of it. Witness proposes an iron suspension-bridge at Irongate-staira, below the Tower, 70 feet above high water, so as not to interfere with the navigation of the Pool; vessels would be enabled to pass under by ee har top-masts. The approaches on the Middlesex side would made to Tower-hill; the street now leading to St. Katherine’s Docks would be left open, and the bridge road carried over it. On the Surrey side, in consequence of the lower level of the ground, the approaches would have to be elongated. The width of the Thames here is 840 feet. This bridge, 50 feet wide, with its approaches, would cost 450,000/., not including any pur- chase of property. The span of the largest opening ould be 850 feet, being 125 feet more than the Charing. cross-bridge. The Thames Tunnel is about 5000 feet below this proposed site. There would be no difficulty in getting foundations for the bridge. The banks of the river are only a few feet above the level of high water, but np foundations can be obtained by piling, and the bridge can be constructed without encumbering the river at all. The pavo of the AP is 1 in 40. The distance from the edge of the river to the point where the surface of the ground is ed on the Surrey side is 2400 feet. Proposes to divide the Surrey approach into two roads; viz. the direct road to ita intersection with the Greenwich Railway, and two roads branch- ing off from it tothe east and west. The roads would pass under the South-Eastern Railway, but a direct road could be carried over it. The bridge would form a direct communication between the South-Eastern and North-Eastern Railways, as its Middlesex approach is close to the Blackwall Railway at the Minories. ere would be no engineering difficulty in raising the bridge 100 feet, but thinks that, considering the navigation as it now exists, if a metropolitan bridge be provided for it, the Admiralty would not insist upon an elevation which would be a serious objection to the land traffic, and would consequently be injurious to the public. Few, Rosert, Chairman of the Charing-cross Bridge Company — The annual traffic is 3,121,980 passengers. The company con- template entirely changing the nature of the present structure. The original project was never fully carried out; it was to make a line of communication from Hungerford-market to the York- road, but, from want of means, it stopped short at the Belvidere- road. The directors are prepared to bring a railway over the bridge whenever they have a suitable offer. SALOMANS, Mr. Alderman—The remedy for the inconvenience arising from the excessive amount of tratfic over London-bridge is, to distribute the traffic more generally. A diversion of the traffic passing on the northern side of the river should be made to the Surrey side. All the toll-paying bridges ought to be thrown open. The purchase money of the bridges should be raised by achegue bidik, ted on the security of a rate to be created, and by a contribution from the corporation. It is difti- cult to say where a line defining the limit within which such a rate ought tobe raised, should be drawn; many persons think that the metropolis is so necessary to the whole country, that everybody should contribute towards any great metropolitan improvement. Witness does not think so; it would be a disgrace to London that the neighbouring towns should be called in to aid it. Good streets and good bridges are obviously necessary to the convenience of London, and the metropolis ought to be liable for the expense of their construction. The money should be raised as it usually is in counties. A penny rate for a limited number of years ought to be sufficient for the purpose. The magistrates of surrounding counties have authority in all the metropolitan distriets; does not see why they should not make a rate, under the authority of parliament, applicable to their particular district. If that were done, there would be no difficulty in raising capital i the purchase of Southwark-bridge at a fair and reasonable value. Pym, J.—Delivered in a copy of his scheme, called a Super-way, for relieving the traffic of the metropolis, and is as follows: METROPOLITAN SUPER-WAY. The street traffic of the metropolis having outgrown the width and number of the thoroughfares, and it being evident that the new streets now in course of formation in the City will prove insufficient to meet the increasing traffic, I take leave to submit to your committee a plan that would at once relieve the City and its immediate environs of the obstruc- tions to which they are at present subjected, and prevent their recurrence in future, and in other respects be a great boon to the public. ‘I beg to state that the plan is not one now for the first time sug- gested, as in 1851 I submitted a similar one to Mr. Chaplin and the directors of the South-Western Railway, for the conveyance of their passengers from Waterloo Station to Cannon-street, in the City; but for reasons never stated it was not entertained. ' The following is a rough outline of the plan, which I designate a Super-way:— i ‘1. That a tubular way, similar to the Britannia-bridge on the Chester and Holyhead line, should be carried on columns of masonry from the South-Eastern Railway Station at London-bridge across the Thames, to the stations of the Blackwall and Eastern Counties Railways. „Then a similar line westward from the Blackwall Station to St. Paul's, and on to Charing-cross. Next a line west from Bishopsgate- street, near the Eastern Counties Station to Holborn-bridge, up Holborn to Tottenham-court-road. A third line from the London-bridge Station westward, to the Waterloo-station, on to Westminster, with one or more additional cross lines to unite the east and west lines at several pointe, say between Blackfriars and Waterloo bridges to Holborn, and another from Westminster to Charing-cross, thence to the junction of Oxford-street and Tottenham-court-road, with branch lines to the Elephant and Castle, to Whitechapel Church, to Shoreditch Church, to the Angel, Islington, to King’s-cross, to Euston-square, to Lambeth, and to such other points in the principal thoroughfares as may be found desirable. ** 9. That this tubular way should be carried on columns of masonry, sufficiently high to pass over the tops of the houses or other buildin along the line, without injury to the property beneath, except the space required for the columns; the lines to be in the rear of the prin- cipal streets. ** 3. 'That the tube should be wide enough for & double line of railway, and the carriages or trains to be of light construction, and propelled by a stationary engine or magnetic power. ** 4, That stations be established at all the principal cross streets, and at the termini and junctions of the super-way. ** 5. That to save the passengers the inconvenience of ascending to and descending from the superway, they should be raised and lowered in chambers by the aid of machinery. * 6. That & train of carriages should be passing up and down the lines without intermission, or, at the furthest, every five minutes. * 7. That the lines should be open from six in the morning until ten at night. ug That there should be first and second class carriages, fares 3d. and ld., for all distances. „By a careful selection of the lines, none of the present thorough- fares or public buildings need be interfered with. The length of each tube, from column to column, would vary with circumstances from 200 feet to 300 feet, making about twenty columns per mile. The latter length of tube, with two columns, would take it across the Thames; one length would cross the widest thoroughfare without interfering with the houses on either side of a street. ‘ Instead of raising the tubes after being made, as was done in the erection of the Britannia-bridge, they may be built from column to column as the line progressed; this would greatly lessen the time and labour required in the construction of the line. The tube would be lighted by ornamental windows on each side, and by gas by night, and warmed and ventilated according to the season of the year. e would be conveyed to or from London - bridge to Oxford - street, or along any other part of the line, in one-third of the time at present occupied. Some of the advantages of this undertaking would be as follows: ** ]. That the thoroughfares from Charing-cross and Oxford-street to the Bank, Cornhill, Fenchurch-street, and London-bridge would be cleared of full three-fourths of the present number of omnibuses and cabs, and one-third of its foot- passengers. ** 2, That the public would have a sheltered and speedy conveyance, without interruption by fog or snow, from one point of the most crowded part of the metropolis to an other, at a charge of 1d. ** 3, That by using the stations of the super-way as receiving- houses, or sub-post offices, the efficiency of the General Post-office would be greatly extended. *' 4, That by uniting, in such a manner as here proposed, the metro- politan termini of all the railways, the network of our railway system would be complete; as every line of railway would be accessible from any point of the metropolis to which the super-way extended, and every resident within its limits would have aa it were a station for all the rail- ways at hia own door; and this great advantage would be secured without the nuisance of having a central station in or near the City as contem- plated. None of the projected railways would give facilities for reaching the Crystal Palace equal to the super-way. Should it be necessary to buy the land and property along the whole line, it may be immediately resold at near its cost, as the super-way would not deteriorate the pro- perty, but give additional value to all the property within its limits. „The columns would average about 65 feet in height. The tube would not be required to be half the weight of the Britannia-bridge tubing, as the trains need not be more than one-tenth of the weight of & railway passenger-train, as the ponderous locomotive and tender would be dispensed with. „The length of the three east and west lines, and three cross lines, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. would be about eight and a half miles, which would involve an outlay (including the purchase of land) of about 5,000,000/.; but as much of the land purchased would resell for as much as it cost, the ultimate cost of the und ing would not exceed 4, 250, 000l. “This extent of super-way would produce a revenue of 10,0000. per week, or 520,0007. per annum. “The wear and tear and working cost of such a line would not exceed 20 per cent. on the returns, which would leave a dividend of about 10 per cent. per annum on an outlay of 4, 250, 000l. “ Believing that no argument is required to show the necessity of providing some remedy for the evils that arise from our over-crowd streets, I have refrained from doing more than simply describe a plan, and give an approximate estimate of the cost of carrying it out; confident that the whole work may be executed for less than the sum named, and within three years of its commencement. Rough Estimate for Metropolitan Super-way per Mile. 20 Columns or piers of brickwork, each 1040 cubi yards, at per yard 25s. ... aos 928 .. £26,000 20 Tubes, 156 feet in circumference, to 4 inch iron, say 600 tons (all included) at 30. 2s 360,000 Land for basement of columns, say for each 20002. 40,000 Consideration to be paid to owners and occupiers for houses and property passed over, say 200 houses at 2501. ea Ae ves kit de xis 50,000 Legal and preliminary expenses 24,000 Per mile ... £500,000 8] Miles, at 500,000}. per mile ... £4,250,000 Passenger Trafic of the Metropolis. The steam-boata above bridge carry 11,000,000 passen- rs annually, about 5 . Per day 32,000 The North London Railway. „ 13,000 The Blackwall Railway. » 10,000 The Greenwich Railway ... TA ise "D 6,000 The omnibuses carry... .. .. .. „, 110,000 The cabs carry eee eee TTE ove eee 39 80,000 Private vehicles (no return), estimated at 1 say 5,000 Pedestrians who pass over the area of the proposed super-way, estimated at is ^ ...per day 250,000 Passengers arriving at and departing from the London termini of the great trunk lines of railway, esti- mated at... ies e — Ste ... per day 50,000 Total per day . . 506,000 Estimated Return of Metropolitan Super- way. One-half of the above, say 50,000 passengers daily, at 3d. £625 Ditto 200,000 passengers „„ ld. 833 Would yield per day £1458 Or 10, 206“. per week. * Jonx Pru." Trrg, WiLLIAM—There is a great want of free bridges in the metropolis. The sites witness would recommend for additional bridges are at St. Paul's, Essex-street, and the Horseferry; a bridge from Charing-cross would be a t convenience. It is expedient to erect a bridge at St. Paul’s; just at this point the traffic turns one way to get to London-bridge, and the other way to get to Blackfriars-bridge. It is advisable to purchase and throw open Charing-cross Suspension-bridge. It would be better towiden and improve the Lower-marsh and New-cut, than go to the expense of adopting Mr. Pennethorne's plan for & new street from Westminster-bridge to Blackfriars. made an estimate of the cost of the improvements he suggests. Believes the bridge opposite Old Change might be built for about 200,0002., without the approaches; the bridge opposite Essex-street, which he pro- to be a suspension-bridge, might be built for 150,000/; the ridge opposite the Horseferry-road would cost about 170,000/. This last would be a bridge of seven spans, of 130 feet each, upon the same principle as the bridge at the Old Change, with arches of stone. A 7 75 increase didis 5 the most referable wa raising or extending the bridge accom- mipdation. The toll on Southwark-bridge is the dress of the limited use made of it; the approaches are perhaps open to improvement. The widening of London-bridge would interfere with the architectural propriety of the bridge; whether that is made to yield to the utility of the scheme, may be a fair question. Considering the massive character of the bri the present parapet is suitable to it; but supposing that to be taken away, and the footpath supported on brackets or cantilevers, the light 23 parapet that must be substituted would have an unfortunate effect in an architectural point of view. Witness is strongly in favour of the opening of Southwark-bridge, as the most efficacious remedy for the existing inconvenience. The plan of dividing the mp proposed by the North Kent Railway Company is in suc- operation at Dresden. The bridge at Dresden was built expressly upon the condition that half should be used for the way and half for the ordinary purposes of the city. Witness can speak from his own experience of that bridge; he in a carriage, and everything seemed to be so arranged, that although the railway trains were passing constantly with the i e saw no frightening of horses or anything of the sort; the bridge has been finished about five years. At London-bridge the carriages are standing there constantly when the engines are coming to the station. The pace at St. Paul’s would be required, even supposing Southwark-bridge to be thrown open. Black. friars-bridge is entirely ery wes by the scaffolding; supposes it would fall into the river if the centres were removed. Presumes the centres were placed upon additional piles; the piles obstruct the navigation of the river. The change which has taken place in the bed of the river is still going on, and thinks that it has not been looked upon in a view wide enough. The pulling down of Westminster-bridge, which is to be rebuilt, will affect the matter. A bridge is about to be built with five arches instead of one; then no doubt the water will flow upwards with greater violence. The French have had a case of this kind at Tours, where they have met the difficulty to a very t extent, and their plan would apply, so far as he knows, to this river. There the river was changing very much indeed, and the bridge became dangerous; but they have maintained the bed of the river by putting a dam across it, so as to maintain the bottom or floor of the river at that point at one uniform level Does not mention this as a suggestion of his own; but a gentleman of the name of Burnell presented a memorial upon this subject to the City authorities, which witness thought of sufficient importance to advocate so far as he could. In it he shows what has been done at Tours; and he believes that if what he suggests had been done (and witness is much of his opinion), it would have allowed of the repair of the bridges, and kept the bed of the river in its resent state. He would be pre to explain the matter Bimself better than witness could do it; but in the meantime witness might say that he would maintain the bed of the river by putting a dam across it, as was done by the French ita ata the upper level thereby remaining unchanged. Great decrease has been occasioned in the depth of the Thames below London- bridge by the removal of Old London-bridge. With regard to the navigation below the bridge, it is quite independent of the uantity of water which is poured out. Witness explained to the committee that he knew a great deal of the wharves between London-bridge and the Tower; his experience had led him to consider a t deal of the scouring power on the Fresh Wharf (Adelaide Wharf, London-bridge, which is the name by which it is better known); knows that, at the time when he built that great wharf there, there was about 16 feet of water in the ordi- tide, and knows that there is now not more than 12 feet. Cannot tell what it is at spring tides; but knows this, that at those wharves where a amount of water is required at all times of the tide, in order to enable the great steamers which come up the river to swing round, they cannot maintain it without a constant system of dredging; that was not the case at the time when the Old London-bridge was in existence. Old London-bridge had the effect of keeping in suspension a large quantity of water that would otherwise act as a scouring power to that particular portion of the river. There was a fall at Old London-bridge, which witness had seen, amounting to as much as 6 feet. Does not think that that will account for the facts stated, because at the corner the line of the wharf is at the land pier of the bridge. There has been a diminution of water to the extent of 4 feet below the high-water mark at London- bridge since the building of the new structure; cannot account for it, but knows the fact. It was expected before, at the time of the old bridge, that it was ible that the tide would operate with great force upon the of the river; but that does not account for the oe at this place. Remembers Mr. Telford’s report about it, which he made at the time, and knows that he suggested that the tide would flow higher and ebb out quicker than it had done before; but witness does not think there was any supposition at the time that the bed of the river would be changed so as to lay bare the foundations of the bridge. 24 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Guy, Jonx.—Lives on the border of Bushey Park, at Hampton and the letting is advertised; they are let by tender. The pre- Wick. Very exorbitant tolls are levied at Hampton Court sent amount of interest payable is about 12007. The coal tax bridge. The bridge was sold about twenty-five years ago to the would be the most desirable source from which to derive the present proprietor for 70004. Believes the Crown has never made purchase money for the toll-paying bridges. The coal tax is so an offer to purchase the bridge. The only title that the holders imperceptibly levied and so small in amount, that it is the least of the bridge have toa toll at all is by the Act 23 Geo. IIL, objectionable manner of raising money, It is estimated that which empowers the Crown to redeem the bridge twenty-six years about two-thirds of the whole amount of the toll collected at the after its erection. The holders of the bridge have, therefore, bridge is levied upon the foot-passengers; if we reckon the tolls at the present time is estimated at 15007. Per annum. The course a benetit is derived by the lessee, which we may reckon at bridge is considered to be in a very unsound state. Kingston 400“. or 500“. a year; thus taking the toll at 2400“. a year, it bridge is in substantial condition; the toll collected is about ‘would follow that upwards of 800,000 persons are sto ped, and 20004. A free bridge existed before the erection of the present toll is demanded from them every year; 70004. would be about toll-bridge. A penny rate on the counties of Surrey and Middle- the price which Government would have to pay for the purchase no division but the river; one is a smal] town, and the other is a ÁNDREWs, GEORGE Wu.—His knowledge extends to Moulsey- large corporate town, upon which the other must be dependent; bridge. Thinks a tax of twopence in the pound for purchasing but by means of this toll the inhabitants are effectually severed. the bridge would not generally be thought too great. When wit- If a person in Kingston wants to take a walk, instead of takin ness's wagons pass over the bridge some people run away, i ily i i i 1 because they are almost sure that the bridge will come down. if a poor man wants to get his loaf of bread, he is confined to the They are not accustomed to the vibration which is caused by a particular side of the water where he is. There are numerous heavy wagon, and they imagine there ig danger because it is go instances in the village of Hampton Wick in which poor men great. live there, and work in Kingston, and they actually devise Hang, Evan, solicitor of Putney parish.— There 18 no engi- Schemes to avoid the toll. A man will come up to the toll-gate neer connected with the bridge. The inhabitants of Putney are for his dinner, and a boy will come from his house and bring the desirous for the removal of the toll; they have held a meeting, and dinner, and pass it through the bars; all these, and many other come to a resolution that the most equitable way of raising similar devices are adopted. Witness cannot conceive anything money for the redemption of the bridges would be bya county more injurious to a locality than a tol] placed in such a position, rate and not the coal tax, with an exception, however, as to the particularly on foot passengers; for although tolls are deemed latter tax. The market price of the bridge is about 70,0000. not take tolls upon foot passengers at a turnpike. The corpora- injury both to that town and Egham; there is a general desire tion of Kingston have the management of the bridge in some on the part of the inhabitants for its abolition. They would not shape; they are either trustees or commissioners, and they have object to & tax over an area of twenty miles around the Post- a fund sutticient to maintain the bridge of Kingston in repair for ottice for opening all the bridges. The capital of the bridge is ever. Kingston is greatly increasing; a good deal of building is 4000“. Believes the money is raised upon the tolls at 47 per cent. going on in the neighbourhood; and so has Moulsey, from the They pay now little more than one percent. They paid a little fact that the station at Hampton Court has come down to the more last year, in consequence of the resort to the camp at foot of Hampton Court Bridge. The trattic at Hampton Court Chobham. “The cost of the bridge was 85002, and the tolls at has more than doubled within the last few years, and will con- one time were 40007. a year. The tolls are now, however, con- tinue to increase. If the rate were applied to the relief of any siderably less. A Mr. Levy has taken possession of it under one bridge, of course the immediate locality would submit to it; his mortgage; he holds it ag a mortgagee, and makes a small but if it were a general rate it should be either a county rate, or dividend from it. There is very little expense in keeping à rate upon a certain circumference. The continuation of the in repair. coal tax would be less objectionable than a rate specially im- SELFE, HENRY.— The principal grievance in connection with posed for the purpose; although the coal tax js very objection- Kingston-bridge, is the continuance of the toll over a longer period able, yet inasmuch ag it is an existing tax, and inasmuch as the than was stated at its commencement, The toll is fixed by the public would feel that it would be discontinued as soon as the Act of Parliament. i i AsHBr, THOMAS.—The general feeling around Staines is, that applied to a very beneficial purpose in the meantime, they would the coal tax should be continued. There is no toll on foot-pas- prefer the continuance of that tax to the creation of a new tax, sengers. The bridge has been rebuilt twice within witnessos'a particularly as that tax was applied also, to a certain extent, to recollection. the erection of London-bridge. At all events, witness is of ASHBY, FREDERICK.—Ip allusion to the injury that the bridge opinion, that Supposing a tax were laid upon the area of twenty toll causes to the town of Staines, witness states that it keeps miles around London, which is the area within which the coal out a good connection in the neighbourhood of Englefield-green, tax is now collected, for the purpose of paying off the debt, or more partieularly, and Egham; and the shopkeepers feel this setting free the bridges between London-bridge and the highest extremely. Rather than pay the toll of sixpence, the people of bridge in the distriet, that would be satisfactory to every one; this district go to Chertsey, several miles out of their way, and twenty-five miles would Just reach Windsor, The area of twenty the town feels jt very much indeed. Ag regards the locality, miles extends into Hertfordshire. That plan would give Middle. generally speaking, the toll has been very injurious, sex and Surrey rather an advantage ag compared with a rate WILsoy, Evwarp.—Resides at Walton. Walton-bridge is & levied upon the counties. Twenty-five miles round London ig very old bridge; the toll on this bridge is felt to be & great much about the cireuinference within which the inhabitants grievance; it almost shuts otf the Middlesex side of the river would be benefited by a relief from toll. from the Surrey side; it is midway between Sunbury and Shep- GOULD, FREDERICK, Mayor of Kingston.—The corporation are perton, and is the nearest comunication from a very great part the commissioners of Kingston-bridge. The original cost was of Surrey to what used to be the Great Western Road, by Bed ont, 40,0002. for the bridge, and 8000“. for the approaches, and the and also to Uxbridee, and all that part of Middlesex. The bridge necessary amount was borrowed of the Exchequer Loan Commis- itself forms a very steep acclivitv, and the toll-house is situated sioners at 3} per cent. The interest is paid off by the receipts immediately at the foot of this steep acclivity on the Middlesex of the bridge, and there is a surplus which goes annually to the side, and is certainly very dangerous, The bridge is not in a liquidation of the Principal; about 8007. a year is thus paid off. good state of repair; the present one answers its purpose very We pay 12000. a year for interest, and about 8007, for reduction of well; cannot say whether a new bridge would be desirable or the principal, so that in the twenty-six years that the bridge has not. There used formerly to bea ferry at site of bridge, and »en built we have paid off about 13,0004. Would state that Julius Cæsar crossed the river Thames Just above the site, ata we rate the rent of the bridge at 20002, or 22002. At the present place which is called the «“ Coway Meadows; and a short time moment it is 2000“. The tolls are annually put for up contract, ago there was one of the remaining stakes with which the river THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL was staked in order to oppose his progress. At present there is very little traffi The inhabitants avoid the toll in going to Middlesex by going through Weybridge and over Chertse - bridge, which is a free bridge, which is nearly two miles out of the way. The revenue is about 300/. a year. e inhabitants of Walton are favourable to a tax, such as the coal-tax, for removi the tolls from all the bridges. There is just now a great deman for houses in the sae vipini of Walton and Weybridge, and it would be desirable to get rid of the tolls. The whole of Oatlands-park, which 5 belonged to the Duke of York, is dune built upon, and thus Weybridge is now thrown open to this bridge; but formerly the communication was not so di on account of the park gates often being shut. The whole of the buildings will be rated; the facility, and the railway, has now made it more important that this bridge should be thrown open. The inhabitants consider that having paid their quota to the coal tax for so long a period, without deriving any other advantage from it than that which everybody within the area of twenty miles derives from the improvements which have been made in London and the West End, they ought now to have some little advantage from that tax in the removal of the obstructions which press individually upon themselves. Jackson, Francis—Is of opinion that the inhabitants of Hampton Court district would be willing to contribute their uota of taxation towards opening all the metropolitan 9 555 e toll is hurtful to the property in the neighbourhood. For instance, Hampton Court- palace is on one side of the bridge and the railway terminus is on the other, and the parties residing in 1 Court-palace and the owners of property there have to y the toll daily in going backwards and forwards to London. ere is another vory great inconvenience arising from the toll: of course, Hampton Court-palace is a large place, and the Mid- dlesex side of the river is also very populous, much more so than the Surrey side. At Hampton Court there are innumerable workmen employed, and there are no lodgings to be had on the Middlesex side. Moulsey is close; and every man who goes to work at Hampton Court has to pay the toll twice or three times a day backwards and forwards. The toll is a halfpenny on a week day, and a penny on the Sunday. The bridge is in a very dilapidated state; if you go over the bridge with a loaded on you would see that, as it is going over, the bridge would shake just as a table can be shaken, and persons are afraid to go over it. Has seen within the last year holes made right through the bridge by carts going over it. The cost of redeeming Hamp- ton Court-bridge would be somewhere about 50007. or 6000/. SuiTH, RogERT.—Richmond-bridge was built under the powers ofa private Act. It cost 30,0004 As far as Richmond is con- cerned, a county rate would be an injury. | BoiLEAv, Masor CHARLES Lestock—lIs chairman of the Ham- mersmith-bridge Company. The bridge itself cost 50,000/., but the purchase of approaches and other expenses brought the original expenditure up to 85,000}. 15s. 8d. The gross revenue for last year was 37004, and the expenses 1500“. There is no debt. The toll annually increases at the rate of 150/. a year. There is no desire among the inhabitants on the Surrey side of Hammersmith-bridge for the bridge being made free, but rather the contrary, as the toll keeps up the respectability of that neigh- bourhood. The tolls levied are, single horse and carriage, 4d.; two horses, 6d.; foot-passengers, d.; one horse, Id.; when drawing, 4d. The dean and chapter of St. Paul's are the prin- 19 5 land proprietors on the Surrey side of Hammersmith-bridge. The Hammersmith people have no particular grounds for desiring the abolition of the toll; it does not practically prevent their trades- people from serving customers on the Surrey side of the river. The postal communication with London is not so quick at Castlenau as at Hammersmith. The bridge is very sound. An- nually such repairs are made as necessary. A few years back, a thorough repair was made, in so far as originally it was con- structed with wooden beams to support the platform, and as in the course of twenty years they almost perished, iron girders were substituted. Crase, Henry—The condition of Putney-bridge is good. The flooring is in a most excellent state of repair; every year an in- spection as to the general state of repair is made. It is not so much the bridge as it is the foundation of the river which inter- feres with the navigation; the bed of the river is almost dry, and the upper part is worse than we are. Witness was born almost &t the bridge, and has been there fifty odd years, and during all those years never saw the tide so exceedingly low as it is now; 26 so much so, that there is some talk of having a lock somewhere near this spot. The alteration of the bed of the river has affected the foundation of Putney-bridge in some measure; but in those places new stuff is thrown in when piles are driven, if there is any place where the gravel has been washed away it is remedied; but the shallow part of the river is more below the bridge, so that it is difficult for steam-boats to go up. Gravel and other materials are thrown in. The piles are, generally dee , sunk eight or ten feet in the ground, besides being we placa, they hold upon the gravel. | TYRRELL, EpwarD—The inhabitants of the metropolis are strongly op to the imposition of any tax upon them alone for purchasing or throwing open bridges. It would be considered as a contrivance for relieving those who had entered into a bad speculation. There would be a stronger indisposition to buyin up bridges than for building a new one, although the latter woul be viewed in an objectionable light. BunNELL, GREOROR RouNpELL—With reference to the bed of the river Thames, when Mr. Walker's report was first presented to the Bridge-house Estate, witness took occasion to present a memorial to the Bridge-house Committee, to call their attention to what appeared to him the necessity for fixing the bed of the river, so as to preserve the existing structures, both those over the river and those on the wharfs on either side. The committee must be aware that subsequently to the demolition of Old London- bridge a very remarkable change has been effected in the regime of the river itself. That is, the conditions of flow. It is a sort of engineering phrase to imply all the conditions of flow which affect the river itself; means the daily action, not only of the flux and reflux of the tide, but also the action of the land waters. It includes the action and reaction of the stream, whether of tidal or of land water, upon the bed and upon the banks; in fact, all the conditions of flow. Witness gave the following information on the point, by reading some extracts from the note he presented to the Bridge-house Committee: —“ Since the year 1832, to quote the words of Messrs. Walker and Burgess' 1 ‘the bed of the river has been lowered (near Blackfriars-bridge) 6 feet; and it must be evident to any one who examines the state of the river between that point and Teddington-lock that the same effect has been produced in a proportionate degree throughout the entire distance. It is singular, too, that about the year 1842 the river appeared to have assumed a degree of fixity, so to speak, in the nature of its flow, and of its action upon the bed. The erosion of the latter has lately been resumed, subsequently to the commencement of the works for the Thames embankment, then first systematically carried into effect under the direction of Mr. Walker. The duration of the flood tide, and the height of the mean range between high and low water, have also been in- creased, and these etlects may be distinctly traced to affect the river at points considerably above and below Old London-bridge. Thus it appears that between the years 1832 and 1845, the range of the tides at the London Docks had increased about 1 foot 6 inches; at Putney, it had increased about 2 feet 3 inches; whilst at Teddington-lock, it had increased 1 foot 4 inches nearly. The velocitv of the currents of both the flood and the ebb tides has also visibly increased: but no accurate observations have been made for the purpose of ascertaining the precise extent of the change. The nature of the materials composing the bed of the river may, to a certain extent, enable us to form an opinion on this subject; but the deductions to be drawn from them are necessarily exposed to be moditied by the interference with their deposition produced by the incessant wash of the steamers. It must, however, be in the memory of every member of your wor- shipful committee, that even so late as 1840, the materials forming the bed of the river, laid bare between tides in the portion of ita course extending from South wark-bridge to Chelsea, consisted of semi-fluid mud of great depth. Now at the lowest point above cited, they consist of what is technically called ballast, or small gravel, unless in positions removed from the direct action of the tides. This chauge is most apparent in the portion of the bed exposed at half-tides; but we are warranted in assuming that the velocities of the ebb and flood currents must be increased throughout their whole duration. The effects produced by these changes in the state of the river are sufficient to account for the alterations in its bed which have given rise to the settlements of Blackfriars-bridge; and all engineers are agreed that it is to the increased scour of the stream that the removal of the bed is to be attributed. But it is precisely from the fact that this in- creased scour (produced by the enlargement of the waterway at b 26 London-bridge, and the concentration of the lower ebb tide by the embankment) has already so seriously modified the state of the whole river, that not only Blackfriars and Westminster, but London-bridge itself, are menaced with destruction, that it appears to me to be advisable to fix the tidal action within its present range, rather than to increase it by still further in- creasing the waterway during the most powerful period of the tide, according to the project presented by Messrs. Walker and Burgess. If Blackfriars-bridge sink because the clay bed of the river between the piers is carried away, and therefore ceases to resist any tendency to lateral displacement by the piers, and if this clay be removed by the increased scour above described, evidently every new facility which is offered to the transmission of the tidal wave must increase the scour still further; and one after another, the foundations of all the bridges on the river will be affected.” Witness recommends simply to fix the bed of the river by putting a dam across it at a level which should be sub- sequently determined upon, so as to prevent the level being after- wards lowered. A floor should be made between the arches of the bridge, and it was proposed to be executed by forming coffer- dams on the up and down sides of the bridge, in the manner indicated upon accompanying sketches; the coffer-dams would be respectively 35 feet from the face of the bridge on the up, and 50 feet on the down side; they would be formed of close piling, with wales at the level of the bed of the river; the space between the outer and inner rows up to that level would be dredged to a depth of 20 feet, and the interval filled in with good hydraulic concrete; the upper portion of the coffer-dam would be filled in with clay puddle in the usual manner, and to the height in- dicated; the cotfer-dams would be formed in detached portions between each pair of piers, excepting in cases of the arches left dry at low water; return ends would be carried across, as shown in the plan, to connect the up and down retaining walls, and to allow the floor to be executed in small portions at a time. When the water should have been pumped out from the interior of the cotfer-dam, the whole surface of the ground should be excavated, to allow the insertion of a bed of concrete three feet thick, to be dressed off to levels to be given hereafter; the arches should be well shored up where requisite, and the foundations of the piers carefully underpinned to as great a distance from the face as pos- sible with fire-bricks set in Portland cement, this underpinning to descend about 1 foot below the concrete floor; a number of holes should then be bored through the body of the pier, and the voids between the old foundations of the caissons and the existing ground filled in with grouting; when this grouting, and the con- crete floor should have set, the coffer-dams should be removed by cutting off any piles or wood-work above the water, at the level of the existing bed of the river, in such a manner as to leave the piles to act as guards to the retaining wall of concrete formed at the bottom of the dam. The arches should be repaired six months after the piers, so as to obviate any danger from the compression of the grouting under the latter. His report had reference to Blackfriars-bridge. Simply the action of the dam would fix the bed of the river, so as to prevent the water-line being lowered. That the water-line should be lower than it is at present, is a question as to expense. Witness thinks it advisable that the bed of the river should always be as low as possible. As to the question whether it would be better to preserve the bridges or diminish the navigation, he should rather propose to keep the navigation in its present state. This Ser An: would do that, by retaining the bed in its present state. Witness apprehends that the whole of the bridges now carried across the hames would be in danger, if the flow of the tidal stream were increased by pulling down the existing bridges, and in- creasing the flow of water which can go up; for instance, it is proposed at Blackfriars-bridge to pull down the present structure and to replace it by a bridge which will have a larger water-way than now exists; some fewer arches necessarily imply a larger water-way, and therefore the tide will, of course, send a larger quantity of water up the river. The scouring power will be in- creased. London-bridge is also rather affected at the centre; they are obliged to watch it, and occasionally to throw down ballast at the foot of the piles. If three new bridges were built above Blackfriars-bridge they would not affect to any serious extent the bed of the river. Imagines that the bridge at Paul’s Chain would not operate to any great extent, unless you carried something across the bed of the river to prevent its being affected. That was why witness proposed to make the coffer-dam; the bed being fixed to any point that might be thought desirable. He THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. does not consider that any inconvenience will arise from the fall which will be caused by this dam. In the first place, in conse- quence of the dam being wider than the bridge, the stream, after it had gone past the cutwaters, would be able to get back into its normal state; the fall through the arches altogether arises from the interference with the water-way. Upon witness's principle of preserving the foundations of the bridges, the navigation of the river would not, according to his view, be affected. There would be no such fall as to affect the navigation. What he states is the result of his investigations. Janson, FREDERICK HaALsEY, solicitor to Battersea Bridge.— There are no documents which show the original cost of Battersea Bridge. There are now thirteen shareholders, and they divide between 400/. and 5007. each. There is a fixed scale of tolls. The Act contains no clause as to the purchase of the bridge for the benefit of the public. The Act of Parliament enabled Lord Spencer, the owner of the ferry at Battersea, to build the bridge, and in 1771 he conveyed it to fifteen proprietors, who subse- quently reduced their number to thirteen. BAALHAM, RonERT, resident superintendent or clerk of Bat- tersea Bridge.—The average annual income of the bridge toll for the last three years has been 65114. Os. 3d.; and the expenses, 7502. Increase of late years in the amount of the revenue. There is a desire on the part of the inhabitants in the neighbourhood for the bridge to be thrown open. Believes that the bridge is in a better condition than it has ever been; and as to its present con- struction, has no hesitation in saying that it will last longer than any other bridge over the Thames, because somewhere about fifteen or twenty loads of timber is annually put in. He is employed by the bridge proprietors to do this; and whatever is necessary to be taken out, is taken out and replaced; conse- quently it is almost new. It is not one of those bridges likely to suffer from the unfortunate disposition of the bed of the river, and therefore its foundation is undoubtedly perfectly secure. As to its capabilities for traffic, should say that twice the amount of traftic if required without inconvenience could be taken. REVIEWS. The Theory and Practice in the Construction of Suspension Bridges, and the Origin of the “Resultant Tension” Principle, having reference to the project for Bridging the Hooghly. B Lieut.-Col. H. Goopwyn, Bengal Engineers. Calcutta: Carbery. 1854. Quarto pp. 14. Plates. The theory of suspension bridges, notwithstanding its import- ance in the science of engineering, has received but little eluci- dation from modern research. While the theory of rigid iron structures—as simple and compound girders, tubular and lattice bridges—has acquired almost all its practical value from scientific and experimental investigations, conducted since the adoption of railways for the general purposes of locomotion, the application of mechanical principles to tensile structures has received no material improvement since the time when Telford's bridge over the Menai Straits was constructed. Indeed, except an elaborate and valuable memoir on the motion of suspension bridges, pub- lished some time ago by Mr. Röhrs, in the Cambridge Philoso- hical Transactions, we are not aware of any recent material improvement in the theory of those structures which has been made in this country. This lack of progressive research does not arise from the bar- renness of the subject, but from the difficulties incident to it. There can be no doubt that if suspension bridges could be readily made sufficiently rigid for the purpose of railway traffic, they would add most materially to the resources of the engineer. The span of those structures is almost unlimited, and their cost com- paratively small; whereas, whatever merits may be claimed for tubular bridges (the most successful modern inventions for increasing the span of 1 bridges), it must be allowed that they by no means completely supply the desideratum of an economical method of constructing railways over wide rivers and ravines, where the depth below the structure, the yielding nature of the soil beneath it, or the violence of currents renders the erection of intermediate piers impracticable. Though the attempt to apply suspension bridges in such cases seems almost abandoned, it is very generally felt that nothing but their mobility prevents them from being so applied. In the paper before us, Lieut.-Col. Goodwyn suggests a method, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. which he contends these difficulties may be greatly diminished. e pro a mode of spanning the Hooghly at Calcutta, where the width of the river is about 2200 feet, by a suspension bridge, consisting of two principal spans, of which each is 1000 feet, has a deflection of 98 feet, and is suspended from a pier in the middle of the river. These central piers are 75 feet a and are pro- posed to be connected by a moveable Junction Bridge, formed in two halves, of which each is to be made to slide back on rollers to admit the of masted vessels. He estimates that about 4200 tons of iron would be required in the construction, and that the cost of it would be about 23 or 24 lacs of rupees. The plat- form is suspended by oblique rods. Of these, a part nearest the piers are directly attached to them at different points, and thence proceed in straight lines, inclined at about 45 degrees, to the vertical, to as many corresponding points in the platform. The rest of the oblique rods are attached to the main chain on a principle which Lieut.-Col. Goodwyn, designates that of “resultant tension,” and illustrates by comparison with the three most com- monly known systems, designated by him the “ Uniform,” the * Radial," and the “Taper” systems respectively. The first of these three systems is that in most general use—a main chain supporting vertical bars connected with the platform. The principal defect of this system, the author contends, is its want of rigidity. The second, or “radial” system is that in which the platform is entirely suspended by oblique rods, radiating to different points of it from the summit of the standards directly without any main chain. The author contends that the principal defect of this system is the tendency of the oblique rods to become deflected and curved, on account of their weight and length. The lengths of the rods from the summit of the tower to the central parts of the platform would be so great, that the whole amount of tension DAE of being d on them would not keep them straight, and the platform would of necessity droop.” With due submission, we observe that this is just what the platform would not do, if the lengths of the rods were originally adjusted on the supposi- tion of their remaining straight. The flexure of the rods would diminish the distance from the top of the tower to the points of suspension in the platform, and so tend to raise the latter. Moreover, it is quite clear that the lengths of the radiating rods might be computed, with an allowance enabling the engineer to ive different of the platform whatever elevation he pleased. i no other objection against the radiating system can be brought except that of the flexure of the radiating bars, the system remains at least uncondemned. And there appears to us important arguments in its favour. In the first place, as each part of the platform is suspended pra wiper ed of the rest, the failure of the suspension of one part of the platform is not necessarily attended by the fall of the entire bridge. In the second place, the prin- source of the mobility of suspension bridges is avoided. ere they are supported by a main chain, the depression of one part of the chain is necessarily accompanied by the elevation of another part of it; and it is the facility by which the bridge rises in one place so as to necessarily sink beneath a passing weight at another place, which is the real cause of the unservice- ableness of eae suspension bridges for heavy traffic. Lastly, it is a matter worthy of consideration whether the absence of a heavy main chain does not remove almost all the dangers arising from the vibration in storms. We know generally, that the vibrations of a great mass last longer, and are 5 by more violent dynamical strains than the vibration of 1 masses, such as the radial bars comparatively are. Moreover, the most violent disruptive strain of a main chain occurs where two vibra- tions, pro ted from different points, meet and oppose each other, and produce an impulsive wrench of the chain. It is difficult to conceive of circumstances under which this violent conflict of vibrations could occur in a radiating bar. The third system, designated by Lieut-Col Goodwyn the “taper chain,” he thus describes:—“The distinguishing feature af the construction was in giving the chain the full requisite strength at the points of suspension, and thence to taper it gra- dually to the centre, where it was stated the strain became evanescent. Another circumstance which characterised the method waa the oblique disposition of the suspending rods at ing in magnitude from the centre to the standards. ee vantages are, that a considerable portion of the plat- form is upheld direct from the standards without the intervention of the chain, as in the ‘radial’ system, which thus leaves a diminished tension due to the chain (see figure of Ballee Khäl 27 Bridge), that by the oblique action of the auxiliary rods, the entire system is retained under the dominion of a certain amount of tension (which will be more fully explained under the head of the ‘resultant system’), rendering the roadway free from the injurious effects of undulation and vibration, and consequently the transit firm and safe. The author of this system, Mr. Dredge, claimed for it other good properties, to which experience has proved that it has no title, and which are its main defects. He contended that the strain at the centre was evanescent, and that the bridge might be severed in the middle without affecting the stability or position of the two He compared the two halves of the curve to brackets, the horizontal line of which was compressed against the pier by the tensile action of the oblique line...... The section of iron in the longitudinal beam is uniformly weak with reference to the strain at the centre, owing to the erroneously- 5 idea of the capability of resistance to compression in that e. The serious nature of these defects of Mr. Dredge's system was fully pointed out in a former volume of this Journal The method of “resultant tension” proposed by Lieut.-Col. Goodwyn resembles Mr. Dredge's method in that the platform is supported by oblique rods, and differs from it princi in that the tension of the Drm is duly considered, and the oblique rods are less inclined to the vertical It is stated that in the present system the resultant strain to which each rod is subject being computed, the strength of the rod may be proportioned accordingly; but this is so obviously the correct way of determining the dimensions not merely of a suspension bridge, but of every mechanical struc- ture and instrument, that it can hardly be claimed as a peculiar characteristic of the system here advocated. The principle of the Charing-cross Suspension-bridge is as fully entitled to the appel- lation *resultant tension" as is that of the proposed bridge over the Hooghly. The neglect of this principle by an engineer would be much more deserving of remark than the adoption of it. The t merit which Lieut.-Col. Goodwyn claims for his system in common with the “taper,” is that of rigidity. He says, that *the combination of chain and oblique rods has been so arranged that the effect on the support of the roadway, and the rigidity conferred upon it is [are ij the] same as if it [71] had been transmitted by a single bar direct from the standards.” It does not appear, however, to be at all satisfactorily proved that the tension of the road way necessarily renders the structure rigid. We know of course that if a aingle wire, as that of a piano, be stretched between two points, the greater the tension is the greater ceteris paribus will be the impulse 5 to produce vibrations of given amplitude in the wire. But it by no means follows from this that if oblique forces be applied at several points along a jointed rod (as we may consider the platform of the bridge) and induce tension in it, the resistance to vibration will increase with that tension. On the contrary, we can readily imagine cases where the oblique forces will tend to increase this vibration by bending the platform and pulling different points of it towards each other. The strict investigation of the comparative rigidity or mobility of different kinds of suspension bridges is almost precluded by the extreme difficulty of the dynamical considerations which the question involves. A method has occurred to us, however, b which in many cases this difficulty may be satisfactorily avoided. We suggest, that for most practical purposes the mobility of a suspension bridge may be very fairly estimated by the statical deflections which the application of loads in different parts of the structure will produce. This problem being statical, is of course far easier than the corresponding dynamical one, and may always be resolved at least approximately. If we find that of two kinds of suspension bridges one is subject to less statical deflection than the ther by a load applied under similar circumstances, we can hardly doubt which mode of construction produces the greatest dynamical stability. Now, if we io these considerations to estimate the compa- rative stability of suspension bridges with vertical and oblique rods respectively, is it apparent that the comparison is in favour of the latter? e think not. Take the simplest case—that in which the flexible main chain has but one joint between ita highest and lowest points. fig. 1 the half chain abc, has one joint b, between a and c. From tho point b, hangs the vertical suspension rod b d, which is attached to the platform at d. In fig. 2 the corresponding suspen- sion rod B D, is inclined to the vertical. Let us suppose the span and deflection of both bridges the 28 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. same, and the corresponding rods of the main chains equal in length—viz, AB = ab and BC = bc. Now, suppose two ual weights applied at C and c respectively, and compare the addi- tional deflections produced. Fid. 1. Fre. 2. It will be observed that a depression of the point B, would be necessarily accompanied by an elevation of the point C, and vice vered: for if B were depressed, it would also move towards the pier, and B C must become more nearly horizontal in order that the total horizontal distance from A to C may remain unaltered. The deflections at C and c are therefore resisted by the ten- dency of the points B and b respectively to sink. Now, any rising of the point b (fig. 1), would be accompanied by rising of the centre of gravity of a b, and also of the load which may be supposed to be Ap at D. Therefore the weight of A B and the weight at D are nee to the deflection. On the other hand, the weight of BC assists the deflection. It is quite clear from the geometry, that equal depressions of the 5 C and c will produce equal displacements of the rods A B, C, and ab and be; the effects of these rods upon the deflection at C and c are therefore equal. But the effects of the weights at D and d are not equal for a rise of the point b, is necessarily accompanied by an equal rise of d, the rod bd being vertical; whereas a rise of the point B only partly results in the rising of D, and artly in increasing the angular elevation of the oblique rod. fe see therefore that the mechanical effect of the weight at D (fig. 2), is less than at d fig. 1 to resist deflection. In other words, a given weight applied to the bridge with oblique rods produces a greater deflection than if applied to the bridge with vertical rods. Though we have only taken a very simple case, it is pretty obvious that the same reasoning apin to more extensive struc- tures. We may in all cases consider the half of the main chain divided into two parts, one of which rises, the other of which sinks when the centre of the bridge is depressed. The elevation of the former part is resisted by the weight towards the sides of the platform transmitted through the suspending rods. If these be oblique on the proposed principle, the tendency to deflection at the centre of the bridge is increased by the facility of altering their obliquity. To speak technically, the verticality of the sus- pending rods increases the virtual velocity of the weights acting at their lower extremities. Another way in which the subject might be viewed is as follows. It is clear that the greatest deflection of any suspension chain which is geometrically possible, is, where each half of the main chain is a straight line. The flexure of the half chain diminishes the deflection. Now, where the tensions of the sus- pension rods act nearly in the direction of the length of the chain, they obviously do not resist its becoming straight so much as if they were inclined at a greater angle to the chain. The inference therefore is, that the suspension rods should be inclined from the main chain, not forwards towards the centre of the bridge as Mr. Dredge and Lieut.-Col. Goodwyn propose, but backward; the most efficient position being where each suspension rod is normal or perpendicular to the direction of the chain. The instances of stability of the system of oblique chains which our author cites prove nothing until he can show that the correspond- ing 5 have been made upon suspension bridges with vertical rods, and the two results properly compared. — ma Notes on the Nimbus. By Gi BERT L FRENCH. Bolton: Printed for Presentation. 1854. This ingenious essay upon a subject which has employed the pens of many ecclesiastical writers and e contains much curious and interesting information. e author has collected from a variety of sources, both published and in MS., numerous illustrations to elucidate the ideas he entertains, that the symbol of the nimbus is erroneously viewed as to its real em- blematical import, and that the glory which surrounds the heads in medieval paintings and sculptured fi of the Deity, did not originate with the early christains; but was a “well under- stood symbol before the advent of Christ upon earth.” The views of Mr. French are modestly su ggestive and deservin of consideraiion, his arguments are carefully supported, an enlivened by a fund of illustrations obtained with no little research. Among other works we find Agincourt’s ‘History of Art, now better known in this country from its being a cheaper book, and Didron’s learned works on ‘Christian Iconography, have furnished many of the plates as well as the cuts in the text. The principal object of Mr. French is to po that the cruciform nimbus as generally supposed, is not em lematical of the Cross, but indicative of the Trinity. He states:— The poet Virgil, who lived and died before Christ, thus exactly describes the appearance of a prophetic glory which appeared on the head of the young Ascanius before the flight from Troy: ‘Sudden a circling flame was seen to spread With beams refulgent round Iuliu's head; Then on his locks the lambent glory preys And harinless fires around his temples blaze.“ The nimbus was adopted as a religious symbol by the early christians, and examples of it exist in the Roman catacombs, which are attributed to the sixth century. In ancient illuminations, the wall paintings, and the stained glass of old churches, heads of archangels, angels, evangelists, apostles, saints, and martyrs, are usually encircled by a ring of brilliant colour, assuming the appearance of light, which is presumed to signify that as accepted servants of the Almighty, they have been honoured with this especial mark of his favour. Circles of light are never placed on the heads of persons alive at the time of the representation being made, however holy or powerful they may have been; but there are a few examples remaining of men with the reputation of great sanctity who were pictured when still in this life with a glory of a square form.t The nimbus of departed saints, when represented by painting, is some- times merely a thread of light bounding the outline, and entirely transparent within, while in other instances the outline is marked by numerous rays or beams of light, by flowers, stars, or other ornaments; when, however, the sculptor crowned his workmanship with a nimbus, he was compelled to adopt a different arrangement, and had recourse to a disc or plate of metal, which could be richly ornamented with jewels, gilding, and enamel, corresponding with, but surpassing in brilliancy, the coloured decoration, at that time profusely lavished upon the entire figure. The glass painters had it quite in their power to represent a transparent nimbus, yet they, for the most part, preferred an imitation of the opaque glory of the statuary; indeed, figures in glass appear rather to have been copied from stone sculptured images, than from the human figure. The nimbus was frequently made the medium of indicating by its colour, or symbolical ornamentation, the person upon whose head it was placed; thus the figure of the Blessed Virgin was often crowned with a glory of blue enamel, bordered with golden stars. The names of many saints were also inscribed npon the margins of their respective nimbi. Angels and archangels had usually within their nimbi peculiar orna- ments which probably indicated a distinctive symbolism to be afterwards described. From a natural desire to enhance the merits of their founders and other eminent men, numbered by the Church of Rome among her saints, the monastic orders frequently departed from the simplicity of early christian symbolism, and represented on their images and paintings attributes approaching to those which have been considered peculiar to the Deity, thus the nimbus was often, in such cases, represented not as resting upon, but as proceeding from, the heads of these highly honoured saints, an important distinction which materially affects the symbolical meaning. Thiere is an example of this extravagant practice in a painting of St. Francis, where he is seen standing with extended arms, as if ona cross, within an auriel composed of seraphim; wounds on his side, hands, and feet, similar to those of the crucified Jesus, emitting rays of light; the head surrounded by a brilliant glory, and attended by three angels in attitudes of profound adoration; almost all the attributes which could make St. Francis equal to the Saviour are heaped into the picture; but in this case, as in every other instance of similar overstretched symbolism, there is omitted one distinctive mark of divinity with which the most enthusiastic artistic devotee has never ventured to invest the object of his veneration. * Pitt's Virgil’s Ænead. Book ii. . The square is an ancient symbol of the earth, and the circle of heaven. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 29 When the Deity is represented in medimval art, under the likeness of marked with the divine rays; but I decline for obvious reasons to repro humanity, the head is usually surrounded by a nimbus similar in form to duce such monstrous and irreverent illustrations.” tee which crown the hens of sport a b. aer h. de of acres ger e D he comerous drawings, wh author through the opas i : 3. riptions of the numero wings, where each person Das within its ciroumference. This is known to archsologists as the cruci- the same nimbus, without any distin e symbol to disti ish f cif ed nimbus; names hich are adopted b : : 5 5 5 e T by dui if Ee the Son, and which we think goes far to prove the correctneas of all, of che antiquarian and archzeological societies of the present time, Mr. French'a views, for we find throughout these figures that This distinguishing nimbus is invariably confined to representations of the point of the nimbus from whence the rays proceed is too low the threo divine personages of the Holy Trinity whether they are to admit of a fourth limb being introduced. figured as human beings or symbolically indicated, as a Hand in act of The bands upon the imperial orb placed in the hands of blessing, as a Lamb or as a Dove. sovereigns at their coronation, correspond with the nimbus, says The arrangement is thus described by M. Didron, who has devoted Mr. French— . much skill, energy, and learning, to the elucidation of the subject: * And very properly so, when it is remembered that they symbolize ‘When the nimbus is oircular, and belongs to one of the persons of the the game fact. That the bands encircling the earth express the presence Holy Trinity, 1 ien en fi alegre from the d and protecting power of the Holy Trinity over ihe world, i clearly of the artist, he t y uid nos creme 8 nares 5 implied by the words and Rubrio of the ancient coronation services, intersecting each o i" at ne y angles in the cen 55 beri bert The where the archbishop on delivering the orb to the king, says, ' Receive es of them, the lowest, 18 faites led by the head. aa this imperial orb, and remember that the whole world is subject to the Inn Hon Or- sas A UL God quip h ux th y MOL eA tha Hob : power and empire of God.’ It is to be regretted that the modern orb, The supreme head of all, e Father, or the Son, or the Hoy used at the coronations of British sovereigns, has been so made as in Ghost, had a circular nimbus, a disc precisely resembling that of the some degree to obscure the old symbolical meaning of the bands or rays; sinta; but the 1 sala 15 persue T39; Ur = a > m they are indicated by rows of rich jewels, the horizontal band being distinction, divided diagonally by two intersecting lines in the form 9" * continued on both sides along ite entire length, while in most ancient crow.’ It would thus appear that the cross, the well-known emblem examples, the vertical and horizontal bands are connected, or run into of christianity, was adopted by ancient religious artists to indicate the och oth E without obstruction. N 5 N ene this dir a raid 5 at The royal and imperial crowns of christian sovereigns are almost the present time >y me r i a ma bi I D brief orm invariably surmounted with a golden orb, thus banded or rayed, and nimbus ’ whenever it 18 re l Eos . It is one object of € ied Be the bearing a cross on its apex.t In the eleventh century the orb borne in to suggest that an entirely di ferent 5 in md y the the hands of British sovereigns was frequently surmounted by a dove, ancient artist in painting the divine ate t the modern name and sometimes the dove rested on across; symbols which sufficiently is objectionable, as conveying an erroneous NOs: : indicate the religious idea to which the orb refers. Though always a divine, this, s> 9 . is notan Tue Greek letter T, called in the language of heraldry, the cross tau, exclusively christian 1 ith 8 ^s e nimbi of t . T doo but which is really no cross, since the lines by which it is formed merely by, and probebly originate s] e Ae of E radiati meet and join each other without croesing, bears some analogy to the goddess Mays, is figured wi gió pis mein of beams f ating appearance of the rays in the divine nimbus, and to those on the orb, from the head, among which are bm y ) three Hg fo pens indeed, if we could suppose the tau to be used in an inverted position, brilliancy or importance, COIT E o heads P M PUE the coincidence in form would be exact. On some examples of the orb those which we find similarly placed on the of the persons of the the rays are placed exactly in the shape of that pial It u not impro- ; : bable that it may be directly referred to, or representec. uch m peculiarly-marked euin 1 be un Ls pagan A: bier rious je has pA been attributed to the letter tau, and it to christian religion; and aso 1n cases distinctive of, and pec enters largely into the religious symbolism of the biblical antiquaries, to, the divinity. ed to the mind by th f th which may probably have arisen from the fact of its being formed of „Tue idea usually convey he mind by the appearance o 229 — three limbs, frequently, though not always, of equal length, and thus, nimbus on the heads of pagan deities, 18 that of fire, each flame-like like the Delta, an appropriate symbol of the Holy Trinity. emanation for the most part converging to a point, but on the heads of seats M dM . PE the christian Trinity the rays more frequently diverge from the head to In elucidation of the nimbi being distinguished by a signifi- the edge of the nimbus, and thus present the appearance and effect of cant ornament upon the heads of archangels and angela, which light rather than of fire. The nimbus of the Hindoo goddess Maya, is is only found on those of the heavenly host, we find the following however an 5 this rule, which, A UE. generally applicable, remarks: is by no means universal; it is however worth notice, a it appears to «When it is remembered that these glorious beings are the special mi- distinguish the worship of paganism with its confined objects, and ^ pistersand messengers of the Deity, id admitted into his awful presence, material sacrifices, accompanied by, and accomplished through the ^ we may expect to meet with some indication of their peculiar office, and medium of fire, from the expanding influences of revealed religion; which ^ reflection from His glory. In Greek examples, therefore, we meet have diffused the blessings of impalpable light and knowledge over with a Delta placed on the forehead within the nimbus. The same very humanity, and thus become truthful images of its spiritual sacrifice and obvious idea is expressed in other figures, by three circles joined together, worship. i . A or by a tongue of flame in the same gituation. «We venture, though with some diffidence, to hazard the opinion, Moses was admitted to the presence of God, and allowed, while yet that with occasional, but very rare exceptions, the medisval christian upon earth, to witness the mitigated glory of the Almighty. Like the artist when oa. the nimbus of the Deity, did not intend to repre- angels and archangels, he is distinguished by a particular nimbus, sent, or at all refer to the cross: but that his purpose was todemonstrate, directly reflecting the divine lory, expressed however, in the case of by three rays of light proceeding from the divine head, that the one the prophet, by two beams of light only. His face, we are told by on represented was invested with the power, and the glory, as well scripture, shone with so bright a light that he covered it with a veil as the identity, of the other persons forming the Holy Trinity. when conversing with the Jews. However appropriate as an emblem of the Son of God, the Saviour We do not venture to offer any decided opinion as to the reasons of the world, who for men’s sins suffered death upon it, the cross has which induced medieval artists to adopt this curious arrangement, or to not the same apt and significant meaning with reference to the Father substitute for rays of light the two horns 80 often met with on the head of and to the Holy Spirit: to them it would be quite as inappropriate as to the prophet. They could not represent three rays without confounding the Buddhist aud indoo divinities, whose heads are invested with an the representations of Moses with those of the Deity. It may be ornament similar to that which the christian artist placed on the persons suggested that as the Almighty did not reveal Himself to Moses in all of the Holy Trinity, when represented together under the semblance of His glory, and delivered to him only that portion of the divine law humanity. Of this two examples are given by Didron at pp. 435 and peculiar and applicable to the Jews, the old artists may have refrained 471, which sufficiently show that whatever the gymbolical meaning of for these reasons from expressing in the nimbus of the prophet, allusion the three rayed ornaments, it must be one alike applicable to the Father, to that person of the Godhead whose advent on earth, though foretold, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, because they are each invested with it, was not at that time accomplished. It is presumed that horns were and that too without the slightest distinguishing difference. It would be represented instead of beams of light, because (as we are informed) the easy to ad luce numerous additional examples of the same kind, and to word employed in the original Hebrew admite of being interpreted in support this part of the argument, by figuring the gross representations )))) 8 of the Holy 5 disgraced the latter days of mediæval religious * This is, however, a trifling error in comparison with the mistake made by the i nd three faces on on parties who proposed the regalia for the coronation of William and Mary. A separate art, such as th ee ads on one body, * e head, sur orb was made for and delivered to each, and this duplicate world ia, I believe, still rounded by one mimbas, encompassing three rays; or. by the no less reserved among the British regalia. On their great seal, however—as in that of objectionable pictures of the Supreme Father clothed as an ancient hilip and Mary—the orb is placed between them, and each resta a band upon it. t Pope, su ing 88 his knees the figure of the Son the Saviour, re the exceptions being Sicily, which has a large cross Botonée without orb; and Portugal tended upon & cross 1n the agony of death, while the Holy Sp irit, aaa which e by a trefoil ornament. Vide Wappen Almanach—der Souverainen dove, passes between them; the heads being all similarly nimbed and Regenten Europas. 6 30 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. either sense; or it may have been suggested to them from the horns of the cresent moon, whose light is à reflection from that of the sun, as the glory of Moses was derived from that of the Almighty. Most probably, however, it was caused by the practical difficulty which the early sculp- tors would meet with in any attempt to represent rays of light on the head of a stone image, and that therefore they availed themselves of the expedient permitted by the literal interpretation of the Hebrew text. How magnificently this was accomplished by Michael Angelo, in his Majestic and super-human statue of the great prophet of the Israelites, is well known to all lovers of art. The evangelists are always crowned with nimbi, whether they are in their own persons, or symbolically represented as a man, an ox, and a lion with wings, for St. Matthew, St. Luke, and St. Mark, or as an eagle for St. John. There is no peculiarity to distinguish their nimbi from those of other saints, and no indication of a cross or of three rays is to be met with in ancient examples. It might be expected that figures of St. Peter and St. Andrew would have in their nimbi indica- tions of the instruments of their martyrdom, which were in each case crosses, but of such peculiar forms as to distinguish them at all times from pictures of the Saviour; as however, no such emblems ever appear in their nimbi, it may be inferred that neither does the ornamentation in the nimbi of our Lord refer to the instrument of his passion." In the short section of this essay devoted to Architectural Nimbi, our author justly remarks that the ornamental panels and the open tracery of windows adopted by the ecclesiastical archi- tecta of the middle ages had almost invariably Something besides mere beauty of form to recommend them, they were often indeed so deeply symbolical that we can now scarcely hope to discover the subjects to which many of them refer. We venture to suggest an explanation of two graceful panels which frequently occur among ancient embellishments, and which are often adopted by modern decorators, though, we presume to think, without any just feeling of their true meaning and significant origin. The first consists of three acute angles, and three semicircular arches ; it occurs in ancient decoration and church windows, as a framework for the sacred name, the Cross, Agnus Dei, Dove, and similar subjects having direct reference to the Deity. The propriety of this arrangement will be at once understood, when the lines forming the panel are united and carried home, the figure then developes itself into the well-known Delta, the most frequently used of all emblems of the Trinity, the three equal limbs, having each a circular nimbus or glory. Thus understood, the outline becomes a most fitting frame for the subjects already mentioned; but it is obviously inappropriate for emblema of inferior importance as those of the evangelista. Sometimes this nim Delta contains a heraldic shield, which is, however, always charged with some appropriate religious bearing, such as the cross; the symbolism of this example is heightened by the trefoiled cusps in each semi-circle, or half-nimbus. In some instances, and particularly in church winduws, the figure is inverted, one of the angles being placed at the top. The decane! of these ornaments, though less important, is still very interesting. It consists of four right angles, and four semi-circular arches. en the lines are completed, as in the previous example, the figure becomes a square, having on each side a circular nimbus. We presume, that for this reason, it has been adopted by christian artists as an appropriate frame for the symbolical representations of the evange- lists, of which numerous examples may be found in sepulchral brasses, where they form the corners of the border containing the inscription.” The concluding section of Mr. French’s work, upon Rayed Banners, is extremely interesting. Weremember but few articles that have appeared upon the subject of ancient banners; these, we believe, were from the pen of the late Sir H. Nicholas, and appeared in the ‘Retrospective Review,’ and in the ‘Excerpta istorica, and to which Mr. French’s labours may be considered & valuable addition. Although our extracts have been lengthy, we cannot refrain from transferring to our columns the following portion of the concluding part of the essay before us, and regret the want of the pictorial illustrations: The use of military banners bearing religious emblems must have been of very early date, as frequent reference is made to the custom in the pages of the Old Testament. For their appearance we can only refer to representations on coins and medals, their fragile material pre- cluding the preservation of any specimens of great age. On a medallion of the Emperor Constantine the Great, struck in the fourth century, are represented the religious emblems which gave to that epoch its distinc- tive character. The banner of the cross piercing the body of the serpent, and surmounted with the monogram of Christ, together with the motto Spes publica,’ expressed the hope of the civilised world from the con- version of the Emperor to the christian religion. On the banner three circles (symbol of eternity and heaven) of uniform size and appearance, may, it is presumed (in the absence of any other explanation) be intended as an illustration of the Holy Trinity. It was probably in emulation of, and in opposition to, this christian banner, the laburum of the eastern empire, that the Arab followers of Mahomed so early as the seventh century displayed the black flag of their rophet, inscribed with the Mahomedan confession of faith, ‘There is but one God. Mahomed is the apostle of God.’ This practice of muster- ing their soldiers under religious banners, was followed by western nations. Some of the Danish-Norwegian coins, minted in England, in the tenth century, have upon them the device of a triangular banner, enclosing a cross, and bordered on one side—the only one on which they could be displayed—with certain tags or indefinitely marked ornaments, to which, without further help, it would be difficult to attach any mean- ing; we are, however, assisted to this by other flags of a somewhat similar character. A later example of a triangular banner, with the cross, from a mural painting formerly 5 the Chapel of St. Stephen, Westminster, and another with the Holy Spirit descending from heaven to earth, from a French miniature of the fifteenth century, confirm the religious symbolism of, and coincide with, the early Anglo- Danish examples. All the banners represented in the Bayeux tapestry, with the excep- tion of two, are figured with flame-like ends, exactly resembling the fiery emanations pictured on the tapestry, as proceeding from the flaming star, recorded to have created great alarm in England, just before the Norman invasion. The banners borne by the knights are distinguished from that of their leader, by having a nimbus of three points, corresponding with the arrangement of the earliest oriflamme, and like it, probably intended to testify to, and demonstrate, the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. A similar arrangement of banners, also for the most part with three terminations, was formerly found in the stained glass of the church of St. Denis, executed about 1140, durin the progress of the second crusade, by orders of Abbot Segur, an representing the principal events of the first of these religious wars. It may objected that the Bayeux tapestry represented events which were known to have occurred thirty years antecedent to the first crusade, and therefore could have no allusion to the circumstances of that war; it is, however, acknowledged by antiquaries of much skill and learning, that the work was probably executed at the earliest not less than fifty years after the occurrence of the events which it illustrates, and consequently, during the time of the greatest excitement in the prosecu- tion of the crusades. This would be sufficient reason to induce the artists of the tapestry to invest the persons they represented,—all christian knights and valiant warriors, — with the characteristic attributes of the crusade, so popular at that time with every class of persons in christendom. - The nimbi proceeding from the heads of Pagan deities usually resembled flames of fire, while the rays emanating from the persons of the Holy Trinity more frequently assumed the appearance of light; but as the pennons of the christian knights, the early oriflamme banners, and that presented by the Pope to William, Duke of Normandy, have all laming ends, they present an apparent inconsistency, which, however, is easily reconciled, when it is remembered that the banners were intended to symbolise the divine anger against the enemies of chris- tianity, and particularly against the Saracens, who not only denied the divinity of Christ, but held the doctrine of the Trinity in the utmost abhorence, as an outrage on the chief dogma of their own religion, the ‘Unity of God; the banners and pennons therefore appropriately repre- sented the consuming fire of God's wrath sent against tho unbelievers. The flame-like terminations acquire an additional significance when we examine the religious heraldy embroidered on the body of the banners. The oriflamme of Charlemagne has six rose-like ornaments, and the oriflamme of St. Denis is entirely plain. To neither of these can we attribute any religious character, except from the fact that they are represented as being delivered into the hands of living warriors by departed saints; but an examination of the banners of the first crusade, taken from the windows of the church of St. Denis show that they are each marked with one or with three crosses; the banner of William, Duke of Normandy, and the pennons of several of the knights in the Bayeux tapestry have very distinctly marked crosses. Others are dis- tinguished by three fesses, by three pales, and by three circles, corre- sponding with each other in size, and so singularly resembling the same objects on the banner of Constantine the Great, that we venture to suggest their intended symbolism of the Holy Trinity. Numerous examples of pennons, terminating in three points, may be met with among the illuminated MSS. and church decorations of the Anglo-Norman and early English period, not only borne by warriors, but on the crossed staff represented beside the Agnus Dei, or carried by our Lord, particularly in early pictures of his resurrection or of his descent into hell. When Henry V., with his peers, and men-at-arms, undertook the expedition against France, in which was fought the famous battle of Aginoourt, it is recorded by a poet of the time that ‘The wynde was goode, and blew but softe And fourth they went in the name of the trynyte.’ and we are further informed that the king ‘had for his on five 9 banners, that is to say, the banner of the Trinity, the er of St. George, the banner of St. Edward, and the banner of his own arms.“ The first of these banners is conjectured to have been embroidered with a geometrical demonstration of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, though most probably the inscription upon it would be in Latin. — — — — aa — — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 31 Three circular ornaments, under the various heraldic names of Orles, Annulets, Roundels, Bezants, Plates, Pomees, Hurts, Pellets, Golps, Oranges, Guzes, Ogresses, Torteauxes, or Wastals, are borne by upwards of sixty English families, and figured in Guillem; they vary from each other in position, metal or tincture, but are probably all derived from similar ornaments on the banners of crusaders, or the still earlier symbols on that of Constantine the Great.” In leaving this subject we feel bound to state that by refutin erroneous notions, we think Mr. French has given to the worl important additions to the symbolism of Christian Art, and done good service to the branch of archsologia he has written upon. 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Knocker, Bushy Ruff, Dover—Improvements in obtaining motive power by meens of water Dated October 17. 2216. G. Schentz and E. Scheutz, Salisbury-street—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for calculating, and printing the results of such calculations Dated October 18. 2225. W. Kassie, Gloucester—Improved means of securing goods or loading in or on railway trucks or ns 2227. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvemente in preventing collisions on railways. (A communication) 2244. J. Bernard, Club-chambers in te in machin s t-street — rovemen ora ioc mirah , Regen P ery or appa- Dated October 80. 3303. G. H. Lilie, Amelia-villas, Kingsland—New material for the manufacture of paper Dated Octoder 81. 2313. C. Vorster, Cologne, Prussia Improvements in the manufacture of ribbons 9327. C. Ha Birmingham—Im A ealing dering . C. Hargrove, Bi rovements in ann cast-i or in ren cast-iron malleable s TM Dated November 8 2329, H. Walmsley and J. Day, Failsworth, i enone wig e in looms 2530. P. M. Parsons, Duke-street, Adelphi—Improvements In railway carriage axle- bearin, 2331. cL. V. Maurice, St. Etienne, France—Improvemente in carbonising coal, and in deir to be ies e dr. therein a . A. Moineau and J. G. Lemasson, Paris—Improvements in elastic mattresses and seats 2335. J. Atherton and J. Kinlock, Preston—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing and sizeing or dressing yarns or threads Dated November 4. 2337. G. L. Baxter, Sneinton Hermitage, Nottingham—Improvements in reaping- machines 2339. W. J. Wright, Redcross-street, Cripplegate—Novel application of the stem or stalk of the tobacco leaf Dated November 6. 2341. W. Collis, Barnes, Surrey —Improvement in brewing 2343. J. Betteley, Liverpool—Improvements in the construction and manufacture of iron knees, and the application thereof for ships’ fastenings 2345. J. Wallace, jun., Glasgow — Improvements in zincographic and lithographio prin 2347. LA Farjon, Paris—Improved system of jointing pipes, tubes, and conduits in gen 2319. J. K. W J. Worts, Jan C ie d I. Page, Langham, 9. J. K. Worta, sen., J. Worts, jun., Colchester, and 1. à Easex—Obtaining and applying motive power hdi 2350. L. N. lois, Paris—Improvements in the construction of steam-boats 2351. C. 8. H. Islington—Improvements in fire-arms and in cartridges. (A communication) 2353. A. P. How, Mark-lane—Improved machine for cutting metal rods and bars. (A communication) 2355. F. Baxter, Sneinton, Nottingham—A compound shell to be used as a destructive B ok big to be discharged from the mouth of cannon or from mortars T. T. Metcalfe, High-street, Camden-town—Improvements in the construction of portable carriages, chairs, and other articles for sitting or dece A n 2359. W. Beardmore, the Stowage, Deptfurd—Improvement in i of the axles of railway carriages and locomotive engines Dated November 8. 2961. G. Davis, Southampton —Improvementa in taps or cocks 2368. W. Stead, W. Spence, and 8. Wood, Bradford, Vork — Improvementa in machinery for ing and combing wool nnd other fibrous materials 2365. J. Gray, Edin — apoena in ventilating-hate 2367. A. McDonald and A. McIntosh, Alexandria—Improvements in machinery for 5 ing cloth or woven fabrics preparatory to or in the course of 2869. A. D y, Florence-road, Deptford—Improvemente in steam-boilers 2870. E. A. eroy, Paris—Improvements in the junction of sheet metal pipes and 1 employed therewith 2871. G. Bartholomew, Linlithgow, North Britain—Improvementa in boots, shoes, and other coverings for the feet Dated November 9. 2878. P. Pretech, “arnan Ti vements in producing 2874. J. Halida , Stocks-street, Cheetham-hill-road, Manc machine for away upon r causes 2378. 8. Shaw, Plaistow Marshes, Essex—Improved template for marking positions and in plates of metal sizes 2879. J. Berry, R. Berry, and T. Berry, jun., Rochdale, and T. Royds, Salford, Lan- "mr ae a in oaa! for spinning, commonly known as mules 2380. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—lImprovementa in machinery for turning prismatic forms. (A communication) 2381. D. Tunks, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in watches clocks, chrone- meters, timepices, and all othe: instrumenta for the measurement of time 2882. H. W. Harman, Dockyard. Kent—Improvements in windlasses, capstans, crabe, cranes, and other machines or ap tus for raiaing, lowering, or moving heavy bodies 2383. F. Smith, York-street, Lambeth—Improved construction of smoke-consuming furnace 2384. G. Roes, Falcon-square—Improvemeuts applicable to the manufacture of articles of caoutchouc, or of compositions of which caoutchouc forms a component part. (A communicaiion) Dated November 10. 2885. J. Niven, Keir, near Dunblane, Scotland—A pplication of a new material to the manufacture of paper, and also of textile fabrica 2886. W. L. Wigginton, Barnet—Apparatus for cooking, heating, and ventilating, rd ea to dwellinghouses, &c. 2887. E. Loysel, Rue de Grétry, Paris— Improvements in obtaining infusions or extracts from various subetances 2888. W. Jeakes, Great Russell-street—Improved mode of heating and ventilating by gas 2390. E. A. Lépine, Madrid—Powders and collyrium for curing the diseases of the eyes without the use of surgical operations, to which invention he has given the name of ji que e Opthalmological Powders and Collyrium." 2391. 8. Ellen, Wick-cottage, Hackney—Improved machine for washing clothes and similar articles 2892. H. Witthorff, Manchester—Improvementa in the construction of boats, ships, or navigate vessels, and in the means of obviating or diminishing the dangers attending accidents to the same 2393. J. Wain, Greenacre’s Moor, Oldham—Improvements in certain machines for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous substances of the kinds commonly known as mules and twiners 2394. E. Rimmell, Gerrard-street—Improvements in combining matters to be employed in coating fabrics and leather, and for other uses in substitution of india-rubber. (A comwunication from H. en) 2395. F. Ransome, Ipswich—Improvement in preparing oxides and carbonates of lead or zinc, and carbonate or sulphate of barytes, to render the same suitable for painting or coating surfaces 9206. W. Kloen, Birmingham—Newor improved method of ting and attaching . W. Kloen, Bi —New or ved m: of ornamenting an labels, cards, window and other bills E i 2397. R. Hesketh, Wimpole-street—Improvements in apparatus for supplying fuel to grates, stoves, and fireplaces . 2398. J. Thomson, Dollar, Clackmannan—Improvement in obtaining motive power when fluids or liquids are used . 2899. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvemente in fire-engines. (A communication) Dated November 18. 2400. The Hon. W. E. Fitzmaurice, Hamilton-lodge, Kensington-gore—Improvements in bulleta, shells, and other projectiles . 2401. A. E. B. Gobert, Montmirail, France—A new kind of stamping-press 2402. J. Armstrong, Normanton-station, Wakefield — Improvements in chairs and "ieu dd for the permanent way of railways 2408. I. I. Abadie, e mate in the mode of working screw propellers. 2404. D. Caddick, Ebbw Vale Ironworks, Monmouth—Improvements ín puddling- Dated November 14. 2405. J. H. Luson, Old Kent-road—Improvements in breaks for railways and other like papae 2406. 1 5 Marseilles— A new or improved system of marine log, to be called ** Soun H g 77 2407. J. Howarth, Poplar—An improvement in boots, shoes, and other coverings for the feet he f: 2408. L. Kirkup, Orchard-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne—Improvements in anvils 2409. A. Turnbull, Manchester-aquare—An improved saw f 2410. H. Law, Essex-street, Strand—Improvements in guns, and in the projectiles to be fired therefrom . 2411. P. M. Parsons, Duke-street, Adelphi—Improvemente in projectiles 2412. S. Pearson, Woolwich, Kent—Improvement in the manufacture of gun-barrels, pipes, and tubes . 2413. P. J. Meeus, Paris—A new or improved wind instrument. (A communication) Dated November 15. 2415. J. M. Chevron and C. V. F. de Roulet, Paris—Improvements in machinery for manufacturing textile fabrics i 2416. D. Davies, Wigmore-street, Cavendish-square—An improvement in roller-blinds 2417. A. Warner, New Broad-street—Improvements in ef sheeta of copper or ita alloys with lead, tin, zinc, nickel, gold, silver, platinum, or alloys containing these metals, or some of them, with or without the addition of copper, antimony, bismuth, arsenic, manganese, or mercury 2418. R. Brooman, Fleet-street—Improvements in the manufacture of thread from tta percha and similar gums; in gilding, ailvering, and ornamentiug the same, Before or after being manufactured into fabrics; and in machinery and apparatus employed therein. (A communication) 2419. W. H. Meriwether, Coma, Texas—Improvement in the manufacture of wrought- iron or uprights for fences and hurdles 2420. F. J. Bramwell, New Bridge-street, Blackfriars—Improvements in steam engines and steam hammers 2421. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved mode of manufacturing soluble silicates. (A communication) : 2422. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in air-pistols, (A communi- cation from D. Lemaire) 2423. J. Buchanan, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture of heddies or bealde for weaving 32 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dated November 16. 2424. G. H. Ingall, Throgmorton-street — An improved method of communication ante passengers and guards, &c., for the prevention of loss of life and accidents on ways 2125. P. Knowles and Edward Kirby, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improvemente in macho for opening, cleaning, and preparing cotton, and other fibrous materials 2426. R. Wilson, Birmingham - A new or inp: oved ornamental material or fabric 2427. A. E. L. Bellford, Castle-street, Holborn — Improvements in silk-winding machinery. (A communication) 2428. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street—Improvements in obtaining alcohol, alcoholic, and acetous producta. (A communication) 2429. 8. Henton, Lambeth—An improved saddle 2130. W. C. Day, Strand —An improved construction of portable camp-bed 2481. J. Platt, Oldham—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for making bricks 2432. W. Hann, Hetton Fence Houses, Durham—Improvements in propelling vessela 2138. W. Low, Lloft Wen, Wrexham, Denbigh—Improvemeuts in ventilating mines Dated November 17. 2434. R. Peters, Union-street, Borough—Improvements in steam-engines e J. Wilson, Hopton, York— Improvements in the manufacture of printed warp abrics 2436. J. Bellamy, Upper-street, Islington—Improvements in graining and imitating marble, fancy, and other woods 2437. J. Higgins and T. S. Whitworth, Salford, Lancaster—Improvementa in apparatus for moulding, for casting shot, shells, and other articles 2438. L. Castelain, St James's-place, Hampstead-road—A new manufacture of pulp for making payer and millboard 2439. T. Kennedy, Kilmarnock, Ayr—Improvements in shot or projectiles 2440. J. Macadam, Glasgow, Lanark—Improvements in the preparation or siseing of paper, or the materials used in the manufacture thercof 2441. C. Asprey, New Bond-street—Improvements in handles, particularly applicable to dressing-cases, dispatch-boxes, writing-cases, and other similar articles 2442. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—Improvemente in preventing incrusta- tion in steam-boilera, (A communication) Dated November 18. 2445. R. Gaunt, Birmingham—A new or improved dress-fastenin 2446. H. R. Ramsbotham and William Brown, Bradford, Xork lunoni in cambing wool, cotton, tow, certain descriptions of hair, and other fibroua substances, 2447. H. J. Luff, Thanet. place, Temple-bar—IJmprovements in the mode of attacking hostile bodies, also applicable to the obtainment of plans of forts, &c. 2448. T. F. Calard—Improvementa in bedsteads 2449. E. Belmer, Macclesfield-street, City-road—New manufacture of apparatus for warming rooms and workshops Dated November 20. 2450. J. Cumming, Glasgow, Lanark—Improvements in looms for weaving. 2452. R. Keefe, Nock-mills, Ti im, Ireland —Improvernenta in dressing flour Qe P. A. Dulaurens and M. A. Laubry, Paris—Improvements in glove fixings or astenin 2454. W. B. Adams, Adam-street, Westminster—Improvements in projectiles, projec- tile weapons, and their appurtenances Dated November 91. 2456. T. Craig and A. Daniels, Manchester—Improvements in the mode or method of cominunicating signals on railways 2457. R. Knight, Charterhouse-square—Improvements in apparatus for testing iron as to ita capacity for receiving magnetism, and in magnetic apparatus 2458. F. Russell, Massachusetta—N ew and useful machine for wowing grass 2159. W. Beasley, Smethwick, Stafford—Improveinenta in the manufacture of gun- barrels 21900. A. Tyler, Warwick-lane, Newgate-strect —Improvements in crimping-machines 2461. E. Hunt, Glasgow— Improvements in screw propellera, and in ships or v 2462. W. L. Thomas, Anderton—Improvement in projectiles and in gun-wads Dated Noveember 22. “163. J. B. Bagary, Paris—Improvments in sawing apparatus 2454. R. Terrett, Hercules-buildings, Lambeth—linproved machine or apparatus for cleaning knives 2155. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds—Tmprovementa in the manufacture of piled goods, and in the machinery or apparatus employed therein. (A commun icu on: 2156. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's- inn- flelds— Improvemeuts in the preventing or removal of incrustation in steam-boilers. (A communication from N. A. Baudoux, Paris) „ 2467. R. Gibson, Hunslet, York—Improvements in machinery for carding wool, flax cotton, and other fibrous materials. (A communication) 2468. C. Gibson, Draycott, Wilne, Derby—Improved machinery for manufacturing bricks, tiles, and drain-pipes Dated November 23. 2469. W. Hurst, Salford, Lancaster—Improvement in railway chairs 2470. J. Wright and J. Walmsley, Alfred-place, Newington-causeway—Improvements in the construction and adaptation of bedsteads 2471. W. A. Vércl, Macduff, Banff —Improveinenta in grinding or pulverising bones 2472. E. Eaborn, M. Robinson, and J. Kendrick, Birmingham — Apparatuses or contrivances for holding hats in churches, chapels, and other public assemblies 2474. G. Collier, Halifax, York—Improvements in the manufacture of mohair plush 2415. G. Collier, Halifax, York—lmprovements in the manulacture of pile fabrics and other weavings 2476. 8. Shaw, Plaistow, 5 mode of marking metal plates for rivetting or bolting, and the application of a new material as a template for receiving such marks 2477. J. B. Heiller, Schelestadt—Improvements in machinery for throwing or twisting cotton, wool, flax, silk, and other fibrous substances 2478. C. W. Ramié, Jersey—linprovement in straps for sharpening razors, surgical instrumenta, and other like articles 2179. H. J. Duvivier and H. Chaudet, Rue de la Glacière, Paris—Improvements in treating gutta percha 2480. E. Edl Stockholm, Sweden—Improvement of electro-magnetic telegraph apparatus Dated November 24. 2481. S. A. Carpenter, Birmingham—New or improved buckle or substitute for a buckle. (A communication) . 2482. T. Culpin, Devonshire-terrace, Greenwich — Preventing waste of water, to be called a self closing cock or waste water preventor 2453. R. Cuuliffe, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for making or manufacturing bricks and tiles or other similar articles 2484. R. Willan and D. Mills, Blackburn, Lancaster—Innprovements in looms 2155. J. Hartley, Sunderland —Improvements in the manufacture of perforated glass 2456. C. M. T. du Motay, Paris—Improvement in treating soap to obtain back the fatty or oily matters in their original state 2157. W. Eley, Broad-street, Golden-square—Improvement in the manufacture of ball- cartridges 2188. J. D. M. Stirling, Blackgrange, Clackmanuan—Improvements in the manufacture of metallic tubes 2489. H. Bessemer, Old St. Pancras-road—Improvements in projectiles, and in guns or ordnance used for discharging the same 2490. T. De la Rue, Bunhill-row—Improvement in the manufacture of compositions suitable for printing-rollers, printing-ink, and flexible moulds Dated November 25. 2492. T. Greenshields, George-street, Derby—Improvements in treating cotton waste that has been used by railway companies, and preparing it to be used again 2493. J. Henderson, Lasswade, Midlothian—Improvements in the manufacture of carpets 2494. W. Blundell, New Broad - street Improved apparstos for venting or preparing 0 any part of the human body requiring to be surgically operated upon, for the purpose dt or partially benumbing the sense of feeling at ired part of the human y Dated Norember N. 2496. J. Gillott, jun., and H. Gillott, Birmingham—Improvements in metallic pens and new or improved machinery for the manufacture of metallic pens 2497. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvementa tn the construction of inkstands. (A communication) 2498. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvemente in the manufacture of wrought-iron deflassieux wheels for locomotive or railway or other carriages. (A cominunication from Messrs. Deflassieax, Peillon, and Brothers) 2499. F. Delacour, Paris—Improvements in fire-ecreens 2500. C. Levey, Red Lion-street, Holborn—Improvements in weaving bags and tubular fabrics 2501. J. Crofte and W. Cartwright, Birmingham—New or improved cannon and pro- jectile Dated November 28. 2502. J. Clarke, Leicester—Improvements in the manufacture of looped fabrics 2503. T. Restell, Strand—Improvetenta in umbrellas, parasols, and cases or covers, and walking-sticks 2504. T. Staunton, Vineyards, Bath— Improvements in obtaining motive power. (A communication) 2505. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improvements in steam-boiler and other furnaoes (À communication) November 29. Dated 2506. C. Peterson, Low Cliff Chale, Isle of Wight—Application of a new vegetable sub- stance to the manufacture of textile fabrics, and pulp for paper, cardboard, papier- maché, and similar purposes 2507. J. Taverner, Paris—New edible compound 2508. T. Knight and S. Knight, Southwark—Improvements in apparatus for heating water for baths and other p ses 2509. J. Abraham, Standfield, Liverpool—Improvementa applicable to draining 2510. G. Gowland, South Castle-strect, Liverpool—Improvements in the mariners coin 2511. 9. Kealey, Oxford - street Improved machinery for cutting up turnips and other roots 2512. Sydney Smith, Hyson-green Works, near Nottingham Improvement in gauges for ascertaining the pressure of steam and other fluids Dated November 30. 2514. Sir J. C. Anderson, Fermoy, Cork — Economical railway for the conveyance of passengers, goods, and letters 2515. E. Welch, George-street, Portman-square—Improvemente in fireplaces and flues, and harass connected therewith 2217. J. B. A. Quiquandon, Ambert, France—Improvemente in manufacturing corks, and in the mode of employing their residues or wastes wn E. Pettitt, Manchester—Improvements in machinery for drawing cotton and other yarns 2520. W Taylor, Howood, Paisley Improvements in steam-boiler and other furnaces 2521. J. Sands, Austinfriars—Improveinente in the mariners compass. (A communi- cation from W. Grahnm, Australia 2522. C. Murray, Bignie cottage, Camberwell—Improvements in the manufacture of ordance, barrels of fire-arms, and hollow cylinders of iron 2523. F. Le Measurier, Guernsey—Improvements in the manufacture of ball and shot cartridges 2524. E. Rowland and J. Rowland, Manchester—Improvements in metallic pistons Dated December 1, 2526. E. Brigzs and W. Souter, Castleton Mills, near Rochdale—Improvements in machinery aud apparatus for gaasing yarn aud thread 2527. J. Arrowsmith, Bilston, Stafford— New or improved method of construction, applicable to forta, floating batteries, powder magazines, beams or girders, and other structurea where great strength is required 2528. J. Bernard, Club-chambers, Regent-«treet —Improvernente in the manufacture of boots, shoes, or other protectors for the feet, and in the machinery or apparatus con- nected therewith 2529. T. Wilson, Moecow-road, Bayawater—Preventing the noise in omnibuses and other carriages travelling on common roads, streets, and railways 2530. T. Restell, Strand,—Improvements in guns 2531. W. J. Cantelo, Leicester-square—Improvemente in the construction of barrels of ordnance and small arms, and in balls or projectiles used therewith 2532. T. Littleton, Saltash, Cornwall—Improvements in separating gases from sewage and other waters for the manufacture of manure, and for supplying of steam-engines 2533. C. Iles, Peel Works, Biriningham—Improvements in metal bedsteads Dated December 2. 2534. R. C. Witty, Toriano-avenue, Camden-road-villas—Improvementa in illumination by means of artificial light 2535. R. Hess, Chapel-cottage, Holloway-road—Improved voltaic battery for medical and philosophical purposes 2535. Pee Bazaine, Paris—linproved system of railway, applicable especially on common roada 2537. L. Gantert, Glasgow—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for dyeing and bleaching of yarns or threads 2538. J. Biden, Gosport, Hanta—The prevention of smoke from furnaces 2539. A. E. L. Bellfurd, Castle-street, Holborn—Improvements in apparatus for the manufacture of combustible gas. {A communication) 2540. A. E. L. Bellford, Castle-street, Holborn—Improvemente in the manufacture of paper and pastebuard. (A communication) 2511. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, Mouth-street, Finsbury—Improvements in the manufacture of palm-leaf hats and carcasses for hate. (A communication from Messrs. eer ak u; Brothers, Bas Rhin, France 2542. J. Maudsley, Westminster-road—An improvement in ordnance 2543. E. Dowling, Little Queen-street—Improvements in weighing machines and in their application to implements of transport 2544. H. Strong, Ramsyate—Improvements in the prevention of black smoke" in chimneys PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 2443. G. T. Bousfield, Suasex-place, Brixton—Improvements in the manufacture of Mr la carriage and other wheels, and pullies, (A communication) Novem- ber 1 2444. W. Coulson, Fetter-lane, York—Improvements in machinery for morticing, tenoning, aud boring—November 17 nqqorq fr 1331 Sc ot St ot S o Tt E € * 940 2886 N E = ES Le m Se 2 B ao rege o 5 5 AT LSOMH Be : A ; T AP — VAT = = — e AS UA S | —K M M M ry) : | M |, "à | — | , = KX k TEILT : a enis . NI 8 CS | A) 3 > SS al | | lizez LA | BA Jde PAS AXIO DOG “ta € 814 e p310MO] UOP Hu M9Qqe : : T 814 UPL WO 4^4 1e uonoeq "uv[j uo dg ) ye uounoag THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL. 33 | enormously-spanned buildings, which, not looking seemly at the NEW RAILWAY DRAWBRIDGE OVER THE LEVEN. ends, are there usually divi ed into three widths, following the J. BRUXLEES, C. E., Manchester, Patentee. June 28, 1854. 1 type, y the utter disregani E 5 principle in design, and, we may certainly e great eyesore (With Engravings, Plates IV. and V.) of every common-sense beholder. To take but one illustration, Our Engravings represent & design for a new drawbridge, look at (215), a “Chapel now coe at Haslingden,” by Cooper which is about to be carried into effect on the Ulverstone and and Peck; where the innovating features are terminated by Lancaster Railway, where the line crosses the navigable estuary regular pinnacles. Above this view is another by one of the of the Leven, near Ulverstone. The estuary being exposed to unsuccessful competitors (Mr. Worthington). This is at least high winds, and having strong tides running Cough it, necessi- more truthful, but rather churchlike: a continental spire 18 tated the adoption of à structure, whose light character would introduced, tr uncated, and crowned with horizontal ironwork. present the least resistance to the force of the winds and the The remainder of the set are In A portfolio on the table—a very occasional lash of the waves; while at the same time the moveable good plan. The “New Cemetery Chapels for Charlton, Kent, part of the bridge should be of sufficient span to admit the by Mr.S. Hewitt, are shown 1n (22, 26, 31). The first, “ Interior age of vessels, combined with ample strength to support a of the Unconsecrated Building,’ absurdly shows its whole length, railway train. The Leven estuary, which has a bed of sand, is removing only the end wall. Inaptly enough, too, a white sur. at this point a mile in width, and will be crossed by an embank- 0 V] | ment having à viaduct constructed of iron in it. In this viaduct Chapel Interior (26) is better, having & very good roof; but will be placed the drawbridge, the roadway of which is for & the east lancets should have been finished with a little more single line of rails, resting on piers constructed of iron piles. The moulding instead of bare segmental heads. The other drawing waterway for the ‘vessels will be 36 feet wide, to be spanned by a shows the general group. A distinction has been well preserved moveable platform, formed on two light wrought-iron lattice- between the chapels and the lodge—the former are of stone, the girders. The opening of the bridge will A í ) of raising the platform into a nearly vertical position—or of ? Church, by Alfred Bailey, is a very successful design, of swinging it to one side, which, with a blast from the Trish sea, Lombardie character, in striped and banded materials. In would jeopardise its stability and efficiency of working —but by Messrs. Worthington s; St. Meilig Llowes Church, Radnorshire causing it to glide under the fixed roadway, on one side the (41) which we presume is a new one, the nave appears of immense opening, thus forming à kind of telescope-bridge. The mode of width—and why are the chancel windows &o much poorer than accomplishing this is, first, by making the moveable platform 78 the others, and the only ones without labels! There are three feet long, which is double the length of the open part, and 6 feet designs for South Lowestoft Church; (56) is by Mr. N. E. Stevens, over for surplus counterbalance; and then making provision for —a very common-place affair, except that the chancel door is easily moving it beneath the fixed line, in the direction of the accommodated with a large porch, which leads one to question the bridge’s length. This 5 consists of a lower line of rails, internal arrangement. Mr. Browns design (180), which it appears fixed on beams which have a slight declination at the counter- "98 at one time selected, is rather better, but less ambitious than balance end. There are three pairs of wheels attached to the that of Mr. R. W. Armstrong (113 and 216), which is busy- irders, and these resting on the lower line just mentioned, looking enough for a cathedral. Moreover, the chancel is 80 E pilitate the movement of the platform, a rack and pinion, narrow, that it admits of the insertion of a tolerably large window worked by one man, being sufficient to overcome the friction. on each side of the arch between itand nave. “The New Church The fixed roadway ig formed of cross T irons for a length at East Moulsey,” Arthur PENDE: (66), has a north-west tower ual to the open span, thus affording clear space for the and spire on the Stanwick model, but long drawn out, and adaon of the platform beneath it. When the bridge is closed, crowded with three tiers of lucarnes. It should be remember by passing the platform over the span, it will be perceived that that what befits a village church toa small scale, is not necessarily owing to the inclination of the lower or platform rails, the equally suitable when m: nified for a larger one. It is a iby counterbalance end is on a somewhat better level than the fixed to see such a daub as Mr | PME “St. Stephen s, Vienna” (67). line. To raise it to the same plane, an eccentric is placed under The churches which Mr. St. Aubyn exhibits in (77 and 79) have each girder, the eccentrics being connected by a shaft, which is not much pretension, but are really good, and nicely touched in. worked by a rack-and-screw motion. The advantages contem- One has a simple wooden turret, the other a tower with a pack- lated in this design are, gmall expense at first cost, with great saddle roof. The three-light windows are on rather too small a facility and certainty of opening and shutting, under al scale. Mr. P Anson's views of “Romanesque Churches in Liege circumstances, and requiring no extra provision for foundations, (83) are cleverly sketched. (99), A beautiful little perspective the weight of the whole moveable platform being dispersed in its of part of the new church at Doncaster, as being executed by bearings, and only weighing about 13 tons. Mr. G. G. Scott, is exhibited by him. The style of the portion > here shown is flowing “Decorated.” Mr. E. B. Lamb’s churches — are not so successful as his other buildings. He does not give them their distinctive character. A degree of originality shows itself THE ARCHITECTURAL EXHIBITION. in all this gentleman’s productions, but domestic features are out of place in churchwork. There is a tendency to this failing in “Christ Church, West Hartlepool” (103), which artakes of the Italian-villa stamp, and in Leiston Church, Suffo k” (142), where (Concluded from page 5.) the east gable in particular is quite out of character. In his In a previous article we called attention to the designs and “ Design for the Interior of a Church" (157), there is an inter- drawings of Public Buildings in general; those for Churches will section of open roofs, very happil contrived, but little else. now come under our notice. We cannot speak very favourably A “Design for a Congregational Chapel” (104), and the view on the whole of the display: scarcely any of the subjects rise of “Beauvais Cathedral” (108), are curiously juxta-placed, above mediocrity, and the absenteeism of some of our leading ec- doubtless accidentally. In the one, we have all the starved clesiastical architects is much to be regretted. Nevertheless, the meagreness of modern so-called Gothie, and in the other the number, as usual, musters strong. The demand for this class of soaring magnificence of an ancient specimen,—a silently instruc- building continues to engross 80 much attention, and there is tive lesson. A series of nine views of churches, mostly of the something so attractive in the kind of work itself, that there are plainest character, is exhibited in (156), by Messrs. Habershon. few who, either for pleasure or rofit, do not try their hands, and An attempt at prettincss is evident, which somehow fails. (228), whose portfolios are not stocked with copies of existing buildings “India Missionary Churches, designed by the Rev. J. C. Petit or schemes for new ones. In Mr. Stevens! “Sketch of a Chapel and Thomas Hill,” are exceedingly clever studies, of planning iu nenr Tunbridge Wells” (3), there is at least one novelty. Itis, we articular. There is great novelty of idea, and sensible treat- believe, an orthodox canon, that a tower may be placed in any ment in all: a good notion of the effect of one is given by a model part of the plan, except the east end. Here it rides, not very Op the table. Geometrical Elevations and Sections of St. Michael's comfortably, on the back half of the south porch. Of the many Church, Coventry, are ahown in (241-2-3-4), and a very elaborate “Designs for Congregational Chapels," there are two or three sheet of Plans, Elevations, and Section of the Steeple, in (330. which deserve mention; (5) is perhaps passable, but all more or These drawings, it appears, have been prepared from careful less savour of a chilly tameness; and there is a special fancy for measurements of the whole fabric, by Mr. 9. D. Wyatt, under the No. 251.—V OL. XVIIL—FrsncARY, 1855. 7 GALLERIES OF THE SOCIETY OF BRITISH ARTISTS, SUFFOLK STREET, PALL MALL. 34 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. direction of Mr. Gilbert Scott, of London, with a view to a gradual repair and restoration. Rivalling in point of size this latter drawing, is an outline of the “West Front of Beverley Minster” (184), by Mr. F. P. Cockerell. (309-14), *Canton and Tynant Churches,” by Prichard and Seddon, are better than we are accustomed to see in the Principality: there is great similarity between the two, and both have the fault of exaggerated height. Some few drawings of Schools are interspersed on the walls. (14), Mr. Phipson’s, for St. Margaret’s, Ipswich, have been noticed before. Rickinghall School, Suffolk" (144), is not bad- looking: the landscape accessories are imaginary. (148), “Desi for Schools,” E. E. Scott, is far too pretentious, about as ike such buildings as can be supposed. (177), *Interior of Harlow Schools, Essex," G. E. Pritchett, is satisfactory. The National Schools, Cheddleton, Staffordshire," by George Lamb, (269), are good in outline, especially the bell turret. Not so the “Faversham Schools” (315), R. C. Hussey, which are nothing better than a shapeless mass, Tudor-Gothic in style. Those for “Dewsbury, Yorkshire” (317), now building from the designs of E. W. Tarn, are much better, though plainer. (323a), “St. Peter's Parochial Schools, Bristol,” by Gabriel and Hirst, are more quaint than pleasing. Designs for Almshouses appear in (181) (206) (218). The first, by Mr. Phipson, is called “Tooley and Smart’s Almshouses, Ipswich,” red brick, as usual, and forming three sides of a square, with an entrance gateway on the fourth side. By a curious whim, the architect shows the staircases open in the gable walls; their raking lines are not very picturesque, and do not improve the construction. Mr. Knightley’s “Shoreditch New Almhouses” (206) are poor, and not set off to advantage by the drawing. (218), “The Gascoigne Almshouses, Aberford,” G. F. Jones, seems costly, but far behind the age as to architectural merit. A very large proportion of the Exhibition walls is occupied by drawings of New Houses and Private Mansions: to some of these we have already referred in connection with other productions of their authors. On the whole there is a fair show, but incon- sistencies are often allowed to creep in, as in the first on our list, (13), where the roof has but an eaves gutter, while a subordinate part has a parapet, which moreover cuts into the aforesaid roof most unceremoniously. (39) is as faulty as it is assuming: we are sorry to learn that it has just been executed at Halifax. The oriel windows (it is intended for “Tudor,” we suppose) are all affectation,—the chimney-stacks look very much like cast-iron,— the conservatory (iron, with a battlemented parapet!) wretched in the extreme, and the boundary wall almost impracticable. It is a real disgrace. (120) cadd also have been well spared. Mr. Gray’s contributions have been already alluded to, as also some of Messrs. Edmeston's, and Truefitt’s. Mr. E. B. Lamb in (59) presents a very picturesque residence; so does Mr. G. Lamb's “Lodge” (18). Mr. Stride’s “Study for a Street” (60), cannot be commended. It is Gothic in detail, but not so in conception. The rain-water is conveyed downwards in a dodging manner. The “Railway Hotel, Ingatestone,” D. C. Nichols (117), is a good- looking red-brick building, in which the peculiar mode of using that material in the eastern counties is laudably imitated. A better specimen of practical brickwork, by the bye, can hardly be found than in the old tower of the neighbouring church. The “Mansion at Harrow-on-the-Hill, for Rev. F. Rendall,” F. Barnes (199), is a large red-brick affair, very poor in design. (204) “Hotel erecting at Polranny, County Mayo, Ireland,” R. W. Armstrong, has many new points, not all of which are improvements. The best is the pseudo-bay or canted window formed in the thickness of the wall. In (219), “Design for a Lodge and Gatehouse,” C. Maylard, an angle window and chimney-stack are excellently grouped. The “ Design for Eight Labourer's Cottages” (268), J. Williams, junior, is a poor attempt in brick and flint, for an almost worn out subject. It is to be wished that more architectural suggestions for Furniture and other decorative fittings, had been submitted; but, beyond a few, by Mr. F. Digweed (275-6), good in their way, we see but little. Messrs. Beensen and Kuckuck have three drawings (15, 17, 319), and Mr. Colebrooke Stockdale, two (111, 112). Mr. Fergusson’s beautiful “ Ceiling of the Assyrian Court, Crystal Palace” (320), can here be examined at leisure. It is not an imaginative composition, but authority or symbolism have dictated even the minutest detail. The “Three Detail Studies for Domestic Architecture” (23), Chamberlain and Taberner, are among the best drawings in the Exhibition, carefully devised and elaborated ;—they are quite “Ruskinish” in feeling. Competition Drawings.—(16 and 160) seem to be for the same building, viz, the “Stafford School of Art," 1853. The former, by Mr. Digweed, is of the French type beautifully drawn, but without much else to recommend it; the latter, by Mr. J. Nicholls, still more common-place. It is a simple Roman facade of eight pilasters, whose intercolumniations are filled-in, with semi-arched windows in two stories. (32) is the only “Design for Spring Hill College Birmingham," that is exhibited. (Why did not Messrs. Brown and James send their successful one?) Mr. Knightley, in that before us, shows an imposing building, but deficient in a self-interpretation of its plan. e must protest against the crow-stepped parapets, and the very ugly gateway entrance. The same gentleman’s “ Design for the Idiots’ Asylum” (75) is by no means so good, and will bear no comparison with the building as now being carried out. (78), Design, by Messrs. Jones and Parker, for the “Infant Poor Establishment, Islington,” is a good, plain, red-brick structure: but, where there is such evident symmetry as in the two gables forming the central feature, it would have been better had the oriels been made precisely to correspond. There seems no need for the present diversity. (207), “ Design for the Commercial Travellers’ School, Pinner,” is miserably uninteresting;—two monotonous rows of lain square-headed windows, with an extra few on the centre uilding. (Where is Mr. Ordish’s accepted design?) The “Com- n Design for Burial Ground Chapel, Ely" (289), T. A. ritton, is altogether a mistaken conception. The style chosen is Early English,—the two 1 are connected, and so disposed on plan as to look very much like a cross church minus the chancel, while a bell turret in the angle appears common to both, and helps the delusion. e must agan enter our protest against the “New Spire, &c., Woolpit Church, Suffolk” (30), for reasons stated in our June number of last year. Mr. C. Henman re-exhibits his “Design for a New System of Street Architecture” (133), “applicable to main thoroughfares.” It may be remembered that the design embraces shops or warehouses on the ground floor, with living-rooms in a mezzanine story over. Also shops or offices on the one-pair story, with living-rooms over; the shops being surrounded with galleries roofed with glass, forming suitable and safe promenades in all weathers. The upper stories are propose to be built in flats, each flat providin accommodation for a family according to its requirements. Each story to be provided with its separate staircase and porter's apartments, and each dwelling to be divided from the adjoining by vertical and horizontal construction, both fireproof and sound- proof. These are useful desiderata, which, there is hope, may not be altogether Utopian. Among the delineations of Old buildings, we may mention (7 and 11), * Houses at Tours,” by H. Mogford, F.S.A.; very curious specimens of brickwork; also (192), “Church of St. Symphorien, Tours,” by the same;—(36), “Old Gateway, Reggio, Nort Italy,” by Coutts Stone, a beautiful drawing of a bold design;—(47), “The Street at Chiddingstone,” (F. Warren), a group of picturesque half-timbered houses;—{74), a pretty little sketch at “St. Cross Hospital,” (E. B. Lamb);—(91), “York Cathedral, from the North West,” (W. G. Beaven); would that it could be in reality seen from such a put of view as here pictured !—{153), Boston Church, Lincolnshire,” (E. F. Watson), very careful;—{213), "Darlington Church," (R. Richardson);— (229), * Chimney-piece from Colchester Castle," (G. Lufkin);—and (263), “Palazzo Ricardi, Firenze," (date 1430), by B. J. Benwell. There are in the catalogue several works which could not be included in the above classifications, which must not be passed over. (4) “One of the Six Brass Doors in St. George's Hall, Liverpool,” designed by C. R. Cockerell, R.A. These are un- usually tasteful. Each peur of doors is about 12 ft. 8 in. high, by 6 ft. 4 in. wide. The frames are very bold, of a reed fo with a rich leafage moulding, terminating against the marble shafts with a bold ovolo. The doors are hung to the frames with gun-metal joints, with steel centres; they are two and a-half inches thick, but not of solid brass. Each door has a disc in the centre, with a head of Mercury, surrounded by a glory. The panels above and below the disc are extremely beautiful; the trident forming a centre, around and about which a rich ornament plays, intermixed with oak and laurel leaves. In the upper panel, or fanlight, the Liver, the symbol of Liverpool, forms the centre, around which is a wreath of oak; from the centre below this, springs a handsome spiral ornament, blended with rush leaves, oak, and laurel. The weight of each pair of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 35 doors is about 43 cwt. (73), “Study for a Staircase,” E. B. Lamb, is very good; stone segmental-ribbed groining springing from an octagonal newel, treated as a shaft, with cap and (102), “View of the Buildings on the Mound at Nimroud on the Tigris,” restored by James Fergusson, is especially interesting as giving an insight into the character of a people of whom so little is known. Mr. W. H. Leeds shows (130, 152, 221, 274) some of his classic “schemata” in domestic application. The Two Doorways,” by V. T. Horder (135 and 138), are marked b originality; as is Mr. Truefitt’s “Testimonial to Lord Frederic Fitzclarence" (168). “The Fountain at Zug, Switzerland” (183) Randall Druce, is fancifully pretty. (193-4-5) “Design and Working-Drawings for a Marble Chimney-piece,” J. W. Papworth, is called “One of a series of Lessons in the manner of preparin Working drawings and Details, &c" On these is bestow much more than ordinary care, indeed they are equal to finished drawings. (224), “A Study for a Statue of St. Catherine, to be Sculptured for the College at Hurst-per-point,” J. R. Clayton, is praiseworthy: the drapery, always a difficult part, is well managed. (253-4), “Battles Bridge, Essex,” by Sylvester and Co., is very good. The way in which the levels of springing of arches are accommodated to the necessary rise of the roadway, yet so as to keep as little as possible above water-mark, is simple and sensible. Some exceedingly good ideas are ested in the “Sketches of the Class of Design of the Architectural Association” (280-1-2-3), especially those by Messrs. Clarke, Pearce, Horn, and Kerby. Mr. E. Richardson’s “Details of Stone Pulpit for St. Mary's, Shrewsbury,” calotyped in (290-1) are very good ; and so are the “Sketches of Ironwork,” continental evidently, in (327). A rather large number of photographs are intermixed with the more glowing pictures, and on the tables. The truth and minute accuracy of these representations are invaluable. That of the “Gates of the Baptistery at Florence," in particular (162), E. Roberts, is quite a gem. | Department of Materiale, Manufactures, 5c. We cannot enter the rooms set apart for these purposes without repeating our regret that the show is so scanty; only twenty-two exhibitors’ names x 1 5 in the catalogue. Thus, a most valuable part of the Exhibition scheme, one which it is the interest of practical men especially to uphold, is all but negatived for the present. Every facility and encouragement has been given by the Committee — so that the fault rests with individuals themselves. In the objects placed for inspection there are several which deserve to be well considered, as their utility, provided they answer to the descriptions, will make them extensively available. Thus we have (2), “Specimens of Artificial Marble, by Dr. Emile Braun, of Rome,” who is desirous of introducing the substance into England. As in this and other novelties, it is desirable to obtain as full particulars as possible to assist investigation, we have interested ourselves to obtain further information for the benefit of our readers. This “artificial marble” is the result of a double process, for which patents have been secured both in France and England. In the first stage, the common gypsum (sulphate of lime) is made into plaster-of-paris of an improved description, possessing the 5 of strength and hardness in a high degree. From this kind of plaster the artificial marble is pre „ by means which convert the sulphate of lime into a carbonate of the same. Much time is occupied in the operation, and the details are said to require considerable care. The cost of the manufactured material does not appear at, when compared with its qualities and uses. It possesses the hardness of marble; and, like it, may be cut with the saw. It takesa high polish, and does not exhibit greater indications of wear than marble does. There is also this recommendation, that any colour can be imparted to it when in progress of manufacture. The prices in Rome are stated to be For 1st quality, per sq. fi. 7d. „ 2nd do. M 65d. „ 3rd do 89 é 5d. „ 4th do. o 32d As the constituent ingredients of this manufacture exist in great abundance in England, and as the processes are described as simple and inexpensive, while its applicability is equally great, we shall not be surprised to see it gradually making way in public favour. Another substance which we have frequently endeavoured to rescue from its usually humble uses, is brick. Without holding up as actual models some of those ingeniously elaborate devices in which our forefathers were wont to indulge, even in struc- tures of this material, it is evident that much may be done in the same spirit, and at no great cost. The larger the demand the more will this latter diminish. (2) and (3) are examples of ornamental bricks furnished by James Luff, of Tuddenham, near Ipswich, and George Gunton, of Costessy, near Norwich, respectively. The specimens consist of chimney shafts, ridge tiles, gable copings, crestings, and paving tiles, all well turned out, and of good colour, mostly red. The rich Venetian colour is the tone to be aimed at, and it is one which harmonises well Rey with other colours, and one which time improves. . Flack, of Tottenham, has (5), an interesting collection of * Models of Ancient Fonts,” to a small scale; many of them are well known to architects, such as the Winchester, Trumpington, Over, and St. out Magdalen, Oxford. That from West Deeping (called Early English), is curious as having heraldic shields tilling up the panel of each face. There are several other models of Gothic buildings both in this room and on the tables of the picture galleries. Mr. W. P. Griffith has prepared a model of the Currant Blossom, “one of a series to RU scale, showing the symmetry of very small flowers, and the practicability of applying them for ornamentation.” A curious field for botanical study is hereby disclosed, and the vast fertility of nature's forms is an exhaustless source of artistic materiel. A few specimens of ornamental and painted glazing, exhibited by N. W. Lavers, and J.and J. King, may just be referred to. In these, such as most closely follow the old types are by far the best. We have notas yet learnt how to improve on the simple geometric out- lines and strongly-defined colours of early work. R1 multiplicity of tints, especially when shaded, is wholly destructive of the true character of ornamental glazing. The “Design for a Carpet and Rug," by J. S. Pearse (12), falls most assuredly under a like censure. Not to discuss the propriety of introducing lions, tigers, and cubs, under such circumstances, the aim has been to render them pictorially life-like: they are therefore uped, or in attitudes, and carefully shaded, as if in actual relief. Than this nothing can be more absurd. The “Swiss Parqueterie (11), manufactured by Machinery by Messrs. Arrowsmith,” is solid throughout, grooved, tongued, and jointed with marine glue. It is said to be lower in price than veneered work. The prices are stated at from 1s. per foot super and upwards. Though extensively used in Paris, this application of material is little encouraged in England, less so than might be expected, considering how durable as well as decorative it may be made. (S) is a model illustrative of “Tyerman’s Patent Bond,” described in the catalogue as insuring a “perfect and complete tie or bonding in buildings, and in which the objections hitherto existing to the use of hoop iron (endeavoured to be overcome by chemical action, covering with pitch, sand, &c. &c.) are entirely removed, and the possibility to a great extent of fissures and cracks avoided.” On these points the model is not sufficiently explanatory. Some ingenious Clock machinery is exhibited by Messrs. Moore (10), as also several practical contrivances for gaining a regulated Ventilation in sitting rooms, shops, work rooms, &c. Not the least merit in these is their simplicity. (21) is *Watson's Self-acting Double- current Ventilator,”—consisting of a tube of metal (zinc is the best) of the size required, with a division up the middle, communicating, from the roof of the place to be ventilated, with. the outer air, where it is covered with a cap to keep out the weather, and with valves below, worked by pulleys, to propor- tion its action to the demand from the causes of vitiation below. The delicate wood carving (20), described as “Decorations for a Dining-room Doorway,” are wholly inappropriate. The moulded details are very clumsy, but the festooned carving of wheat, fruit, &c., besides being liable to collect dust, is so fragile that it would not last a week. It is merely curious as showing to how t a nicety—how close a shave we were going to say—the art is brought. Nor is the “Architectural Panel, with a Conven- tional Arrangement of Natural Foliage," altogether to our mind. The foliage fills up so closely to the geometrical margin, as to render the composition quite spiritless, while the method of its development is very unmeaning. (4), “A Capital, brought from Athens during the War of Independence, by Isaac Jolit, Esq, M.D.” we must presume to be genuine, and is an elegant curiosity, partaking of Egyptian and Indian quite as much as of Greek characteristics. The treatment of the bell reminds one of the Tower of the Winds” example at Athena. 7° 86 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. “The Indurated Stone Company’s Products” are deserving of a fair trial. The stated object of the process patented by Mr. William Hutchison is to render every description of soft sandstone, or other porous stone, and all other absorbent cementitious materials, such as bricks, tiles, &c., impervious to moisture, and indestructible by the action of the atmosphere. The operation gives to the stone a hardness that greatly increases its strength, and renders it almost proof againt ordinary wear. The surfaces of the indurated stone, whatever be their natural structure, become compact, and in many instances susceptible of a high degree of polish. It is also asserted that the impreg- nated material is not liable to vegetable or atmospheric deposits apon its surface, and may be kept perfectly clean by washing. The colours commonly imparted to the stone are a greyish white, and black, but other tints may be permanently applied by the incorporation of certain colouring matters. The stone, after undergoing the process, becomes, according to the authority of Sir R. I. Murchison, “as durable as the hardest rock, and quite impenetrable to moisture” Thus, out of two materials—each comparatively valueless in itself, viz., sandstone and gas-tar—is produced by amalgamation a most promising commodity. The works at present in operation are at King’s Quarry, close to Tunbridge Wells. The uses of the new material are various: for ordinary building purposes,—for marine works,—voussoirs for bridges,—or domestic utensils, and even for slipper baths and the like, since water is retained as completely as in vessels of earthen- ware or metal. The cheapness of labour on the softer stone, combined with the low price at which the induration can be effected, is likely to render the application of the new material extensive. Specimens in its several stages are placed in the room, along with some of the finished and highly-polished results, In (18) we are presented with a model of an ingenious con- trivance, by means of double hinging and slide, to admit of window sashes being taken out without unfixing the beads, and at little cost. It is patented by Mr. E. P. Gribbon. A goodly array of metal-work is exhibited by Messrs. Skidmore and Son, of Coventry, consisting chiely of gas standards, and other lighting apparatus; and by Messrs. Hart and Son, who have a great variety of hinges, &c., some among them very good. The door- plates and lock furniture are, however, poen The most extensive exhibitor in this practical department is Mr. W. Pierce, in his *Collection of Stoves, Applications for Warming and Ventilation, &c.,” from the cheap fire-lump grate to a highly ornamental apparatus. It is a recommendation of Mr. Pierce, that he has studied the subject long and usefullv, and brought his experimenta to bear on the wants of almost any circumstances. A like good word must be awarded to Messrs. Sylvester and Co., whose thoroughly scientitic skill is well known. “A Hot-water Stove” is all they have contributed to the present collection. This is not only good, and well suited to its purpose, but also tasteful in point of design. These stoves are intended for warming halls, staircases, galleries, model rooms, studios, shops, stores, warehouses, and offices in general; in short, all places where the dust and smoke of an open fire is objectionable, or the size of an apartment prevents its being heated by ordinary fireplaces. This stove, the body of which is cast in one piece, consists of a cylinder, or, more correctly, an inverted frustrum of a cone, filled with hot water or steam, the external surface of the cylinder being extended by starlike radiations or ribs, so as to increase the outer surface to a proportion of more than seven times that of the interior of the vessel. By this arrangement, not only is a very large diffusing surface exposed to contact with the air, but the amount of heat thrown off from the metal is greatly increased; the temperature of the stove being maintained by a very rapid circulation of the calorific particles of the medium. Any number of these stoves may be connected by pipes with one boiler, an advantage which allows of every part of a large establishment being warmed without that interference with the construction of the building which is inevitable under the usual modes of warming. The stoves, it is stated, may be placed wherever most convenient, and considered even as articles of furniture. A stove of the size exhibited (4 ft. high by 1 ft. 9 in. diameter) is calculated to warm 10,000 cubic feet of space at a cost for fuel of 3d. per day. In ordinary houses the stoves may be connected with a small close boiler at the back of the kitchen range. Being simple in construction, they cannot get out of order, and require no attention beyond the occasional opening of the stop-cock at the top of the stove, for the liberation of the disengaged air. This invention may claim the merit of rendering the comfort of a hot-water apparatus easily and cheaply attainable on the smallest scale. On paying a recent visit to the Gallery we found that a model has been added by Mr. Moon, of Millman-street, Bedford- row, explanatory of his scheme for accommodating the levels about Holborn-hill, and doing away with that commercial dis- e to our city. Without pronouncing on the plan before us, et us hope that the subject will be constantly agitated in public and in the Common Council, until so great a stigma be no longer permitted to exist. It would be easy to extend our observations on many of the topies which a general review has suggested, but having to treat of the Exhibition as in some degree representing the current state of architectural art, we have endeavoured as closely as possible to contine ourselves to individual remarks. It will be seen that we consider the collection taken altogether as suc- cessful, but not equal to what might be expected. Many of the drawbacks may be traced to causes not likely to occur again; and, now that every one knows the when and the where the next Exhibition is to take place, let each use his best endeavours to render it every way worthy of our age, our country, and the Art. Especially would we stimulate our country friends, about whom, from time to time, so much appears in type, to more practical sympathy, and our town members to renewed exertion, so that the forthcoming season may prove a decided advance upon any of its predecessors. — — — — THE GREAT DOME OF SULTAN MUHAMMED’S TOMB AT BEEJAPORE. By James Ferausson, Assoc. RIB.A., F. R. A. S. From a Paper read before the Royal Institute of British Architects. In the history of Domes, the first great example which it is necessary to quote is the Pantheon, which is raised on a circular apartment or drum, as were all the earlier domical tombs of the truscans and Romans. The inconvenience of this form was however early felt, and an octagonal one was adopted, and then a square, the angles of which were cut off, so as to form an octagon internally, and then the triangular blocks in the angles were hollowed out into great niches, so that very little space was lost. In course of time the head of the niche became an arch, springing from wall to wall, and so formed what may be called the Roman pendentive. It was generally brought down to the ground by a vaulting shaft, but that was of little or no construc- tive use. The Byzantines made an advance on this by filling up the angles of the building with a bold bracket springing from each angle, with a vaulting shaft in the corner, which gradually extended forward till it formed the octagon at the springing of the dome. The Saracenic architects used both these forms; though it may perhaps generally be asserted that in the western world they referred the Byzantine; in the eastern the Roman pendentive. In India there are some noble examples of both classes. In that country, after having produced the octagon they generally cut off the angles again, so as to produce a polygon of sixteen sides, and in large examples repeated the operation, so as to have one of thirty-two, which is practically so near a circle that a dome can be placed on it without difficulty or apparent abruptness. But besides gaining this floor for the dome, several other points have to be attended to, and the first is, that externally the dome should spring from within the line of the walls; internally, the same line should be carried up, but externally such an arrangement would be weak in the extreme. In small buildings this is easily got over; a wall 6 feet thick allows a dome 3 feet thick to be placed 3 feet from its face; and by thickening the wall another foot or two, the required apparent stability is obtained. In larger buildings this is generally effected by an outer verandah, or rauge of apartments, which, added to the internal square, gives the requisite base to the dome. At Beejapore, however, and in domes of such size, neither of these expedients was available. It would have required walls 15 to 20 feet thick had the first, and an enormous increase of height had the second, expedient been employed, or the building would have appeared squat and ill-proportioned. "The architects therefore adopted the plan I call the Beejapore pendentive, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 31 which consists in carrying the Boman arch not from one point of the n to the one nearest it, but to the next; by this means a much more extended floor is obtained for the dome, and though of the same thickness as the walls, it can be brought as far within their line as appearances require. A second advantage of this construction is that the architect obtains a mass of masonry so much larger than the whole mass of the dome, that no motion or disturbance of its equilibrium can affect the support on which it stands, and consequently if there be not some most glari inherent defect in the dome itaelf, it would stand for ever. third advantage is that the mass is so placed that its tendency is to fall inwards, or in other words, to dus the building together. This is easily and surely counteracted by the arch form of the circle; but at all events outward motion is impossible, and that is the one thing to be avoided in the present instance. A fourth advan D by this construction is the great gallery which surrounds the base of the dome, nearly 13 feet in width, which is not only a noble feature in itself to a person walking upon it, but when seen from below, has all the effect of the boldest cornice in the world—which it is—and conceals the springing of the dome from every point, so that it seems like a vast vault of unlimited extent spanning he whole space below with a simple grandeur, which, so far as I know, is unrivalled in any part of the world. This open gallery gives an effect of lightness and to the whole structure. Above the gallery is an orna- mental band of fretwork, which is surmounted by a battlement of great beauty, relieved by eight smaller minarets, two on each face. At each angle there is an 5 tower of 8 stories, simple and bold in its proportions, and crowned by a dome of great elegance. The lower part of each face is plain and simple, pierced only with such openings as are requisite to admit air and light in that climate, and they are not a tenth of what would be required in ours. SESE W Was RF ET ` * ~ Diameter of Principal Domes. Pantheon, Rome ......................-. 142 feet. St. Peter's, ditto ........................ 139 ,, Sta. Maria, Florence .................. 139 ,, Tomb of Muhammed, Beejapore ... 135 „ St. Paul's, London ..................... 112 ,, Sta. Sophia, Constantinople ......... 107 „ Church at Darmstadt .................. 105 „ Pantheon. Internal area of circle Internal area with recesses ...... 19,086 „ W hole area of building ............ 27,157 „ Area of supports 7,477 „ Ratio of supports to area ......... 363 Tomb of Muhammed. Internal area of square ............ 18,360 feet Internal area with recesses ...... 19,371 „ Whole area of building ........... 24,964 „ Area of supports 5,593 „ Ratio of supports to are 446 On comparing this with other domes, it will be seen that it is the first in area. It covers more clear of support, than any dome or vaulted roof in the world; while it is of more difficult construction, being placed over a square hall instead of a circular drum. Considered, therefore, either as a mechanical or as an artistic form, it must rank among the first, if in fact it be not the most beautiful as well as the largest domical building yet erected in any part of the world. The construction of the dome has been objected to as being unscientific, and had the discussion taken place at the Institution of Civil Engineers, the issue should have been taken on that o Here, we ought rather to ask, Is it artistic? According to dian notions, it certainly is, and so I think all will agree who see how ecm proportionate it is to the mass it covers, how solid, and, if I may so express it, solemn its outline is, and consequently how appropriate for a tomb. That it is unscientific according to our European notions I willingly admit, as it is thinnest at the springing, where it is 9 ft. 6 in.; a little above this it is 10 ft. 6 in., and carries a thickness of rather more than 10 feet to the apex, where it is 18 feet;a mode of construction exactly the reverse of ours, and perhaps of what it should be, if the question was only how the place could be roofed with the least ssible number of bricks. That its science is sufficient is proved y the fact that it has stood two centuries uninjured, indeed, barring earthquakes and pepul trees* it would with moderate care stand for ever. The fact is the Indians knew so well the capabilities of domes that they could play with them, &nd have no of their falling; we in Europe are afraid of them, and have never fairly tested their capabilities. Sir Christopher Wren shirked the question entirely by introducing a cone, constructively no doubt the best form for his purpose—artistically the worst, as he confessed by hiding it both internally and externally. Brunelleschi halved the difference, adopting & form slightly curved externally. The octagonal form of his plan rendered this tolerable, though not beautiful; for a circular dome it would be unbearable. Michael Angelo did better, and produced a bolder construction and a far more artistic form, and fad he been able to secure his base constructively, without iron ties, his dome might have been eternal. Had either he or Wren known, for instance, of this Beejapore mode of placing a mass at the springing, sufficient by its inertia to resist any movement in the vault, and to convert all outward thrust into inward pressure, they might have constructed far larger domes far more solidly than they have done. I trust. the subject may excite some interest, for I feel, so far at least as my own personal convictions are concerned, that the dome is by far the noblest feature which man has conquered from nature, for building purposes. Externally its deur far exceeds that of Gothic steeples or towers, or any other form we are acquainted with. Internally it covers rs than any other form of permanent roof, and in its simple sublimity far surpasses all the elaborate littlenesses of Gothic vaultings. It is also a true roof, which no Gothic vault is, the latter being merely a sham ceiling under a wooden roof, like the dome of St. Pauls; but when its construction is understood, a dome requires no such oovering, but ornaments the building it surmounts both externally and internally. It is also, I am convinced, the easiest constructed of all true roofs; and whether it is thin as the dome of earthen pots of San Vitale, or constructive as that of the Pantheon, or bold as that of the tomb of Muhammed, it stands with ease and lasts through ages, and with our science may be made as eternal as the pyramids. There is another tomb—that of Ibrahim. It is much smaller than that just described, being only 116 feet square over all, and 114 in height to the top of the crescent; but it makes up in rich- ness of detail and in elegance of design for this difference in dimension; and I am not sure that many would not prefer the Corinthian exuberance of this tomb to the Doric simplicity of its great rival. In plan it consists of an internal apartment, 40 feet square by 35 feet high, covered by a stone ceiling flat in the centre, and slightly coved at the sides; a constructive problem almost as difficult as the great dome of Muhammed's tomb itself, but which has been most successfully accomplished. This apartment is * Pepul trees (ficus religiosa) are the great enemies of buildings in India. They grow par preference ou brickwork, and if once they their roots into a crevice, they split the strongest wall in a very few years, and tear domes especially to pieces. 38 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL surrounded by a double verandah, flat roofed throughout, and supported on square pillars, with bold and beautiful capitals. Though the walls of the central apartment are plain and unorna- mented, every part of the exterior is covered with the most elaborately carved ornaments, generally of Hindoo parentage, but interspersed with inscriptions from the Koran, so numerous, that it is said the whole of the sacred book is inscribed on the walls of the tomb. The windows, too, have pierced Arabic inscrip- tions for tracery, and the whole is coloured, gilt, and finished with a profusion of labour and intricacy of design, which puts the Alhambra and all western buildings to shame, and can only be found in the far east. Above the central apartment is one covered by a dome of beautiful proportions and design, though merely meant to occupy the space required to give the necessary height to the dome externally, which combined with the minarets surrounding it, makes up a group of graceful objects as playful as anything in Gothic architecture, as beautiful in grouping, and far more elaborate in detail. Attached to all these buildings are mosques and gateways, the former larger than the tomba themselves, and as beautiful in style. "Before sitting down I may allude to one other dome, that of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople, of which at last some authentic particulars have been obtained in the work of Salzenburg of rlin, who, taking advantage of the scaffoldings erected by Fossati for the repair of the building, measured carefully every part of it, and has just published the result of his researches in one of the most beautiful works produced for a long time, from which the section on the wall is copied. From this it appears that the diameter of the drum of the dome is 100 Prussian feet, or 102 ft. 11 in. English, but the dome itself is 4 feet more, or 107 feet in diameter. It is constructed of forty ribs, projecting each 2 feet, which die away towards the centre, leaving about one-third of the dome perfectly plain. The form is segmental, 45 ft. 6 in. in height, and described consequently from a point about 8 feet below the springing. Round the base are forty windows, which throw in a flood of light; and altogether its appearance internally is as beautiful as any I know of. Originally it was even flatter than it now is, but being in that form beyond the constructive power of its architect, it fell in, and the present form was adopted; but even then the architect tried to keep it as low as possible, judging correctly, that the flatter it was the greater would be its apparent size, and also that of the floor it covered, and of all the parts around it. To obtain these internal advan- tages however, the architect sacrificed the exterior entirely, and it is on the outside perhaps the ugliest dome ever constructed. But the same remark applies to the whole church. No pains whatever seems to have been taken with the exterior, though every part of the interior is designed with the greatest care, and ornamented with the most profuse liberality. In reply to questions, Mr. Fergusson stated that the dome at Beejapore was constructed of brickwork without centering, that the courses of the pendentives were not horizontal, but radiating, and that the mortar was made of the common lime of the country, which was very good. In India such buildings as the tomb of Muhammed probably took twenty years in their construction, out of which not less than three or four years would have been occupied on the dome. —̃ä — — INSTRUMENT FOR RAPID SURVEYING.* By Epwarp W. SERRELL, C.E. I am not aware that anything similar to the instrument described has been used, although the idea has been taken from a telescope, described to me by Col. Rumford, three or four years enu. Col. Hughes, then in charge of the surveys for the Panama Railroad, sent me orders to have an accurate survey made of the Chagres river, from my camp, near Rio Gatun, towards Gorgona; with a request that it might be done as quickly as possible. I had only one assistant that could be spared from the division, but the old adage was verified, and necessity again proved the mother of invention. I had a very good Young's transit, and an excellent thirty-inch German pocket telescope, with these an instrument was manufactured in the course of the day, by Mr. T. M. Griffith and myself, in the * From the Journal of the Franklin Institute. following manner: We had no a wrought-iron nail, a pair of pliers, a tack hammer, and an adjusting pin, and screw-driver belonging to a level, constituted, I believe, with a pocket-knife, all our available apparatus. In order to render the telescope rigid in the joints of the tubes, a reed about three-eighths of an inch in diameter was lashed firmly along its entire length. The telescope of the transit was then unscrewed from the trunnions, and a piece of hard wood, about two feet in length, substituted for it. On either end of this beam there were blocks, hollowed transversely to receive the German telescope; they were made adjustable by wooden wedges, that a proper vertical plane might be given to the instrument; all the fastenings of the blocks to the beam, and the telescope to them, were rans of bees-waxed black thread. This being done, we had merely exchanged a small telescope for a large one on the transit. How to fix the cross wires in the glass was the next difficulty; we however, made a very good diaphragm of a piece of dry sugar- cane, with the pith scraped out, leaving it long enough to slide in the tubes, without changing the direction of its axis, while the focal distance was being regulated. But we had no platinum wire, or fine silk, to form the crosses with, but we had a pet monkey, and poor Mono was made to contribute his share in the emergency; three of the finest hairs, taken from near the root of his tail, supplied the deficiency, and proved an excellent substitute. One was placed in the vertical plane, and two were stretched across the middle, about one-eighth the diameter of the field apart; at first, some difficulty was experienced in fastening the hairs to the diaphragm, as the sealing-wax used melted in the sun, and they changed their positions; notches were then substituted, in the end grain of the sugar cane, and answered the purpose. A base line of a thousand feet was then carefully measured on the beach, and the transit so fitted placed over one end of it. We had in the camp, a fourteen feet pine levelling rod, fitted with a sliding target; to this rod at 0. feet, we secured a permanent view, and the rod being then placed at the opposite end of the base line, wrong end upwards, for convenience, an observation from the transit was made upon it, and the amount of the visual angle formed between the two horizontal hairs in the telesco upon the rod, was recorded by sliding the target down until the upper and lower horizontal hairs cut its centre and the stationary vane. When the telescope was level, and the rod plum, the angle thus formed was isosceles, the rod forming the base, and by it a ratio was formed, which in this case, as the base line measured was 1000 feet long, became a decimal quantity; the observation on the rod was between 7 and 8 feet for 1000. With the apparatus thus fitted, in little more than twenty-four hours from the receipt of the order to make the survey, I started up the river, with two canoes, two Indians, an assistant, and three days’ provisions. By this plan, the force on the field was not sufliciently reduced to interrupt materially the surveys previously in hand, at least for a few days. The assistant, having with his note book, level rod, and ten pickets, with white raga tied to them, and an Indian to paddle his canoe, started ahead, and proceeded up stream as far as he could see the first station, there showed his rod, and put up a picket, an observation being taken from the starting point to the rod, the assistant recording the reading, and left a bit of paper pinned to the picket with the same written upon it. With the instrunent, the magnetic bearing and the angle from one line to another were taken. Both parties then again entered their boats, the first one pushing on as far as he could see his last picket, and then took another position on shore. While the rear boat was going from one picket to another, the line was plotted on a drawing board placed across the bows, the topography on either side of the river sketched, and the soundings, which were taken by the peloto, who managed the canoe, recorded as we passed along. At every ten stations we compared notes and exchanged pickets. In this manner with an instrument so roughly made, we surveyed, sounded, sketched the topography, and mapped, nearly eighteen miles per day. The work proved correct upon being connected with the theodolite lines, which were run for the railroad. I have frequently, since, found situations where this instrument has been used to advantage. tools; a brada wl, made of ee THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 39 LIST OF PLANS DEPOSITED AT THE PRIVATE BILL OFFICE FOR SESSION 1854-5. Birmingham Gas-light and Coke Company. Monmouthshire Railway and Canal Company. Liverpool Docks. Wigan and Preston Roads, North of Yarrow. Bolton and Nightingales’ Road. City of Dublin Steam Packet Company. Brighton Improvement Commissioners and Municipal Corporation. Regent's Canal Company (Purchase of the Hertford Union Canal). Ulster Railway. Lands Improvement Company. Oldham Corporation, Gas Mu Water Supply. South Eastern Railway (Capital). Ratcliff Gas- Light and Coke Company. South Yorkshire Railway and River Dun Company. Swansea Docks. Bristol and Exeter Railway. Glasgow and South Western Railway (Steam Boata). Leeds, Bradford and Halifax Junction Railway. Glasgow and South Western Railway Consolidation. Staines, Wokingham and Woking Railway (Alterations). 1 eh i and Woking Railway Construction, &c. (Reading unction). Vale of Neath Railway Com : Swansea Vale Railway. icd Aberdare Valley Railway. North Yorkshire and Cleveland Railway. Carlisle and Silloth Bay Railway and Dock. Londonderry Improvement. Pudsey Gas. Rivers Thames and Medway Conservancy City of London Gas- Light and Coke Company. South Staffordshire Railway. Glasgow, Dumbarton and Helensburgh Railway. Wolverhampton Waterworks. Stockton and Stokesley Railway. Inverury and Old Meldrum Railway. Royal London Militia. Wadhurst and West Farleigh Turnpike Roads. Alford and Boston Road. Dundalk and Blackrock Railway. Dundalk Harbour and Port. Halifax Gas- Light Company. Wolverhampton New Water Supply Works. West Somerset Mineral Railway. Torquay Market and Slaughter-houses. Taunton Gas. Nottingham and Loughborough Road. Colonial Life Assurance Company. | Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway (Lincoln Branch, &c.) Manchester Improvement. London and North Western and Lancashire and Yorkshire Railways (Enlargement of Station, &c.) South Wales Railway Consolidation. Cornwall Railway. Dundee and Perth, and Aberdeen Railway Junction. Newport (Monmouthshire) Corporation. Chesterfield Waterworks and Gas Cork and Youghal Railway. Phoenix Gas- Light and Coke Company, South Metropolitan Gas- Light and Coke Company, London Gas-Light Company, and Surrey Con- sumers' Gas Company. Commercial Road t. Rotherham Gas. Cardiff Improvement. Hyde Original Gas Works. Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway (Completion of Narrow Gauge). Woolwich Consumers Protective Gas Company. Over Darwen Gas. Wicklow Mineral Railway. Sheffield United Gas- Light Company. Glossop Gas. East Indian Railway Company. East Kent Railway. East and West India Dock Company. Madras Railway Company. London Dock Company. Dearness Valley Railway. Spalding, Bourn and Stamford Junction Railway, and Spalding Water- works Company. Middlesbrough and Guisbrough Railway. Derby Extension and Improvement. Uxbridge B Lands. Cromford and High Peak Railway. Londonderry and Coleraine Railway. Leominster and Ledbury Turnpike Trust. Stockton and Darlington Railway. Bognor Railway. Belfast and County Down Railway. Plymouth and Stonehouse Gas. Ayr Harbour. Renfrew Police and Improvement. Aboyne, Ballater, Braemar and Cairnwell Turnpike Road. Birkenhead Dock Trustees. Sunderland Dock. Great North of Scotland Railway. Banff, Macduff, and Turriff Junction Railway. Liverpool Corporation Waterworks. Liverpool Improvement. Warrington Waterworks. Nottingham and Newhaven Road. Sligo Gas. Glasgow, Kirkintilloch and Baldernock Roads. Birkenhead New Dock. Birmingham Canal Navigations. London and South Western Railway Acts Amendment. Newport Gas Company. "a End and Crystal Palaco Railway and Westminster Terminus way. Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway. Price's Patent Candle Company. Southwark and Vauxhall Water Company. Grand Junction Waterworks. Torquay, Tor and St. Er Gas. Gomersal and Dewsbury pike Road. Burbiton Improvement. Royal Conical Flour Mill Company. Glasgow Corporation Waterworks. Stroud, Cainscross and Minchinhampton Turnpike Road. Lightpill and Birdlip Road. New River Company and Trustees of the River Lee. Birmingham Waterworks. Southampton Paving Trust, St. Paneras. Cambridge University and Town Waterworks. Guldeford or Guildford and Farnham Road. Peterborough and Wellingborough Road. Ossett Gas. Basingstoke, Stockbridge and Lobcomb Corner Turnpike Road. Honiton Road. Kilmarnock Gas- Light Company (Incorporating and conferring Powers). Airdrie Rural District Police. Stalybridge Gas. West Bromwich Improvement. Kingston-upon-Hull, Hessle and Ferriby Road. Newcastle-upon-Tyne New Streets and Improvements. London and Blackwall Railway. Great Northern Railway (Increase of Capital). Heywood Waterworks. South Wales Mineral Railway. Kingston-upon-Thames Improvement. Stourbridge Gas. Colchester, Stour Valley, Sudbury and Halstead Railway. Folkestone Improvement. Folkestone Waterworks. Surrey Consumers’ Gas Company. Hoarwith Bridge. Brecon Corporation and Local Board of Health. Bridport Roads (First District). Bridport and Broad Winsor Roads. Dursley and Midland Junction Railway. Newtown and Oswestry Railway. Ashton-under-Lyne Corporation Gasworks and Waterworks. Bt. Katharine Dock Company. Woolwich Gas. Charlbury, Witney, Woodstock, Enstone and Great Tew Road. Borough of Shrewsbury Improvement. Birkenhead, Lancashire and Cheshire Junction and Great Western Railways. St. George's Harbour Act Amendment. Nelson Tea Voyagers and General Life Assurance and Investment Com : lancaster Walbesorká and Gas Act, 1852. Wolverhampton Corporation Waterworks. Bangor Markets and Public Institutions. Great Western and Brentford (Thames Junction) Railway. Great Northern London Cemetery. Manchester Parish. Llynvi Valley Railway Company and Bridgend Railway Company. 40 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Tormoham and St. Mary Church Gas. Somerset Central Railway. Torquay Waterworks. Torquay District Churches. Caterham Railway (Extensions to Croydon and Tupwood Quarries; Amendment of Act). Bridport Railway. South Eastern Railway (Thames and Medway Canal Abandonment). Trebarwith Sands Turnpike Road. Newcastle-under- Lyne Gas. Union Bank of Scotland. Western Bank of Scotland. London Necropolis and National Mausoleum Amendment. Hyde Gas Company. Kelson Bridge Act Amendment. Weston-super- Mare Gas. Uphill and Bleadon Road. Dublin, &c. Roads (Abolition of Turnpikes). Wigan and Preston Roads, South of Yarrow. St. Helen's Improvement. London and Brassington Road. Bury St. Edmunds Improvement. Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway (Improvements and Branches). Limerick and Castleconnell Railway. Executor and Trustee Society. Maryport and Carlisle Railway. Grand Surrey Canal Company. Gateshead and Hexham Turnpike Roads. Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway. Caledonian Railway. Worcester and Hereford Railway. Fergus Estuary Reclamation. Waterford and Limerick Railway. Salisbury and Yeovil Railway. Stockport, Disley and Whaley Bridge Railway. British and American Great Railway Land Company. Congleton Inclosure Exchange. Inverness and Elgin Junction Railway (No. 1). Inverness and Elgin Junction Railway (No. 2). Galley Hill and Clanfield Cross Turnpike Road. Chester and Holyhead Railway. Limerick and Foynes Railway. Great Northern Railway (Church and Schools at Doncaster). Waveney Valley Railway. Metropolitan Railway. Oxford, Worcester and Wolverhampton Railway (Postponement of Completion of Broad Gauge). Gloucester Waterworks and Local Board of Health. Abingdon Junction Railway. Westminster Improvements. Stokes Bay and Isle of Wight Railway, Pier and Telegraph. Birkenhead Docks and Liverpool Docks (Alteration and Modification of Liverpool Dock Rates, &c) Birkenhead Docks and Liverpool Docks ement of Trust Property of Birkenhead Dock Trustees, &c.) los TUN North Staffordshire Railway. Hartlepool Gas and Water Company (Increase of Capital and Amend- ment of Act). Hartlepool Pier and Port (Improvement of the Port of Hartlepool, &c.) Portsmouth Railway. Leek Improvement. South Wales Railway (Extension of Time). Medical Benevolent College. Lyme Regis Turnpike Roads. Furness Railway. Barrow Harbour. Severn Valley Railway. Ludlow Improvement. General Land Drainage and Improvement Company. Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Worcestershire Junction Railwav. Lancashire, and Yorkshire and Blackburn Railway Companies’ Amal- gamation. Cape Town Railway and Dock Company. Towns’ Improvement Company. Luton, Dunstable and Welwyn Junction Railway. Weymouth Waterworks. Wem and Bronygath Roads. Cork and Bandon Railway. Gun- Barrel Proof Houses (Birmingham and London). Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway. National Loan Fund Life Assurance Society. Newton-in- Mackerfield (Lancashire) District Improvement. Stroud and Chalford Turnpike Trust. Manchester, Shetficld and Lincolnshire Railway (Power to Capitalise Arrears of Dividend, &c.) Patent Solid Sewage Manure Company. Medical Invalid and General Life Assurance. Port of Liverpool. Westminster Land Company. Connauyht Mining Company. Hamilton Sanitary Improvement. Westminster Terminus Railway Extension (Clapham to Norwood). Paisley Burgh. North Metropolitan Water Trust. Keighley and Kendal Turnpike Road (Yorkshire District). Fife and Kinross Railway. i Jedburgh Railway. East of Fife Railway. Hedon and Hull, and Wyton and Flinton Turnpike Road. Gateshead Quays and Improvements. Leslie Railway. Improvement in Communication between England and Ireland. Plymouth Great Western Docks. Thames Embankment and Railway. Barnet and Willesden Railway. Electric Telegraph Company. Direct Manchester and Milford Haven Junction Railway Company. Exeter and Exmouth Railway. Mid-Kent and North Kent Junction Railway. Rhymney Railway. Carmarthen and Cardigan Railway. Scinde Railway Company (Incorporating and conferring Powers in Great Britain and India). Swansea Docks and Mineral Valleys Railway. Dagenham Docks. The Fibre Company. Ipstones Mineral Branch Railway. Surrey and South Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Company (River Wandle Source). Hammersmith, Fulham and Westminster Railway. Total number of Bills, 270. — . — RAILWAY ACTS PASSED IN 1854. Tnk number of railway acts passed in the session of 1854 was 81, of which 26 were for the incorporation of new companies. The aggregate length of main line and branch railway sanctioned was 481} miles; the amount of share capital authorised to be raised was 7,280,070.; and of loans, 1,754,317/.; together, 9,034,3872. Deducting 1,595,070L, authorised to be raised for the general purposes of six companies, there remain 7,439, 317“. for the construction of the 481 miles, being at the rate of 15,4661. per mile, including plant. The new company’s lines sanctioned were the Ayr and May- bole Junction, 54 miles, 40,0004, on shares and loan; the Bagenalstown and Wexford, 424 miles, 360,0001.; the Border Counties, 26 miles, 333,3301; the Bradford, Wakefield, and Leeds, 9% miles, 240,000/.; Carmarthen and Cardigan, 253 miles, 350,0007.; Caterham, 48 miles, 38,0002; Darlington and Bar- nardeastle, 15} miles, 133,300/.; Dowlais, 31 chains, 7500/.; East Suffolk, 31} miles, 400,000/.; Hertford and Welwyn, 7é miles, 86,000/.; Horncastle and Kirkstead Junction, 78 miles, 64,0004. ; Inverness and Nairn, 15% miles, 106,660/.; Leominster and King- ton, 13] miles, 106,000; Mallow and Fermoy, 16? miles, 133,6007.; North Yorkshire and Cleveland, 30 miles, 240,000/.; Potteries, Biddulph, and Congleton, 18} miles, 190,0002.; Rhymny, 112 miles, 130,000}; Salisbury and Yeovil, 403 miles, 533, 3330.; Selkirk and Galashiels, 54 miles, 32, 000l.; South Devon and Tavistock, 173 miles, 213,3002.; Stockton, Disley, and Waley- bridge, 103 miles, 200,00U/.; Towey Vale, 114 miles, 80,0004; Wells and Fakenham, 9% miles, 93,3007.; Westminster Terminus, 2? miles, 640,0007.; and Whitehaven, Cleator, and Egremont, 4# miles, 66,6007. The total amount authorised to be raised for these undertakings, 385} miles in length, is 4,839,423., being at the rate of 12,532“. per mile. The Ambergate, Nottingham, and Boston were authorised to amend acts and reduce share capital to 1,075,000/.; to extend line intu Nottingham, 2? miles; and to make arrangements with the Great Northern for working the line, or to lease or sell it to them; the Ardrossan and Glasgow and South-Western Amal- gamation; the Bangor and Carnarvon Amalgamation with the Chester and Holyhead; the Blyth and Tyne, to make 9g miles of branch line, and to raise 65,000/.; the Caledonian to purchase certajn portions of the General Terminus undertaking; to make 198 miles of the Lesmahagow branches, at an estimated cost of 125,000/.; to make 3 miles of branch line for the Wishaw and c SVOU) uvis up QOYAN pun dien MON bee aur (nin aipiig MON NA Spans . IYI “MON HiHON Jo HONVUS eureg or[qnd 0 É 3 \ WSS E \\ \ \ — LLU 2 SSN SS 3 8 p2 IN a) N EMS D> EX Y Ar M joi E E i 2 qe 0 OF OF OE OF OB / — — Midas ax ^n". , EL ZUM One: UA - MA TT Mr : — 7 SZEN 4 7 4 ii f Se á < 4 H SST t E = ee || ae | ag a yr : ee "T re pn?) addy jo PAT : nl Goby, : £g T LULA AATA, m Al HL ELS AAA 2 e3 " ‘weg uo')'g ye uono?g = —— ro TIVH RVITIIM 99D QVHHSSIVO NI SIN3KSAONJKI AVNO OIIHOd Q3S0dONd AHL 9NIMSHS NVTd Sé THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 41 Coltness Railway, and to raise 1006,0007.; the Cork and Bandon, to make a line to Skibbereen, 7 miles in length, at a cost of 40,000/.; the Cork and Waterford, reduced to a line from Cork to Youghal; the Cornwall, to make certain modifications in the share capital; the Dublin and Wicklow and Dublin and Kings- town, agreements for leasing the latter to the former company; Eastern Counties, to make working agreements with the Eastern Union, the Norfolk, the East Anglian, and the Newmarket; to make 72 chains of railway at Wisbeach, and to expend 60,0004. thereon; Eastern Union, reviving powers for the purchase of land for the Woodbridge branch; East Lancashire, Lancashire and Yorkshire, and Manchester and Southport, authorising the East Lancashire to raise 266,000/. to make 58 chains of railway; Furness, to raise 60, 000“. for the general purposes of the under- taking; Great Indian Peninsular, to make arrangements as to revenue; Great North of Scotland, to make deviations; Great Western (Berks and Hants) to raise 85,0004. to construct 4$ miles of railway at Reading, and to raise 1,000,0007. for the general urposes of the Wilts, Somerset, and Weymouth; Great Western Stratford), to provide additional accommodation at Birmingham, olverhampton, and Bushbury; Great Western, Shrewsbury, and Birmingham, and Shrewsbury and Chester amalgamation; Lancashire and Yorkshire (Liverpool Dock branches), to make four branches 1 mile 62 chains in length, and to raise 370,000/.; Lancashire and Yorkshire (Middleton branch), to make a line 1 mile 6 chains in length, and to raise 25,000/.; Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Junction, to raise 66,000/., and to make 4} miles in length; London and North-Western, to purchase the Haydon- square branch, and to establish a life assurance and superannua- tion fund for the officers and servants of the company; London, Brighton, and South Coast, to raise 359,070“. to improve the line; London, Tilbury, and Southend, to make deviations in line, and to issue 52,000/. in shares for the purchase of the Thames Haven undertaking; the Londonderry and Enniskillen, to raise 100, 000“. for the general purposes of the railway, and to make a branch to Fintona; the Madras to make further contracts with the East India Company; Newcastle and Carlisle, to raise 150,000/; Norfolk to improve the harbour of Lowestoft and to levy tolls; North London to make station and sidings at the Metropolitan Cattle-market, and to raise 100,0007.; North Metro- politan to raise 923,00U/. of additional capital, and to extend line to the General Post-office, 1 mile 3 furlongs, and to the Great Western Railway, & distance of 1 mile 5 chains; North and South-Western Junction, to raise 19,934. for the general pur- poses of the railway; Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton, to make the Chipping Norton branch, 45 miles in length, and to raise 32, 000“. for the purpose; and to make deviations in the line and levels of the Stratford and Stourbridge branches; Ports- mouth, to make alterations in the line and levels of the railway, and to extend the line from Godalming to Shalford; Portsmouth and Direct London and Portsmouth, to dissolve the Direct London and Portsmouth Company, and to transfer its property to the Portsmouth Company; Shrewsbury and Chester, to amend acts; Shrewsbury and Hereford, to lease line to Mr. Brassey, and to provide station accommodation; Shropshire Union, to remove certain impediments to the granting of a lease of the undertaking to the London and North-Western Company; South Devon, to make a deviation in the line, at a cost of 18, 000l.; South Staffordshire, to make the Cannock branch, 78 miles in length, and the Norton branch, 3 miles in length, at a cost, out of existing funds, of 90, 000“.; South Wales, to acquire additional lands at Swansea, and to make arrangements with the Vale of Neath Company; Stockton and Darlington, to raise 250,000/., and to make 22 miles of branch line; Tralee and Killarney, to revive powers and relieve certain baronies in the counties of Cork and Kerry trom the payment of interest on certain loans; West London, to determine an existing lease and to make fresh arrangements with the London and North-Western Company; West London and Crystal Palace Company, to make an exten- sion line of 8 miles in lenyth to Bromley and Farnborough, and to raise 106, 666“.; Whitehaven Junction, to raise 16,000}. to complete works; York, Newcastle, and Berwick, to construct 5} miles of railway to the Tyne Docks, and to expend 300,0007. out of existing funds on new works, and to make arrangements for the purchase of land adjoining the Pontop and South Shields Railway; York, Newcastle, and Berwick, York, and North Mid- land, and Leeds Northern amalgamation, and also to amalgamate the Malton and Driffield Company with the amalgamated com- pany. GATESHEAD QUAYS AND IMPROVEMENTS. WILLIAM HALL, Engineer to the Corporation. (With an Engraving, Plate VI.) THE late fire and explosion at Gateshead * have led to the carrying out of projected public quays and improvementa, which are calculated to effect striking changes in the property con- tiguous to Tyne-bridge, and the corporation have taken the necessary steps in order to obtain in the ensuing session of par- liament full and effective powers to carry out this most important undertaking, the following description of which will be clearly understood by a reference to the accompanying plan and section. The whole of the existing buildings on the east side of Bridge- Street and Church-street to the churchyard of St. Mary's, and extending down the river to the goods’ drop and wharf of the North-Eastern Railway Company, are intended to be cleared away, and will give place to a line of buildings at the distance of about 92 fect from the edge of the river, having a curved or crescent-shaped frontage running parallel with the course of the river Tyne, and extending from Tyne-bridge to a distance of 1130 feet in length. These buildings will be five stories high and 40 feet wide, having an elevation in the Italian style, of plain but bold front. At the back of this block of buildings will run a lane 22 feet wide, for the purpose of giving light and ventilation to this and another block of building having a southern aspect, and forming the north side of a wide and spacious street connecting Church- street with Oakwell-gate and the south shore. This street will have its level in Church-street, near the bottom of the Bottle- bank, and will have the easy gradientoflin 46. The level of this street is considerably higher than the level of the surface of the quay, and in order to afford facilities for passengers to reach the quay from the street and districts immediately above, a spacious ight of stairs will be provided at the east and west ends to give communication with the quay below. At the edge of the river it is proposed to form a quay 21 feet wide, running east and west, the level of which will be about 4 feet above hizh-water mark. At the distance of 21 feet from the river will be constructed a second quay wall, 14 feet high, the level of which extends back to the frontage of the buildings, being a distance of about 71 feet, forming what may be termed an upper quay. In the face of this quay wall are the doorways to a series of arches underneath the upper quay, forming commodious and most extensive warehouses. Two lines of tram-way, the rails of which will be *bridge rails," and laid flush with the surface, will be laid on the lower quay and in the arched warehouses, to facilitate the transit of merchandise from the river to the ware- houses and buildings; a double line of tram-way will also be laid along the upper quay. At suitable distances hydraulic cranes will be placed for the expeditious working of the traffic, and so constructed as to deliver goods upon either the lower or higher quay, as may be found necessary. At proper intervals landing stairs will be constructed from the surface of the upper quay as well as from the lower quay, down to the river, giving passengers access to the boats at all states of the tide. It may be necessary to point out that the goody’ drop and wharf belonging to the North-Eastern Railway Company is in constant use for the ship- ment and delivery of goods, and that there is ample draught of water for vessels at the lowest tides. By this means we shall obtain, through the communication with the railway, all the advantages necessary for a commercial and manufacturing com- munity—advantayes nowhere else possessed in this neigh- bourhood. The River Tyne Improvement Commissioners have opportunely resolved to throw a wider bridge across the river a little to the westward of the existing fabric. Simultaneously therefore with the works which are undertaken by the Gateshead Corporation for the accommodation of the merchants and shipowners, in the shape of wharf and warehouse facilities, the clearance of the stream of the river from the huge and numerous piers or “star- linus” of the present bridge, will be the means of giving a very considerable tnerease of depth of water. To carry out the approach to the new bridge, it will necessarily follow that the old buildings in Pipewell-gate, extending from Tyne-bridge to the High Level-bridge, will be cleared away, and * The site of the warehouse where the explosion took place is marked a 5 the plan, and the property destroyed extended to a distance having a radius of about seventy yards. 8 42 the commissioners and the council will no doubt properly and satisfactorily define the junction of the separate undertaki It must never be forgotten, that along with the mercantile character of the undertaking, the project involves a sanitary improvement of the locality of the most satisfactory nature. It is therefore a subject for congratulation to see that the energetic efforts of the council are likely to bring works so important to the prosperity of the borough to a speedy and succesful issue. ne —— WHO INVENTED THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH? THERE are few things more difficult to determine satisfactorily than the claims of competing parties to be the original inventor of any great improvement which has produced a social change. The more important the invention, the greater is the number of claimants, and the difficulty of adjustment proportionally increases; but there is, perhaps, no invention that has given rise to so many claims to priority as the Electric Telegraph. It has been customary, in this country at least, to attribute the practical application of electricity to the transmission of intelli- gible arbole to Professor Wheatstone, who is known to have made numerous ingenious electrical appliances, and whose name was associated with that of Mr. William Fothergill Cooke in the first patent for an electric telegraph that was obtained in England. Though the patent was taken out in the joint names of Cooke and Wheatstone, the claims of the former to the honour of the invention have been generally disregarded, and he has been looked upon merely as the capitalist and man of business by whose agency the invention was brought into public notice, whilst all the scientific arrangements of the first working electric telegraph have been commonly attributed to Professor Wheat- stone. Mr. Cooke has, from time to time, remonstrated against 5 into the background, and about two years ago, the late Professor Daniell and Sir I. Brunel were appointed arbitra- tors to decide on the respective merits of Messrs. Wheatstone and Cooke, in bringing the invention into a practical shape. An award was E which was at that time satisfactory to both parties; the important part Mr. Cooke had taken in bringing the invention to a working condition was fully admitted, and the electric telegraph, in its then state of perfection, was attributed to the joint and nearly equal labours of the associated inventors. Notwithstanding this award, however, the public continued to ive Professor Wheatstone the chief merit in the invention, and e exhibited no desire to disown it. Mr. Cooke, though annoyed at being thus ignored in the matter, contented himself with occasionally remonstrating to the Professor for thus taking the whole credit to himself, and, solaced by the enjoyment of a lordly fortune acquired by his scientific labours, he did not further trouble himself about the “empty fame.” But human endurance has its limits, and the total omission of Mr. Cooke’s claims in a long article on the electric telegraph in the Quarterly Review, seems to have raised his indignation above the boiling point, and the effervescence has assumed the shape of a printed vindication of his title to be considered the projector and inventor of the first working telegraph. Mr. Cooke seems determined to enter thoroughly into the question, and he is preparing a long state- ment, accompanied by copies of documents, and illustrated by numerous plates, which will show the progress he had made in perfecting the electric telegraph, before he became acquainted with Profesor Wheatstone, and will point out specifically the parts of the combined arrangement of the instrument which each of the partners invented. In the meantime, however, he has published a brief statement of the case, with extracts from some of the documents, to serve as an avant courier to the more bulky proofs of his title to be the inventor of the first practical electric telegraph.* Independently of the interest that attaches to the history of an important invention, there is much personal matter introduced in this vindication, which tends to give it additional attraction. The early career and studies of Mr. Cooke had no relation to the science which he afterwards applied so diligently and with such distinguished success. An officer in the Indian army, returned to Europe to recruit his health, he settled at Heidelberg, and there engaged, with an ardour that seems to have stimulated all pursuits, in the study of anatomy in connection with the profes- * The Electric Telegraph: was it invented bv Professor Wheatstone? By William Fothergill Cooke, Esq. London: W. H. Smith and Son. 1865. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. sion of anatomical modelling.t This profession he continued for eighteen months, when having in March, 1836, witnessed an electro-telegraphic experiment by Professor Móncke, of Heidel- berg, he was, as he states, “so much struck with the wonderful porer of electricity, and so strongly impressed with its applica- ility to the practical transmission of telegraphiv intelligence, that from that very day I entirely abandoned my former pursuits, and devoted myself thenceforth with equal ardour, as all who know me can testify, to the practical realisation of the electric telegraph; an object which has occupied my undivided thoughts ever since...... Professor Möncke's experiment was at that time the only one that I had seen or heard of. It showed that electric currents being conveyed by wires to a distance, caused to deflect magnetic needles, and thereby to give signals. It was, in a word, a hint at the application of electricity to telegraphic purposes, but nothing more, for it provided no means of applying that power to practical uses. His apparatus consisted of two instruments for giving signals by a single needle placed in different rooms, with a battery belonging to each; copper wires being extended between these two termini. The si given were a cross and a straight line, marked on the opposite sides of a disc of card fixed on a straw; at the end of which a magnetic needle was suspended horizontally in galvanometric coils by a silk thread. The effect of this arrangement was, that if a current was transmitted from either battery, when the opposite ends of the wires were in connection with the distant telegraph apparatus, either the cross would be there exhibited by the motion of the needle one way, or the line by its motion the other way, according to the direction of the current.” Mr. Cooke pursued his electrical investigations so vigorously and successfully. that within three weeks of the day on which he saw Professor Móncke's experiment, he had made his first telegraph, in which he used six wires, forming three metallic currents and influencing three needles. By combination of the signals made with those three needles, he obtained an alphabet, consisting of twenty-six distinct symbols. Within the same time he had invented the detector, by means of which, injuries to the wires could be readily traced, and without which he conceived the electric telegraph would have been impracticable; he had also made his telegraph reciprocate with the receiving station, so that mutual communications could be carried on between the separate stations through the same wires, and the signals be made visible on both instruments. This united and reciprocal property, Mr. Cooke observes, is the basis of the electric telegraph, and is inseparable from the practical system.” Within the same short space of time he had invented an alarum, on the same principle as that afterwards adopted to call attention when a message is about to be transmitted, and in addition to all this he had formed the idea of a mechanical telegraph to be worked by clock mechanism, which was set in action by the withdrawal of a detent by an electro-magnet. So industrious, indeed, was he in his new vocation, that he had, as early as July 1836, worked out his practical system “from the minutest details up to the remote and extended ramifications of an important political and com- mercial engine.” He was, however, at that time so ignorant of the action of electricity, that he employed a separate wire for the return current of each circuit, not being then aware that the same wire would have served for the return current of each circuit. The mechanical telegraph, which was capable of giving sixty signals, was submitted to the directors of the Liverpool and Man- chester Railway Company, in January 1837, with a view to its adoption in working through a tunnel, and Mr. Cooke afterwards made four instruments of a simpler kind, which were * working together at the close of April 1837.” . Cooke's first interview with Professor Wheatstone took place in February 1837. He had been recommended to apply to the professor for the solution of a difficulty in reference to the transmission to a distance of sufficient electric power to work the electro- ets of his alarum and mechanical instrument. It is important in the determination of the respective claims of Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone, to consider the progress the former had made in producing a working electric telegraph at their first in- terview, and before they combined their energies for the per- fection of the instrument. Mr. Cooke had, within a year from the time his attention was first drawn to the subject, contrived a reciprocating needle telegraph, which transmitted twenty-six t Mr. Cooke, though self-taught, attained a high degree of excellence in this art. Some of the specimens which the writer of thia article has scen are executed with extreme minuteness of detail, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL signals with six wires; he had invented the detector, an alarum, and a mechanical telegraph; and he had so far proceeded towards bringing the invention into agnis operation, that he had entered into negotiation with the directors of a railway company for its adoption. Had he confined his attention to the needle S e instead of trying to perfect an instrument that would work by mechanism, he would at that time have realised a good working telegraph with six wires; but considering the mechanical instrument to be of greater importance, he was anxious to over- come the difficulty that presented itself, and being unable to get the magnet to work at a distance, from his ignorance of the law of electrical conduction, he applied to Professor Wheatstone. How far he obtained assistance in that respect does not appear; but we gather from Mr. Cooke’s statement, that Professor Wheatstone had at that time made little advance towards the construction of a working electric telegraph. “He had no appa- ratus of any kind for giving signals, but he had two key-boards, one of which was occasionally used in our experiments. What he had done towards inventing the practical electric telegraph was confined to the ‘ permutating principle’ of his key-boards. This principle, which diminished the requisite number of wires, WAS e on my reciprocal telegraph, and became ve valuable in connection with later improvements; but thou diminishing the number of wires, the permutating keys by themselves, and without the later improvements, would have been more complex than my first galvanometer keys. Though Professor Wheatstone when I first consulted him was in pos- session of a valuable principle, he had gone no further. Except in the permutating principle, he was practically behind Méncke, for the latter an instrument for giving signals, and the former had none.” The result of the interviews with Professor Wheatstone was the formation of a partnership, and Mr. Cooke mentions asa proof that his part of the invention was then considered the greater, that his name stood first on the patent, and that a sum of 1307. was allowed him for past experimenta. Mr. Cooke over 5 of their joint labours as 5 in the invention r the award was made by Sir I. Brunel and Professor Daniell, in 1841, and confines himself in the present publication to the invention as it was exhibited to the arbitrators; intimating, however, that the share he subse- quently took in Er the electric telegraph was at least equal to that of hi ner. The following paragraph of the award, which was satisfactory to all parties at the time, clearly expresses the opinions of the arbitrators as to the relative degrees of merit :—' Whilst Mr. Cooke is entitled to stand alone as the gentleman to whom this country is indebted for having prac- tically introduced and carried out the electric 1 as a useful undertaking, promising to be a work of national import- ance; and Professor Wheatstone is acknowledged as the scientific man whose profound and successful researches had already pre- pared the public to receive it as a project capable of practical application; it is to the united labours of two gentlemen so well qualified for mutual assistance, that we must attribute the rapid progress which this important invention has made during the five years since they have been associated.” Though that award gives a larger share of the scientific part of the invention to Professor Wheatstone than Mr. Cooke seems now willing to admit, he ought to rest perfectly satisfied, for, after all, the chief merit that either of them can claim is the pe introduction of that means of communication. Long ore Mr. Cooke or Professor Wheatstone had paid any atten- tion to the 1 electric telegraphs had been invented that capabilities of being practically worked, and displayed r greater originality and ingenuity than the needle telegraph as first introduced on the railways in this coun But in those early times the public mind was not pre to receive the invention, and when, in 1816, Mr. Ronalds submitted to the Admiralty his electric telegraph, which worked with a single circuit, he met with the rebuff, that telegraphs were of no use in time of peace, and that in time of war the semaphore answered all purposes. It was not till the necessity of such a means of signalling became evident in the working of single lines of rail- way, that the advantages of the electric telegraph forced them- selves into notice. Mr. Cooke seems to combine the rarely united qualities of great business capacity with inventive genius. He at once perceived the important advantage of such means of communication in conducting railway traffic with security, and whilst he was enabled to adapt special contrivances to facilitate 48 ing the electric tel h into practical use, he by great energy in contending with obstacles, succeeded in raising the in- vention from a philosophical toy to a great practical fact, and in forming a public company to carry it into execution. To say that he, or that Professor Wheatstone, is the inventor of the electric telegraph, is not correct. The invention may be dated as far back as 1774, when M. Lesarge, of Geneva, contrived, by a series of pith-ball electrometers, to transmit electric signals from one room to another. From that time the electric telegraph went on progressing and assuming more practical forms, and receiving additional improvements with the advance of scientific discovery. In principle, and even in some working details, the needle telegraph first introduced by Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone had been surpassed by electric telegraphs of earlier inventors; but it was by their united efforts, and more particularly by the energy displayed by Mr. Cooke, that the invention became esta- blished as a valuable means of general communication. In one part of Mr. Cooke’s publication, he vindicates himself from supposed charges of having acted unfairly to Professor Wheatstone by securing to himself the larger share of remunera- tion from the sale of the patents. It appears from this statement, that in 1843 a fresh arrangement was made between Messrs. Wheatstone and Cooke, by which the latter took the patents off the professor's hands with all responsibilities, agreeing to pay a royalty on all miles of telegraph wire laid down; and that in 1845, Professor Wheatstone valued his claims to royalties at 30,0002. That sum Mr. Cooke, consented to pay, and the pro- fessor agreed on parting with his share of the patents to give the 5 the benefit of all future improvements he might make. or what sum Mr. Cooke afterwards sold the patents to the Electric Telegraph Company he does not state; but it may be assumed from the dissatisfaction since shown by Professor W heatstone at his share of the profits, that the amount was con- siderably more—we have h it stated at 100,000/. Professor Wheatstone was engaged by the Electric Telegraph Company as scientific adviser and assistant; but he soon resigned the appoint- ment in consequence of engagements they entered into with other persons of whom he disapproved, and thus terminated his con- nection with the undertaking. Mr. Cooke continued for several years the managing director, 5 in carrying out the necessary arrangements, and we believe he still occupies an influential position in the company. THE ENGLISH ARMY RIFLE. THE following is a description of the English rifle, now being manu- factured for our troops:—In almost every important respect it is a vastly superior weapon to the Russian musket. It is considerably longer, very much lighter, easier to clean and to handle, and of superior workman- ship. The way in which the barrel and stock are connected is novel and ingenious. The barrel is encircled and bound fast to the stock by three iron rings or clips of great strength, which are kept in their places by as many spring catches, and the barrel could be unshipped in less than three minutes, simply by pressing these springs. The ramrod, a neatly- turned piece of steel, with cup and screw, is incomparably superior to that of the Russian gun. The bayonet is the slightest we have seen, of finely-tempered steel, and the mode of securing it in ita place is exceed- ingly rae The sight is hinged, and lies horizontally on the barrel; it is thrown up toa vertical position by a spring, and then represents a slit between two pillars, up and down which slides a small piece of metal, forming the sight. It is graduated, but rather widely, there being only four marked points on the scale. On the whole, the sight- iece of the Russian musket seems preferable, as more easily used, and liable to get out of order. These are the dimensions and weighta:— British. Russian Length of musket . . 4ft. 6jin. aft. 10in With bayonet fixed... . . Oft. lin. 5ft. Sin Weight of musket alone .. 8lb. 6oz. 10lb. Ooz Weight of bayonet ... ... Olb. 10oz. llb. 14oz. Weight of musket and bayonet 9lb. Ooz. ... IIIb. 14oz. The butt of both muskets is about the same length, so that the lock is about the same distance in each from the butt end; but the difference in length in the barrels is considerable, the British rifle having a barrel 84 inches longer than that in use in the Russian army. We need not dwell upon the advantage of this greater length of barrel in a rifle, for giving greater steadiness and certainty of direction to the ball. Another advantage is that the Russian piece has only two rifled grooves, the British piece has three. The next noticeable point is, that although the Russian sword-blade is longer than the British bayonet, the length of the British musket with bayonet fixed is still 5 inches more than that of the Russian piece with ita sword bayonet. 8* ON AN IMPROVED FRICTION HAMMER* By James Kitson, Leeds. Tne hammer represented in our engraving has been in use for some time at the author’s works, Leeds, where it was originally constructed as a simple and inexpensive hammer, for the heavier smiths’ work; and the present description has been pre only in N to a request to communicate to the Institution the particulars of this hammer, as possessing some practical advan- tages of efficiency and simplicity. 4 GN TIT — T3 B TN ZEROS Ba S z^ EN D —— AEE Eaa E an e rr DDr TA AAA N i * , ig 1 i 7 ^ 7 D b DY s . YY YELL LZ 2 LS Mul 1s OMY YE, 22 2 eee tiiti Scale „ f£ 2 3 5 f$ 2 3 5 fF? The hammer block A, weighing 5 cwt., is guided by grooves in the same, BB, and is lifted by the flat wrought-iron friction bar CC, 54 inches wide, and 3-inch thick, fixed into it by a T head, with two cotters, SS. The friction bar C, is raised by two rollers D and E, carried on the cross frame at top, one of which D, runs loose on its axle, and the other E, is fixed on a shaft which is driven continuously by a pulley, and carries a fly wheel GG, at each end, to give momentum for lifting the hammer. The axle of the roller D, is carried by a bent lever H, which works on a fixed centre I, below the roller, and has a chain connected to the outer end, passing over a pulley T, and attached to the weight K. This weight presses the tightening roller D, towards the driving roller E, and grips the friction bar C, between them, causing the hammer to be drawn up rapidly; the hammer being prevented from being lifted too high by a timber stop at the top of the frame. 1 handle L, is connected by a rod to the extreme end of the lever H, and by pressing down this handle, the tightening roller D, is drawn back slightly, releasing the friction bar C, and allowing the hammer to fall. On releasing the handle L, from the pressure, the hammer is again lifted by the bar being gripped between the rollers, and it is again let fall from any height desired by pressing down the handle. LAM! SPALL FL al LEL EE Pel Dal n Oe * Paper read at the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. The man holding the handle has thus complete control over the hammer, by simply pressing down the handle, or letting it rise again; and he can readily regulate the rapidity, or length of the stroke, as required. The present hammer from 25 to 30 strokes per minute, when lifted to the full height, 5 feet; about 40 Bas minute with a stroke of 2 feet, and 84 per minute with 14 inches length of stroke. The driving pulley 132 revolutions per minute, when the hammer is at work. The second handle M, works a friction clip or break N, serving to check the hammer, and hold it fast in any position. This break N, is fixed at the end of a second bent lever O, working on a centre below, and lifted by a chain U, and a second weight P, working by the side of the other weight, inside one of the hollow columns of the framing. This weight presses the break towards the tightening roller D, the lifting bar ee gripped between them by the opposing pressure of the two weights, holding up the mer in any position that it may be in. The break handle M, is held ean continuously whilst the hammer is working, the man holding this in one hand, and the lifting handle L, in the other hand; by means of which the working of the hammer is managed with great expedition and accuracy, and it can be instantiy stopped and held fast whenever uired, by merely letting go the break-handle. he frame that carries the bearings of the lifting rollers and break, is mounted upon four india-rubber springs RR, fixed upon the main cross frame, for the purpose of relieving the friction bar from the shock of suddenly putting the hammer into full motion, when the lifting rollers jeg hold of the bar; the india-rubber springs are compressed at the first moment, allowing the lifting rollers to drop a little, whilst the hammer is getting into motion. The bottom T end of the friction-bar, is bedded upon several thicknesses of wood, 12 inches thick in all, fixed in the hammer block, the elasticity of which relieves the lifting-bar from the end concussions, when each blow of the hammer is struck. When this hammer was first constructed, the friction-bar, which was rather smaller, 4 inches by #ths inch, was fixed in the hammer with a single 4-inch piece of wood below it, and the india-rubber springs were not adopted; and it was found that the cotters SS, broke very frequently, about twice a week. India- rubber gths inch thick was then put in between the cotters and T head of the bar, with a better result; and the india-rubber springs were afterwards introduced, with the wood packing below e T head of the bar; this arrangement has been found to work very successfully, and it has been in regular work for the last nine months without accident or repair. The only wear that is found to take place in the machine, is in the friction-bar, near where it is first caught by the lifting rollers, for a length of about 14 inches; the wear being at the rate of nearly j-inch thickness per week, when in constant work. This repair costs very little time and expense, requiring only smith’s ibd but in the case of making another similar hammer, it would be referred to make the bar 7 inches wide instead of 51 inches, to diminish inish the wear. —— lila À— SMOKE-CONSUMING STOVE. E. A. HILL, Jolliet, Illinois, Patentee.* Fig. 1 is a vertical transverse section of the stove, and fig. 2 a vertical section of same through the dotted line, fig. 1. re- resents the outer case of the stove ; B, B', are two fire chambers- ormed in the same; C, is the smoke-passage or space formed between the chambers B, B'; D, D', are the grates. They are made capable of being turned from a horizontal to a vertical position, so that the ashes may be damped with ease; E, E', are the ash-pits, partly prevented communicating with each other by a partition ; F, is the damper for completely shutting off the communication of the chambers B, B', at their top; and F., is the damper for entirely shutting off the communication of the ash-pits with each other, as shown in fig. 1. These dampers are attached to the rods ce’, and are turned by the crank dd, of said rods from the position shown in full black lines to the position shown in dotted lines, and vice versd. By employing these dampers the smoke can always, if desired, be caused to pass down through the passage C, into either of the ash-pits, and then up through thc grate and live coal of either of the chambers, as will be presently shown in describing the operation of the stove. * From the ‘Scientific American.’ THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL G, G', are draught flues, the coldest air and carbonic acid gas from the room, and ucting it into the fire chamber B; through f at g, or into B, throug e at h; e, and f, bein branches of the flues G, G. When the dividing dampers F, E. are in the positions shown in full lines in fig. 1, the damper g is ed, and A is closed, allowing the draught from G to enter e fire in B, through the branch flue J, as indicated by the arrow 1; but when the said dampers are in the positions shown in dotted lines, À is opened, and g is closed, the draught from G', then entering the fire in B', through the branch flue e; e and F, are dam in the u part of the flues e and f, to allow the escape of the hot air, thereby cooling their internal plates when g or k are closed. 8 ^» N — The upper extremity ii, of the flues G, G, may be made to communicate directly with the large chamber A, by opening the gt dampers 17, thereby diminishing the force of the draught, and at the same time preventing the smothering of the fire by the amoke. When it is desired to stop the draught entirely to keep the fire all night, the dampers //’, are opened, and both g, and h, are closed, all the draught then entering through i i, as indicated by the arrows 2, fig. 2; H, is a ventilator p for supplying, without any contingency, iue hot air in the place of that carried out through the flues '. It is connected at its lower end with a horizontal pipe L which leads out of doors, and supplies cold fresh air to it, as illustrated by the arrows 3. J, is the chimney flues; K, K, are the doors through which the coal is introduced to the fire. One of the doors is shown open in fig. 1. The operation is as follows :—A coal fire is first built in one of the chambers B, for instance, and as soon as it burns lively, as illustrated in the figure, a fire is started in the other chamber B’, and as soon as it has sufficient life to insure combustion, the dampers F, F', are made to occupy the positions shown in black lines in fig. 1; the damper g, is opened, and À, closed. This veing. done, the smoke wıll be caused to change its course after reaching the damper F, and pass down throug e C, into the ash-pit E', and then up through the grate D', and red-hot coals of the chamber B’. As soon as the smoke comes in contact with the coal in the chamber B', it will ignite and consume. Fig. 1, clearly illustrates the principle of the invention, a fire being shown in full blast in one chamber, and a thick volume of smoke rising from the coal in the other chamber, and ing down into the ash-pit and up through the grate D. When the fire in B', is spent, and the fire in B, i» in full blast, the process and the position of the dampers are reversed. 45 NORTHERN DRAINAGE OF THE METROPOLIS. Tue subjoined abstracts of reports upon the northern drainage of the metropolis, by Mr. John Roe, Mr. J. W. Bazalgette, Sir W. Cubitt and Mr. R. Stephenson, have been recently made to the Metropolitan Sewers Commission. Mr. Roes Report. TO THE HON. THE METROPOLITAN COMMISSIONERS OF SEWERS. l Tite-hill, Egham, Surrey, Oct. 23, 1854. Gentlemen,—In accordance with your request, as stated by our secretary, in his letter received the 18th inst., I have the 1 to lay before you my plan, sections, estimates, and sug- gestions in respect of the portion of the intercepting drainage of the metropolis, called the * Northern Drai : In forming a plan for intercepting the sewage of that of the e situate on the north side of the river the following considerations appear desirable :— First. As to an ultimate use of the sewage for irrigation; or by obtaining the solid portions for manure. Then, if neither of these desirable objects could at present be attained, at what point below London the sewage might be 1 with a reasonable hope of its not affecting that portion of the river passing Tone metropolis. e place chosen is the river ing, at Barking-creek. The next consideration was to form the sewers on such a level as would, by gravitation, pass off as much of the sewage as could 80 pass, in orda to save, as much as possible, the pumping up of the sewage—a process that must entail a perpe expense. After trying various lines, I have selected those marked upon the accompanying plans and sections. Then, as it might be found for several reasons desirable to complete the intercepting lines as far as the river Lea, before ones the line any further east, and as the sewage entering the Lea near Sir George Duckett’s canal might be complained of, it would be desirable to point out in what manner, at the least extra cost, the existing sewers might be connected, so as to deliver the sewage at Bow-creek, until sewage manure works could be formed, or the line carried for- ward to Barking-creek. With respect to this, a model is in preparation and nearly complete, showing what can be done; and, as it is intended to exemplify other matters connected with the main drainage, I shall feel pleasure in showing it to you for your information. Another matter for consideration was that, as the passage of the foul sewage into the Serpentine has always been objection- able, it will be well to provide entirely for ing that water from such pollution. 'The outlet sewer across Hyde-park, here- after described, would effect this as well as relieve the Ranelagh sewer. With respect to using the water for irrigation, there are por- tions of meadow land around the metropolis which might be irrigated by the sewage water without having recourse to pump- ing. Although there is no doubt as to the value of sewage water for irrigation, yet the use and benefit of it are not generally so well understood as to induce persons to make an outlay on that account; and when the time arrives (as I doubt not it will) when the sewage of every town and place will be eagerly sought after, it will be requisite for some legislative enactment to be made to facilitate the passage through lands intervening between the source of supply and the locality the owner of which may desire to use the liquid manure. My opinion is that, although but a portion of the sewage of the metropolis could be appa in irriga- tion, yet that such portion would ultimately produce a consider- able revenue. As to solid manure, there are several methods proposed for collecting the solid portion of the sewage. Each has its merits, and although, in regard to the solid portion of the sewage, there is a greater apathy on the part of the public 9 than towards its use by irrigation, and although it will take some time to give it a full trial on different lands, yet that its collection will ultimately remunerate those engaged in the matter I do not in the least doubt. In the case of the metropolitan sewage, as parties appear anxious to speculate in collecting the solid, it would be well, before you carry any intercepting sewer beyond the Lea, if you, as conservators for the public, should ask such parties on what terms and in what manner they would engage to manufacture the sewage of the metropolis (or any portion thereof), and at what time they would propose to make ample payment to the commissioners for the use ofthe sewage. rtion ames, 46 When the late Mr. Forster was preparing his plan for inter- cepting the sewage, I procured for him an offer for poriiyiäg the sewage at the Isle of Dogs, and I think it probable that the same rson would renew the offer at this time, if communicated with. This locality is eminently suitable for collecting the solid manure; a great portion of the surface drainage can readily be kept sepa- rate from the house drainage; and I consider that, if the com- missioners do not agree to any offer that may be made, the should themselves cause works to be formed, and arrange wit some owner or owners of land to give the solid manure a fair trial, which 5 prove a great boon to the country as well as the mon is, as the proceedings of the metropolis, on many points, are looked at as an authority for similar thi being done in provincial places. When Mr. Forster received directions to prepare his plan for the northern drainage, he wrote to me to ask as to the fall of rain on the several days in a year. I sent him the result for a year in which more than an ave fall of rain had taken place. This was as follows :—Of the rainy days there were 30 in which a quarter of an inch fell; 10 in which half an inch fell; 2 in which t uarters of an inch fell; and 2 in which one inch fell. It was decided to provide for passing what would come from a quarter of an inch in 24 hours, or, 0'63 per acre per minute, and to allow flood water from greater falls to pass to the river. With regard to the sewage water, I have noticed in man sewers the run of water nds and night, and in one instance noticed, on a locality where there were about 31,000 inhabitants to the square mile, and found that the run of water in the sewer was about 29 gallons per day to each individual; and having noticed for a length of | time the irregularity with which this passed to the sewers, I decided upon providing sewage capacity for rather more than that quantity in addition to the capacity pe Lease for the quarter of an inch of rain; being together one cubic foot per acre per minute. Proposed New Lines of Sewage.—Mr. Roe proposes a new line, to be called the * Northern high level" or *Hackney-brook line.” In this instance it is intended to “provide for the whole of the surface drainage as well as for the sewage.” He suggests that this line “should commence at the entrance to Tufnel Park, or Upper Holloway, with a sewer 5 feet by 5 feet diameter, and p thence to and along the fields to Highbury-vale and Stoke Newington.” The line he denominates the Middle level line" is suggested to commence opposite the church in High-street, Kensington; thence continued to and along Hyde-park, where it will relieve the foul drainage coming from the Bayswater and A cton sewer; thence its course is along Piccadilly, receiving, by connect- ing junctions, the sewage from the King's Scholars Pond and Regent-street sewers; thence by St. James's-aquare, Orange-street, the Strand, Fetter-lane to Holborn: thence by West-street, Smithfield, Chiswell-street, and Finsbury-square to Curtain-road, where it would receive the Old-street-road branch. Its course is then along Church-street to Bethnal-green, thence under the Regent’s-canal to near the Lea, where it would receive the sewage from the Old-ford and Rosemary-lane branch, and a little further the sewage from the Hackney-brook line; then passing under the Lea and other streams to the outlet at Barking-creek.” The * Qld-street brauch line" he proposes “should commence at the river Fleet sewer near the House of Correction, Coldbath-fields, passing by Wilmington-square, St. John's-street, Old-street, to the junction with the main line in Curtain-road,” The “Old- ford and Rosemary-lane branch” is suggested “to commence in Water-lane, Fleet-street, and to ong Cannon-street, Rose- mary-lane, New-road, Back-road, White Horse-street, to the World's-end, Stepney; thence across Mile-end-road and under the Regent's-canal above the lock, near Mile-end-road bridge; thence by Bearbinder-lane to its junction with the main line.” He further suggests that the “Low level line should commence near to Chelsea Hospital, to the Victoria-street sewer, along Whitehall, Charing-cross, the Strand, New Bridge-street; thence to and along Cannon-street, Eastcheap, &c., to the Commercial-road; then pn with the Limehouse-cut, to and under the Lea and West am Railway, a little beyond which the pumping station is proposed to be formed. The sewer into which the water is to be raised has its course in nearly a direct line to where it will meet the gravitating line near the Barking-road, and then runs parallel therewith to the proposed reservoir" He states that “4190 acres would drain into this line, if the Isle of Dogs drained into it, but of these many acres might be reversed to the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL vitating line.” He pro that “the pumping station on the ow level sewer should be 32 feet below the sewer proposed to convey the water to the reservoir, with engines of about 450- horse power." The reservoir to be “60 feet in width, the waters to be delivered at the turn of the tide. Storing capacity of reservoir to be 7,000,000 cubic feet of water.” Estimated Cost of the Works.—Northern high level line, 66,632J.; middle level gravitating line and branches (including land and relief for the Fleet and elagh) 220,104; main low level line ones ditto) 167,850L; extension of gravitating lines to king-creek, &c., 167,500/.; pumping-engines, engine-housea, pumps, &c., 68,0004; total, 690,086/.; estimated cost of sewers uired to bring Acton, Hoddesden &c., waters to Bays- water, 62, 9950.; d total, 753,081. The report is signed John Noe,“ and thus proposes to effect a saving of 502,000/. per annum over the engineer’s plans. Abstract of Mr. Bazalgette s Report. Mr. Bazalgette reports upon Mr. Roe’s scheme, which he states to be “unfit to accomplish that which is proposed,” inasmuch as it is alleged that the data from which that gentleman has worked is incorrect and the estimates imperfect. The proposed sewage lines Mr. Bazalgette describes as being “complicated and circuitous;” the curves are said to be of “short radii, retarding the flow of sewage,” and „calculated to create deposit in the sewers;" such curves, it being farther said, having been “‘carefully avoided by the engineers to the Commission in their plan,” “as being serious objections to their efficiency.” Abstract of the Joint Report of Sir W. Cubitt and Mr. R. Stephen- son on Mr. Roe’s Scheme. The report of Messrs. Cubitt and Stephenson in ezrtenso occupies thirty pages of closely-written manuscript. It will be here sufficient, however, to state that both gentlemen are opposed to Mr. Roe’s scheme, and that they distinctly approve of the intercepting system with the following proviso: They say,— “In giving our recommendation in favour of an intercepting system, we must be distinctly understood as coupling with the approval of the system the condition that the lines of sewers which have to perform the duties now so imperfectly performed by the Thames must not be stinted in their dimensions with the view of saving money for the moment, as we are thoroughly convinced that if, with this view, they are reduced in dimensions below those suggested by your engineers, and approved of by us in our former reports, nothing but disappointment awaits you and the public. We have, we trust, put the question before you (the Commissioners) in such à manner that you may form a very correct judgment of the consequences that must inevitably follow the adoption of dimensions incompetent to deal with the ordinarily occurring heavy rainfalls, and enable you to appreciate clearly the advantages of a copious power of discharge." " an closing their report the consulting engineers thus con- ude :— We beg to recapitulate the conclusions we have come to, namely :— 1. That the LEE of interception proposed by your engineer, Mr. Bazalgette, and Mr. Haywood, the engineer of the City Com- missioners of Sewers, is better calculated than any other to effect the object. 2. That the dimensions they have fixed upon for their sewers are not larger than are absolutely required to clear the Thames generally, throughout the year, of pollution. 3. That even with these dimensions, the Thames will, occa- sionally, during very heavy storms, still be liable to have dis- charged into it, for a short period, some portion of sewage, but in a highly diluted state. 4, That in the distribution of the areas of interception, your engineers have succeeded in equalising the duties to be per- formed by each line of interception as far as practicable, and thereby in reducing the quantity of the sewage that may, under extraordinary circumstances, be discharged into the river Thames. 5. That, with this view, they have judiciously extended the local district sewer called the Hackney-brook, through Kentish- town and Camden-town, to Kilburn, by which the flood-water, from an area of seven square miles, is entirely separated, and carried away to a point where it cannot, in the remotest degree, interfere with the 2 districts of the metropolis. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. REVIEWS. Ds A Scheme for the Effectual Drainage of Towns, with Projects of Important National Measures which may be engrafted upon it. London: J. Weale. 1854. 8vo. pp. 42. THE author proposes to divide the existing and future main sewers into lengths or sections, by means of transverse sluices at such distances apart as may be found advisable, and to relieve these divisions of their sewage by connecting them with branch drains leading to receptacles contiguous to the main sewer, and placed in the lowest part of the district, to prevent the emission of effluvia and The entire surface of the tanks is protected by a stratum of coal-ash with an admixture of gypsum: This coal ash is contained in boxes or cases which are supported upon beams or girders over the tanks, the boxes being perforated in such manner that free access is afforded to the coal ash from the sewage in the tanks. The coal ash becoming in course of time saturated with the rich vapours from the sewage, is to be mixed in certain proportions with the solid parts of the sewage, thus increasing its total quantity without deteriorating its fertilising properties. The boxes of coal ash above the tanks will then be renewed, and the process proceed. It is intended, moreover, that these boxes shall be so constructed that the lower and more saturated portions of the coal ash in each box may be renewed from time to time, as often as may be required, by placing fresh coal ash on the upper stratum, and by this means renewing an replacing the saturated coal ash, which. would be crushed, rubbed, or shaken into the receptacle by a triturating apparatus connected with the lower part of the boxes. In this manner the upper stratum of coal ash could never become impregnated by any saturation or gaseous effluvia, and it would never be necessary to remove the boxes except for repairs. this manner the upper and non-impregnated part may remain as a constant protecting stratum, or it may be renewed at long intervals of time, as found best in the practical working of the plan. Sliding per- forated bottoms or trays within the boxes, or other suitable apparatus, may be employed for this partial renewal of the coal ash.” Within the receptacles the sewage is divided into two portions, solid and liquid; the fluid portion is manufactured into clear inodorous water, in the following manner Let us first follow the treatment of the liquid portion of the sewage. The sewage having been received from the main through a branch into one of the tanks until the tank is full or nearly so, the communication between the branch sewer and such tank will be cut off, and a second tank charged in a similar manner and so on, with each of the four tanks included in one district apparatus. In the meantime the sewage re- ceived in the first tank has remained quiescent, and having been occa- sionally sprinkled with coal ash, gypsum, and other deodorising media, the solid particles will have become deposited in the form of a bed or layer over the bottom of the tank. The liquid part above is then gently drawn or racked off upon a filter, and is passed through such filtering and deodorising media as will prepare it for discharge into the deep well in the form ofa liquid without smell and perfectly limpid. Fine wire gauze screens fitted to the passages or drains through which the water passes into the deep well will arrest any remaining particles, and discharge the water in a perfectly clear and avail- able condition. The several passages from the receptacles into the filters being similarly provided with fine wire gauze screens, all solid particles are prevented from passing into the filters, and it is thus anti- cipated, that in cases of emergency, the communication between the tanks and filters might remain open, and the sewage allowed to pass into the filters without remaining for deposition of solid matters. The process of deposition goes on gradually downwards, that is, the u part of the sewage will become freed from the solid particles ore the lower; and it is proposed to take advantage of this circum- stance, in order to make the best use of the capacity of the tanks, by providing three filters, one over another, to each receiving tank. As soon, therefore, as the solid matters have descended from the upper rtion of the sewage, and left it in a condition ready for filtering, the drain or passage into the top filter is opened, and the liquid drawn off. While the filtering of this portion is progressing, deposition is taking place in a lower part of the sewage, and a second filter is then similarly put in operation. In this manner, also, the third or bottom filter receives its portion of the sewage, and the solid matters only are left on the bottom of the tank. Each of the horizontal drains or passages from the tank into each of the filters, and each of the vertical pipes or pas- sages from the bed of the filters downwards to the deep well, is fitted with wire gauze of suitable fineness of perforation, for the purpose of arresting the solid particles, and retaining the principal of them in the tank for ultimate deposit and the finer particles in the filters. The filtering media will become, in course of time, impregnated with the sewage or ite properties, and will then be removed for washing, ready for use again. e processes here described as taking place in one of the tanks, are of course repeated in regular succession in the other tanks, and in this manner provision is made for receiving as rapidly as it 47 gathers in the main sewer all ordinary quantities of sewage from each istri d disposing of it so as to prevent accumulation in the main sewer, and annoyance to the neighbourhood from the dispersion of the volatile products or effluvia. The deep well into which the clarified and deodorised water is dis- charged is intended to have a capacity in diameter and depth fully equal to receive all that the filters can transmit, so that suspension of any of the processes may be avoided, and the main sewer never allowed to become a place of deposit of the sewage. The proper function of sewers is correctly stated to be that of conveying sewage matters away from houses and human habitations, and it should be insisted that they shall never be made cesspools or receptacles for sewage in a quiescent and ant condition. m the deepest well the clear and inodorous water is raised by umping into summit tanks or reservoirs constructed at the top of a igh tower, provided for ventilating and other purposes, and erected over the engine-house. Similar reservoirs may also be provided above the model lodging-houses, or other buildings erected over the entire site of the apparatus. Arrangements are proposed for employing steam- pore for pumping, and an engine or engines of adequate capability, ilers and coal-stores are N to be erected on the ground - floor of the building over the apparatus. This tower is intended to be of sufficient height to conduct, by means of an internal chimney, all the smoke, &c., from the fires, and to provide means of ventilation by an annular air-chamber surrounding the chimney. Internal stairs will also be constructed for ready access to the summit of the tower, whereon capacious tanks of iron are to be fixed upon girders of the same material, at an elevation adapted to supply the highest places in the district and afford sufficient head or force for all required purposes.” The second part of the plan consists in forming the nearly solid portion into solid, dry, and inodorous manure :— * The comparatively solid portion of the sewage remaining in the form of a thin stratum of a tolerably uniform and paste-like consistence over the bottom of each tank after the last draining off of the liquid sewage, has to be mixed and dried — mixed with the coal ash and gypsum, or other similar material (which may have become saturated or partly impregnated with the volatile gases), and dried by the app.i- cation of heat. This mixing is considered desirable not only for deodo- rising the sewage, but as a mode of profitably using the saturated materiala without impairing or injuriously moderating or qualifying the igh forcing and fertilising powers of the solid manure. t is proposed, as the most ready method of effecting this mixing, that a small quantity of the coal ash and gypsum, &c., shall be permitted to escape from the boxes over the tanks, and falling through each of the tanks to become deposited as a thin bed or film over the surface of the bottom of the tank before the sewage is admitted. This sprinkling of the coal ash, &c., may be repeated occasionally during the settling process, by which these materials will descend with the solid particles of the sewage, and become incorporated with the accumulating solid mass in the bottom of the tank. e construction of the coal ash boxes has been already described as being such that this gentle liberation of the lower and more saturated parts of the coal ash, &c., can be readily effected at such times and in such portions as may in practice be found adapted to produce solid deodorised manure, or ‘‘ British guano,” of the best quality for agricultural purposes. The drying of the solid and mixed mass in the bottom of the tanks is proposed to be effected by the application of heat by means of the cir- culation of hot water, air, or steam, within coils of piping placed around and within the tanks. This heating will commence immediately after draining off the liquid matters, and a final sprinkling of coal ash, &c., has been deposited over the solid stratum. The heating will proceed until all the moisture of the mass is evaporated, and it is thoroughly dried into the form of a solid stratum or slab, of more or less tenacity. In this condition the mass will be scraped from the bottom of the tank, and put into grinding or crushing machines. These machines may be fixed upon platforms, that should descend into the tanks as soon as the manure has become thoroughly dried. Four labourers (convicts, if employed) might descend with each machine on its platform, and connect it by a band with a shaft worked by the steam-engine, having first scraped up the manure and filled the machine. When delivered from the machine, the ground manure would be by the same labourers filled into to be raised to the ground surface by oranes worked by hydraulic power or by the steam engine. These air-tight bags or cases will each hold a definite quantity or weight of the dried inodorous solid manure. During this grinding and packing, the heat will be withdrawn from the tank in which these operations are proceeding, and be trans- ferred to the next in succession of the tanks, where a similar series of processes will be performed.” It is proposed that model ues oe should be ereeted on the site of the sewage us e apparatus is proposed to be worked by convict labour. The pamphlet, illustrated with seven 3 is well written. Great attention is given to the details, and several valuable hints may be gathered from a perusal of its pages. 48 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. AUSTIN'S SEDIMENT-BOX. PLAN. Tus box is placed at the foot of a rain-water pipe H, for the urpose of receiving any leaves or sediment that may pass through it. The outlet-pipe C, being covered with a grating, prevents the sediment passing away, and the perforated cover placed level with the ground having a hinged joint I, is easily opened, and the sediment removed. — — — — AUSTIN’S GULLY-TRAP. SECTION. SECTION. Tunis is an improvement upon the common bell-trap. The bell being loose, and having a perforated bottom, drops down upon the centre cone D, and sala the trap; and the grating A, over the top being hinged, can be raised, and the trap easily cleansed. B, is the level of the ground, and C, of the water; the arrows indicate the passage of the water to the sewer. o a BLANCHARD'S TIMBER BENDING MACHINERY.* By W. H. Snock, Chief Engineer, U.S. Navy. Tue Timber Bending Association of New York, having pur- chased a lot of ground on Green Point, have erected thereon a spacious building with the necessary machinery for bending timber, and may be considered as having commenced operations in this new and important undertaking, and with the most grati- fying prospects of success. During a recent visit to the establishment, I was gratified as well as pleased in witnessing the working of the machinery. It was truly wonderfnl to observe with what despatch and apparent ease the varivus pieces of wood were moulded to the desired shape. One of the most important features in the machinery is its simplicity and cheapness. In addition to the pe machines for bending ship-timber, they have several smaller ones for shaping material for furniture, such as table frames, chair bottoms, backs, &c., &c., a specimen of which I have caused to be forwarded to the Institute for its inspection. They propose, however, to devote their time ex- clusively to the bending of ship-timber, and some idea may be formed of their operations from the following :—A piece of white oak, 15 ft. 8 in. long, and 10 x 9i inches in section, was bent complete for a ship's futtock, in seven minutes from the time it was taken from the steam bath. Four knee pieces, 7 feet long, 65 x 5}, were taken from the bath, and a right-angled knee formed from each piece, requiring three minutes for each. One piece of black walnut, 6 inches wide, 1 inch thick, and 6 feet long, intended for chair bottom frames, was formed in one minute from the time it was taken from the steam bath. Experience will no doubt suggest many improvements in the * From thc *Journal of the Franklin Iustitute.' machinery, notwithstanding they seem to think it is just what is required. They claim for the bent knees, greater strength than those of natural growth; this is a point, however, which must be decided by experiment as well as experience. It certainly is an important invention, well suited to the present times, when angular-shaped timber of natural growth for ship-building is becoming so scarce and expensive. It is proper to remark, that in bending the futtock-piece and four knees as above stated, not the slightest evidence of fracture or straining of the fibre of the wood was apparent. It is n to retain the pieces bent in braces until it is cool, at which time it has its permanent set, and I am informed that no exposure to sun or rain affects it, which has been proved by experiment. — — reram NEW MUSEUM BUILDINGS, TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. (With an Engraving, Plate VII.) THE accompanying plans show the arrangement of the new museums, &c. now in course of erection at Trinity College, Dublin, and which form the fourth or southern side of the new eastern quadrangle. The ground plan consists of new lecture- rooms, Iborani e. and professors’ apartments. In the centre of the building is the inner and grand stairs, lighted from the top and terminated at either end by two rows of double arcades, the columns and half-columns of which are to be of marble, as likewise the handrail; it is also pro to fill the spandrils of the stairs with inlaid specimens of the marbles of this and the sister country. The inner hall, it may be observed, is higher than the laboratories and floors of the principal lecture-rooms, in order to gain the ascent requisite for the raised auditories of the latter. The building has the advantage of a fine southern aspect, with the extensive Park between it and Nassau-street, the boundary of the college; this advantage has not been lost sight of in the arrangement of the plans; the philosophical lecture- rooms, room for experimental philosophy, and laboratories, are on the south side, and command the best aspect that the city can afford. The upper story consists of museums, room for experimental philosophy, and a drawing school; the latter lighted from the top. Itis Pld aa to have fireproof floors in the museums, to be constructed either of hollow brick arches, or perhaps on the more feasible and inexpensive Système Thuasné. There is a commodious basement under the building, which when lighted with gas, will make valuable workshops for the practical engineer, geologist, or mineralogist, besides affording ample space for heating apparatus, store-rooms, &c. he building is principally constructed of rubble stone, except- ing the outer and a few minor walls, which are of stock brick; the outer wall is faced externally with granite ashlar work from the extensive quarries at Ballynocken, County Wicklow, the external dressings being of Portland stone. , The style of the building is the Venetian character of the Lom- bardic architecture, the rope-moulding, twisted quoin, and heavy- consoled cornice, being introduced. The detail shows much ingenuity and inventiveness to have been displayed by the artisans employed on the carved portions. There are on the first story no fewer than about fifty capitals to be placed under the springings of the arches to windows and doors, a great portion of which are at present executed, all of different designs. The walls of the inner and outer halls are to be lined with Caen stone up to the middle stringcourse. The roofs of the museums are to be of open timber-work decorated. It is pro- posed to heat the apartments chiefly by stoves or heating appa- ratus. In the arrangement the ventilation has not been ne- glected. The plans and internal arrangements have been designed by Mr. John McCurdy, under whose superintendence the works are being executed. The elevations and external decorations have been designed by Sir Thomas Deane, Son, and Woodward. The contractors are the Messrs. Cockburn, of Dublin, the amount of contract being 23,4004, exclusive of galleries to museums and other internal decorations. It is anticipated that the building will be finished by the time that the British Association intend meeting in Dublin in 1856. MUSEUM 8510 X38.4. LECTURE ROOM 37.10 x 30.0 PROFESSOR 22.6 X15.3 PLAN OF UPPER STORY. PROFESSOR PHILOSOPHY | 22.6 K 15.8. 37.8 K 30 3 EXPER: MUSEUM 85.10 X 38.4 . ——— - . ———œ— c DRAWING SCHOOL 72.8 X 25.0 PLANS OF NEW MUSEUMS &C. TRINITY COLLEGE DUBLIN JOHN M¢CURDY, ARCT. LABORATORY LECTURE ROOM LABORATORY LECTURE ROOM i | 220 Xx 18 3 37 8K 30.0 22.0X15.3 3710 X 30 0 | | | o. 7" ^ Y-E€ERY 2 Pn — ES ee 7 Il ' | 5. ] a SIA AA PROFESSORS ROOM I | - LECTURERS ROOM MIT di 5 Pa: 2610 X14.0 | | *. — — í F | 2610x189 8 E p b i 3 Lp 110 NI Hr | le; a "M | PROFESSORS ROOM | | j i l n AT P INNER HALL TS j | = , $ 26.10 X14 0 l MT m PSI SH | | | E « - > | ii] | UN "m y | f || | |] | LECTURE ROOM LECTURE ROOM LECTURE ROOM ji | | 3710 X 2E.0 24.7 X 2110 3710 X 25.0 | | — : — — — = E 1] , — 2 — —— i“ —— — 2 = — — — | 1 — -— — — H * m - 160 . 2 * GROUND PLAN Scale. ,9 e 70 30 50 70 90 Feet ' J R Jobbins Lim THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF OUTLINE.* By J. RuskIN. THE points which it was the purpose of Mr. Ruskin to illus- trate in this lecture, as stated in the syllabus, were,—'* Wherein dignity of outline consists—Probability that many persons are „ of outline talent who are incapable of drawing, in the se nse of the term—and Natural objects, how to be studied: with & view to skill in illumination." He commenced by observing that the business of that morning would be to ascertain, as far as possible, the real nature and merits of outline. First, however, it was necessary to e upon the important point of what that which was generally called outline really was. The first thing they knew about it was thatit was something that did not exist in nature. "There was no such thing as outline in nature, and for this simple reason, that every object, whether placed near to or at a distance from the eye, had something which could not be clearly appre- ciated or described. On looking at a tree,—at first sight you would think you saw its form clearly and sharply defined against the sky, but try and count the leaves and you found that what appeared to be an outline was but a mere mist of dots, expressible by no lines or series of lines you could lay down. Go further still, and examine a forest of trees, and you would find that if a single tree had no outline, still less had the te of trees of which the furest was composed, anything ike outline. The grey mountain ridge appeared at first sight to form a distinct line against the background of the sky: examine it more closely, and the apparent outline resolves itself into the verdure of countless blades of grass and mosses, which no pen can trace—no line describe. The mountains, the forests, the trees, or the castle sheltered beneath their shade, had then no outline: there were innumerable blades of grass, numberless leaves, and hairs and fibres in infinite number, but nothing that could be accurately expressed by a line; and it was the same with everything in nature that had any organic structure,—there was something which the eye recognised, but nothing that it could accurately define, or the hand trace; nothing that could be expressed by human skill or human art. When a man by the exercise of great ingenuity succeeded in making an ugly thing like the specimen in his hand 5 the frame of a drawing], even that was not an outline, —it was like a line traced against a background; but if they attempted to describe any objects in nature by means of a black line, they put down something that there was not. What, then, was an outline? It was not a fact, —it was simply the assertion of a fact, namely, that if an outline were well drawn, within the breadth of the lines, whatever it might be, the termination of the thing took place. The line might be thick, or it might be thin, but the end of the thing represented was within it, and if it were pure and perfect outline, each side of the line would be true to the contour of the thing intended to be represented. Take, for instance, a round ball. If you attempted to draw an outline of it, and that outline were correct, it did not matter how thick or how thin the line was. It would be true to the contour of the ball. The real surface and contour would fall between the two sides of the outline were it truly drawn. But, if by way of giving etfect, any part of the outline were darkened or thickened more than another, then they would have an utter fallacy,—one of its outside lines must necessarily be wrong,—and the eye, instantly embarrassed, did not know which it was to follow,—it lost itself, and did not know how to go right. They knew how much people had been of late in the habit of publishing outlines which depended for half of what was called the effect, on being thicker on the side away from the light than on the other side. It was very curious how they could have fallen into such a habit, for nothing could be more absurd; but he apprehended the main reason was, that when people were drawing things at all spiritedly, they had a tendency to add pieces of shadow on the side farthest away from the light. Here was an instance [exhibiting a drawing of a leaf of the kind alluded toj and here was a true outline [exhibiting another drawing]. Outline might indeed, if judi- ciously shaded, be made to convey increased expression and etfect; but what he wished to impress upon them was, that in drawing outline they should draw it correctly. If they drew shadows, they should draw freely. But before they began, let them under- * From Mr. Ruskin’s Lectures on Decorative Colour at the Architectural Museum. Lecture II. 49 stand what they were going to draw. No great draughtsman who unde his business ever thickened his outline on the side away from the light; for as a general thing, outline was most visible on the side next the light; and, though the real object was to get pure outline in all cases, the thorough master of his craft would, if he thickened at all, be apt to thicken the line turned towards the light. He would show them some instances of this. Take an example of a man whom they would admit to have been a master of his craft—Raffaelle. Here was an etching of the head of St. Katherine done with a pen. The only dark side of the outline, as they would observe, was next to the light. Towards the opposite side the line vanished almost into nothing, whilst under the nose and round the eyes the shadows were marked as in the leaf which he had just exhibited. Here was another specimen, one of Albert Durers. He was a man, too, who knew his business. Here was a woodcut by that master [exhibiting it]. It was coarse bold stuff, it was true. It was not cut as they cut now, and perhaps so much the better. They could see plainly on what side the light came there. The shadows were all perfectly and freely drawn, and they would see that when the object of Albert Durer was to draw outline, he stuck to outline, and that when he did thicken his line, it was next the light. Such was the practice of Raffaelle and Albert Durer. But here, perhaps, was a better specimen still [exhibiting another of Albert Durer's] They could not tell on which side the light was, for it was clear and pure outline only. If they looked at the clouds presented in this example, they would see that they were the most aérial things imaginable, but that where there were dark lines, they were all turned towards the light. Then there was another man who knew his business—Turner [an etching of Turner’s was here produced]. This was done by Turner, with the point of a fork, he believed. The effect was beautiful. All these were first-rate specimens of outline. There was yet another specimen, executed by a noble fellow, a German —who had done some greater things than any other artist of the present day. He was not so good as Albert Durer, but he was mighty in his way, and ought to be universally known; and the woodcuts of Death the Avenger, and Death the Friend, were worthy of being known to the whole civilised world. He was glad to be able to make them acquainted with this example, for there was in it the effect of a sunset expressed with almost unexampled wer, and in the sleeve of the principal figure, which was out- ined with the most perfect accuracy, the strongest lines were those which came against the light. Outline, then, was the pro- duction of certain effects in a certain way. It was opposed to light and shadow in this respect, that light and shadow altered, but outline, the statement of material form, did not alter. Many persons had the gift of seeing and producing effects in light and shadow, which did not exist in outline; while others had the gift of perceiving and expressing the contour of a thing in outline. They were aware that many people, before the inven- tion of photography, gained their bread by cutting black paper portraits. He had always been struck by the marvellous gift which had enabled these persons with a pair of scissors to cut out instantaneously and with the test accuracy the profile of a human face. Agnin, they knew how many people were enabled with marvellous accuracy, to portray features, and even expression, —and this gift was frequent in children,—in outline upon paper. But these persons stopped short, partly from want of opportunity, and more frequently from a failing of character,—that was, they had not the disposition to go into the nicer subtleties of light and shade, not only because they were subtleties, and uncertain in their results, but because there was a peculiar delicacy in light and shade, the expression of which required enormous study and practice. Even to appreciate this delicacy and softness required a peculiar sympathy, almost an effeminacy of mind; and those who loved it most, and followed it most,—those who attained the greatest eminence in expressing it,—had often been led into sensuality. To some extent sensuality was, though not necessarily so, the result of that peculiar state of mind, as in Corregio, who though he had painted some of the most sublime of sacred subjects, had, in many of his works, displayed the grossest sensuality—sensuality of which any man ought to be ashamed. He was not in this saying anything against light and shadow; but there was this difference betweenfjt and outline, that the love of outline was a pure love of truth, and assuredly it was better for those who possessed the gift of outline, and had not the time, or the opportunity, or the mind to pursue light and shadow, to cultivate the gift they possessed, than to endeavour to produce 9 50 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. effects which they would never be capable of expressing. Whe- ther or not there was a peculiar character in these people, he did not know; but assuredly it would be better that they should be able to express themselves accurately in pure outline than to follow after eilects which they could not realise. With outline it was possible to unite to a certain extent pure colour or pure Shadow. Instinctively this might be done. In the Raffaelle sketch which he had exhibited, there was a certain degree of light and shade added to the outline; but when both shadow and colour were added, then a mighty question was opened. Colour varied with every phase—with every turn in the contour of a subject. And if in addition to colour it were desired to express light and shade in its true and subtle connection with colour, a whole lifetime must be devoted to it. Painting was very much like music. A musician for whom he had great respect, who was present at the previous meeting, aud from whom he had learned all he knew of the art, Mr. Hullah, had spoken of the ditlieulty of teaching people to sing and to play, and especially of the skill which was required in the management of an orches- tra. There was great similarity between the two arts, painting and music, in this respeet. Drawing in outline correctly, corre- sponded much with plain clearspeaking. Drawing in outline with colour, corresponded with clear articulation in singing. If to outline they added light and shade, they arrived at something corresponding to clear articulation, coupled with playing upon an instrument. But if upon true outline they gave light and shadow, and true colour in their due proportions, that was like the skilful management of the full orchestra. There were not many who could do that. Persons, who commenting on what he had said on the art of illumination, and not understanding the requirements of a great painter, but supposing that from the mere ornamentation of a page, or the clear drawing of an outline, they could vo on to imitate the truths of nature in light and shade, and colour, were mistaken as to the views which he had expressed. He had shown that the art of illumination was distinct from that of true painting, and had produced examples from missals, showing the falling off in that art, after it had attained its culminating point in the thirteenth century, and attributing its decline to the attempt to introduce more and more light and shalow. Here was a specimen of this [exhibiting a page fully illuminated, con- taining fruit, scarlet strawberries, flowers, and other things]. Had this been put into his hand by the artist, he would have said to him,“ You are not going to be an ornamental painter any more, then? you are going to be a painter of fruit: if you want to paint fruit, that is the way to do it [showing a pear painted in water-eolours|: unless you can paint fruit as well as that I will have nothing to do with you, and to do that you must paint for six hours every day for forty xeurs.“ This was first-rate fruit painting by W. IIunt, of the Old Water-Colour Society. It was a glorious thing to be able to paint like that, and yet it was but a single pear; and there were half-a-dozen scarlet strawber- ries in every page of the missal:and yet the one was bad painting, the other all but perfection. These latter missals were full of faults and incongruities, arising from the attempt to produce paintings when the writers should have limited themselves to ornaments. It would have been far better if they had confined themselves to what they could do well, instead of attempting reat things to which they were unequal. He had been sub- jected to criticism because he had expressed an opinion more favourable to the works of the thirteenth century than those of a later period. What he had spoken of was the fall of art, as respected missal painting, and he had shown from the causes which he had stated, that the art had from that period continued to decline. It had gone on falling, becoming worse and worse until the time of Julio Clovio, which was the worst of all. He did not mean to say that a painter should not illuminate a book or paint a wall, but it must be when he was at rest. But because a great painter might have painted a magnificent picture on the wall of a palace, we must not expect to have all our rooms painted by great artists, nor could we expect generally to have good paintings in our books. If we had, the attention would be carried away from the work of the author to the work of the artist, and he had no idea of having books that would not be read. What he wished was, to endeavour, by introducing appro- riate decoration, to make books more attractive, and not to fill ibraries with works so highly decorated that the owners were afraid to touch them. His object in introducing illuminations into books was not to lead tlie miud away trom the text, but to enforce it. What he desired to impress upon them was to endeavour to express themselves clearly and legibly in outline; but above all, truly. The first thing to be done was to understand the differ- ence between a true outline and a false one; and this lel him back to the Parisian MS. to which he had previously referred. He was glad that he had been led back to this subject, for he had been told that it had been said of him in a newspaper,—he himself never looked at these things, for if he read everything that was said against him, he should have no time for anything else,—but a friend of his had told him that the Morning Chronicle had accused him of knowingly misrepresenting the circumstance of the teaching of Alfred,—that he had said it was the stepmother of the Saxon king, a French princess, instead of his own mother, who was an English woman, who induced him to learn to read by exhibiting to him a beautifully illuminated French missal, and promising it as the reward of his success. Now, he would give this advice to all who heard him, and especially to young persons,—let them never suspect a man of wilful misrepresenta- tion until they had proof that he had said what he knew to ve incorrect. If they did so, they not only insulted the person, but they insulted themselves irreparably. People were often led into misrepresentations and sophistries in the eagerness of argument; but he did not believe, and none but those who are in the habit of misrepresenting could believe, that people would deliberately state a fact one way when they knew it to be another. As it happened, in this case he could have no motive for misrepresenta- tion. He did not care a straw whether it was a French princess or an English princess who was the means of teaching Alfred. That was not his affair, but Sharon Turners, whose book he had quoted, and whom he considered an authority on the point. But that in the illuminated works of the thirteenth century, France stood pre-eminent, any person acquainted with the sub- ject must be aware. Whenever he entered a museum, or examined any collection of old illuminated writing, if he saw any specimens which were first-rate, he always said they were French: if he saw any MSS. second-rate in character, but still showing great intellectual power, but not wrought up with great retine- ment, he concluded that it was probably English work: if other specimens showed some intellectual power, but at the same time a great clinging to precedent, then he set them down as German; and if they were irretrievably coarse, he concluded they were Dutch. What was true with regard to MSS. was true also with respect to sculpture and architectural decoration. The best specimen we had of the Gothic architecture of that century was Lincoln cathedral, and the next was that of Wells. The speci- mens of sculpture from Lincoln Cathedral so justly brought forward by Mr. Cockerell, were probably the finest examples of the kind that could be found in the country. But although they exhibited great boldness of outline and vigour of invention, they were by no means equal to the architectural sculpture of the French cathedrals of the same period: they were not equal to the compositions at Rheims, Amiens, and especially at Notre Dame. [ Mr. Ruskin here handed round some beautitul calotype views of the sculptured arches and columns of the French and English eathedrals of the thirteenth century, evidencing the superiority of the former in point of refinement]. The fact, too, was proved by Dante. Dante spoke also of England, but not as equally dis- tinguished in art as France. Ile represented the people of England as remarkable for qualities of a more simple character,— “ Behold the king of simple life and plain, Harry of Eugland.“ And he characterised them as a people distinguished by force of character, veracity, and simplicity, but not celebrated for great pre-eminence in the arts. He would now again revert to the interesting subject of illuminated letters. Here was a page of an illuminated 1nissal hymn [exhibiting it] written in the year 1290, for the nuns of the monastery of Beaupre. It was very beautifully executed, and in a free style. He wished them to look at the little figure at the foot of the page, of an archer shooting at & bird with an arrow. The outline, notwithstanding its minuteness, was most accurately drawn, and evidently by a man who had thought it worth while to study the art he practised. He had made an enlargement of the little scarlet figure, and it would be seen from that, that although the writer did perhaps not know inuch of anatomy, he had taken care to study an archer drawing a bow before he drew the outline. It was quite evident that the artist knew something of the manner of drawing the bow, and desired to represent it accurately. Let them compare this outline with THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 51 the base outline, which he would now exhibit [producing it], by a man who did not care to know anything about drawing a bow before he began to trace his outlines. The arrow was altogether out of proportion—it was almost as long as the man. The stags appeared as if waiting to be shot, their horns looking so much like the branches of the trees under which they stood, that it was scarcely possible to distinguish one from the other. There was not a line in the whole composition that was not false, and yet this was a correct copy of one of the most celebrated works of Claude Lorraine, a drawing in the possession of the Duke of Devonshire. Mr. Ruskin then exhibited a Parisian MS. of the time of St. Louis, which he said was one of the best specimens in his possession. It was full of animals, figures, and ornaments, He particularly pointed out a white bird, too small to be appreciated without the aid of a glass, but of which he exhibited an enlarged copy, calling attention to the humorous expression of self-satisfac- tion in the bird's eve, the ease of its position, and other merits. The whole MS. he observed, was full of figures equally ingenious, and equally beautiful. In many of the examples of the early illuminated writings, was to be found much of humour, almost amounting to wit; and the lesson to be de iuced from them was, that humour, as far as it was expressible by art, were best expressed by a few free lines quickly and easily drawn: for nothing was so disgusting as laboured humour, whether in words or painting. Hogarth had humour, but much more than humour: his pietures were not to be laughed at, they easily made him serious the whole day after; they were bitter agonising satire. The gift of humour was peculiar to Englishmen. "They could often express it in a few liues, and although he would not have this humour so conspicuous in books as to interfere with the text, yet it would be delightful if people, when dealing with books, could have the power of expressing the humour and wit which arises in their mind, illustrative of the text. That was one thing to which outline drawing might be applied. Another was the grotesque. It was not mere humour that was expressed in a grotesque. A grotesque was often the expression of truths in a small compass. The grotesque was as available in poetry as in painting. The poet and the painter, be it remembered, were essentially the same. He would give them a definition of the poet and the painter together, which they would remember, though it was a hissing one. The poet or the painter was a man who concentrated sermons into sights. If they could not do this they deserved not the name of poet or painter. A few strokes from the pen or the pencil should convey to the mind in a moment what it would take an hour to describe. Supposing he was to attempt to describe the vice of gluttony, it would take him a long time to bring before thein the hardness of heart, the degradation of intellect, and all the evils which resulted from it. But Spenser did this in twenty-seven lines in a grotesque. The Red Cross Knight in the course of his chivalry is led unhappily to the House of Pride. The poet there displays to him the Seven Mortal Sins, one of whom, Gluttony, is thus described:— ** And by his side rode loath-ome Gluttony, Deformed creature on a tilthy swine; His belly was upblown with luxury, Aud eke with fatness awollen were his eyne; And like a crane his neck was long and fine With which he swaliuwed up exceseive feast, + * * * * In green vine leaves he waa right fitlv clad; For other clothes he could not wear for heat; And on his head an ivy garland had, From under which fast trickled down the sweat; Still as he rode, he somewhat still did eat, Aud in his hand did bear a boozing can, Of which he supped 80 oft, that in his seat His dronken corse he scarce upholden can. Full of diseases was his carcass blue, Aud a dry dropsy through his flesh did flow." Here evils, which would take a long sermon to work out, were deseribed in not twenty-seven lines, as he had said, but in sixteen, and were fixed in the memory in such a way as not to be forgotten. Take another example from the same pvet,—his description of Avarice:— ** And greedy Avarice by him did ride Upon à camel loaden all with gold; Tu, iron coffers hung on either side, With precious metal full as they might hold, Aud in his lap a heap of coin he told; Ld * * * * * * Aud thread hare coat and cobbled shoer he ware; He scarce good morsel all his lite did taste, But lost from back aud belly still did “pare, To fill his bags aud riches to compare.’ In both these cases, and throughout the greater parts wil wee and of Dante, it would be observed how strongly the evil to be avoided was impressed upon the mind, by being brought pro- minently before the vision. This could be done to some extent in outline, but not in finished painting. The painter could not represent in detail the long crane’s neck of the glutton, nor place the digusting wretch upon the swine’s back. By means, however, of a few roughly and freely drawn outlines, something like a representation could be given of such personages. The grotesque was much used in the Middle Ages, and it was a means of con- veying truths to the mind which we had ignorantly passed over. Again, how could spiritual beings be so fitly represented as by outline. To portray spiritual existences with success on the canvas had ever been one of the vreatest problems in art, but a solution of the difficulty could be found in the judicious use of outline, nor was it necessary to study anatomy and muscles in order to paint either an angel or a demon. A man of first-rate merit and ability (Stodhart), but, unfortunately, trammelled by academic rules, had been selected to illustrate Milton, and among other subjects, to delineate Satin. Look at the result. [Mr. Ruskin here exhibited an engraving from the work referred to]. The only idea which the painter had formed of his hero was that he was an extremely muscular man, with a remarkably handsome calf to his leg, and handsome tight-fitting shoes, to protect his feet from the “burning marl; and his steel armour is made to bend in and out, in order to show the development of his muscles. Was there ever such an absurdity? Could anybody think fora moment that that was a spirit? But when abstract outline was combined with beautiful colour, the main effects were obtained. The imagination took them up, and suggested to itself something noble which could be conveyed by noothermeans. Take another ilustration. [Mr. Ruskin here exhibited two leaves from illu- minated MSS. representing the story of St. John the Baptist]. One, he said, was the initial letter of à h ymn, and the object was to bring the story prominently before the eye of the reader or the singer to stimulate him to the performance of his duty—to tell all that could be told in the space of a single leaf. It would be seen how the same subject was treated at different periods. The one showed a St. John seated in a meadow, reading a book, with a lamb by his side—a charining little picture, most elaborately finished;—the other a St. John of an earlier date and of rougher execution. The object of each work was to illustrate the principal events in the life of the forerunner of the Messiah; but in the case of the less laboured work of the earlier period, the story was told by an outlined figure walking upon the kingly head of Herod and the wondering upturned head of Herodias. In one hand the saint bore the representation, not of the mere ordinary lamb, but of the Lamb of God; while with the other, he pointed to the sacred object of his mission. A calm and holy serenity beamed around the features of the martyr, and though walking in triumph upon the heads, he still appeared divinely unconscious of the fallen and prostrate condition of his murderers. There was a peculiar expression, too, in the face of Herodias. She appeared to be too much astonished to be in pain. “I thought I had his head in a charger—it is not so!—he has mine, at his feet for ever and ever.“ Now which of these illuminations told the story in the best manner, the man in the meadow with the book and the lamb, or the more vigorous and poetic treatment of the subject by the artist of the thirteenth century? So much for the recommendation of outline. He now came to the more practical question of how to acquire it. To those who had the gift and the liking, and those who had the gift would have the liking, he would say, Take a hlunt pen, and common ink, and draw with it everything, every figure, that came in their way, observing, however, these two important points, that no line was ever to be drawn loosely, without a meaning or a use, and that every characteristic shade or local colour or stains that might be useful when they came to fill up with colour, were to be carefully noted. As in the bird he had exhibited, the pupil of the eye must be observed, and marked, and also the black legs. Everything must be noted that could be useful in tilling up with pure colour afterwards. If they drew a lion and a leopard, the leopard. must especially be marked as a spotted creature. In everything they did they must note the local, not the accidental colour.—A fter observing that the speci- mens which he had produced would remain at the museum for the inspection of those who felt an interest in the subject and desired to follow the study, Mr. Ruskin concluded by stating that the whole of his remarks had been dictated by a desire to 9* 52 impress upon his audience the practicable nature of his sugges- tions. He had frequently heard himself called a visionary and an unpractical man. Nothing could be more erroneous. His whole life had been devoted to bringing people down from idealisms and fancies to practical truths. He felt certain that if all who had heard him would acquire the habit of drawing every- thing that came before them, and which they saw with their own eyes, they would soon attain a power which would make them infinitely happy and honoured by all those whose esteem they valued, make them capable of doing a vast amount of good, give them the power of communing with nature, and implant 7 them a reverence for Him who made both nature and their . hearts. — —int— —— THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COLOUR* By J. Ruskin. Mn. Ruskin stated that the special points of this lecture were, —“The general principles of colour; dignity of pure colour; whereon its power depends; the colours which are the basis of illumination are blue, purple, and scarlet, with gold; peculiar power of crimson; value of green, white, and black, and modes of their necessary introduction; refinements of intermediate hues in delicate work; review of subject.” The speaker commenced his remarks by broadly stating that the subject upon which he was about to address his audience, was one upon which neither he himself nor anybody else could tell anything which would be of the least value, beyond what every person present could find out for himself, by the exercise of that noble faculty which taught Falstaff to run away,—he meant “instinct.” Under the circumstances in which Falstaff was placed, to run away was undoubtedly the best thing which he could do. By “instinct,” however, he did not wish to be understood as implying that by which an animal performed acts like to those of men, but that peculiar faculty by which all creatures did particularly that which it was their function to do, as the bee built its combs. In the construction of those hexagonal combs philosophers had discovered certain rules, which they had ex- ressed in mathematical and logical formule. But although the constructed his cells in such a manner as most successfully to economise the consumption of wax, yet he was perfectly ignorant of the laws of numerical series, by which the principles upon which he acted could be explained and illustrated by the philosopher. The bee did not know, and did not want to know, these rules; he built his cells by a higher and a nobler teaching. Neither did higher animals ever do any great thing but by instinct. Did the brave and gallant soldiers in the Crimea act upon any other than instinct as they stood by their death- dealing guns? Did they entertain for a moment the question of the expediency of their running away? Far from it. Running away was not in them—they were animated solely by the instinct of courage. Ask a man of honour why he told the truth, or why he was not in the habit of telling lies. His reply would be, that it was not in him to act other than truthfully. Ask the man of compassion why he picked up the ragged boy from the gutter, who had been run over in the street, and his answer would be that he could not help doing it; it was his instinct to do so. He could in fact, be no other than a compassionate man. And this was especially the case in the arta. If we went to any noble colourist, to any real man of talent, and asked him why he did such or such a thing, his answer would be, “I dont know. I do it because it appears to me to look well.” The other day he was seated by the side of one of the greatest living colourists, Mr. Hunt; and, in reply to a question put to him as to why he put ona certain colour, he said “he did not know, he was just aiming at it. Mr. Ruskin had had frequent opportunities of conversing with Turner, but had never heard him utter a single rule of colour, though he had frequently heard him, like all great men, talk of “trying” to do a thing. This was ever the language of great genius. A man of no talent, a bad colourist, would be ready to give you mathematical reasons for every colour he put on the canvas. Mulready was another great colourist, and he had once asked him whether he had any principles or rules of colour. The reply of the colourist was, “Know what you have to do, and do it;” but he could not tell by what rules he was to * From Mr. Ruskin's Lectures on Decorative Colour at the Architectural Museum. Lecture III, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. know what to do to acertain thing. The same thing prevailed in poetry. The master poets, who wrote the best verses, could not tell their way of doing it. Tennyson was, in his opinion, the leading master of versification at the present day, and he knew of no rules to guide him. An intimate friend of the poet set himself one day to tind out all the rules of Tennyson’s versifi- cation, and collected together, from his verses, an immense number of laws and examples. “Look here,” said he, “what wonderful laws you observe.” “Its all true," replied the poet; “I do observe them, but I never knew it." Take again the case of music. Haydn was one of the greatest of geniuses, as well as an ardent lover of true harmony. An admirable German work, containing the lives of Haydn and other composers, gave a striking instance of the perfect independence of mind and freedom from fetters of rule which characterised this fine composer; checked in his youth by masters, this rare person had yet “taken science out of his own heart,—he had found it there, had remarked the feelings which passed within his own breast, and he acted upon its suggestions and native promptings.” When in London, a young lord called upon Haydn, and sought his instruc- tion. In the course of the interview the young man pointed out to the composer a number of faults and departures from the established rules of harmony, which he had marked in one of his overtures. He inquired the cause of these errors, and why such a note had been used, when a different one would have been the more correct. Haydn replied, that he had done so because it had a good effect, and pleased his taste. The Englishman disapproved of the alterations, when Haydn told him to play the passages as he would wish them to be altered and see which would produce the best effect. After a great deal of argument on each side, the great composer becoming perfectly impatient, said, “My lord, you have the goodness to give me lessons, and I do not deserve the honour of receiving them from you,” and bowed him out of the room. He was anxious to get his hearers entirely quit of the notion of supposing that they could do nothing without “rule.” We were told as a rule that there were three primary colours,—red, blue, and yellow,—and that these primaries should occur in every composition; that these three colours always existed in a ray of light in the proportions of 8, 5, and 3, aud that in these proportions they neutralised each other, and pro- duced white light: then, said the scientific gentlemen, * Because these colours occur in a ray of light, you should always put them into your colour compositions in just such a manner as that each colour may be neutralised by its neighbour.” How absurd was all this? Were there not also acids and alkalies in chemistry which neutralised each other? and would it not be equally reasonable for a man to say to his cook, Whenever you squeeze a lemon on my veal, put a pinch of magnesia with it, in order that the alkali may neutralise the acid?” There, said the lecturer—producing at the same time an orange—is as fine a yellow as you can have. If the scientific man were asked what colours should be intro- duced with it in a composition, he would reply, * Well, eight of red, and five of blue" But what said Nature! She gave neither red nor blue, but, placing the orange in the midst of bright green-leaves, enabled: you to look on one of the most beautiful objects in existence—an orange-grove. Look, too, at the beauti- ful little skyblue flowers of the gentian. Did nature give that eight of blue, five of red, and a touch of yellow? No such thing. There were the green grass, the white lilies of the valley, and the grey rock, but not a touch of red or yellow, yet that flower always looked beautiful. Some fine specimens of water-colour drawings of Turner and others were exhibited, for the purpose of showing that beautiful effects might be obtained without adlierence to these arbitrary rules, and could often only be obtained by defiance of them; and the lesson which the lecturer deduced from these examples, as well as from a careful study of the finest works of the old masters, was, that a close observance of these laws would most assuredly lead the scholar in a wrong direction. But not only were these laws calculated to lead people wrong, but they would make those who followed them immoderately con- ceited. The lecturer said that he was talking the other day toa man who, of all others, had, perhaps, been the most successful in pursuing these laws of colour, and in the course of conversation, the lawgiver said, Well, I find, upon the whole, that there is no harmony except between red and green.” That was very odd, Mr. Ruskin replied, for his impression was, that Titian, and some others who knew something of the matter, had used red and blue. „No,“ said the philosopher, “it will not do, —Titian is all wrong." THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 58 On asking him whether there was any picture in the Academy which came up to his views of harmony in colour, the philosopher said that he had been carefully through the whole collection, and had only found one A Sed which was painted on scientific princi- ples. t picture the lecturer had seen; he would not mention its name; but it was one of the chief daubs in the collection of the Academy. The worst of all this intermeddling of science was, that not only the artist derived no help from it, but it prevented science from doing the work which really came within its own province. Science could not give the artist the colours which it told him to use. But if not by science, how was skill in colouring to be obtained? Only by instinct. Man was a being differing from the lower animals, in having two kinds of instinct, one which aimed at higher, and the other at baser ends, and he had also his noble reason to enable him to find out which of his acts would elevate the one or depress the other. The most efficient mode by which a knowledge of colour could be obtained by the artist was by casting all rules behind his back, and trusting to his own instincts when in a calm and healthy state. Watch for everything, look carefully for everything in nature which was beautiful. en- ever any combination of colours, or a colour particularly beautiful was found, note it carefully. If this kind of work be enjoyed and continued in, depend upon it, the student would soon terin to invent, and having put down two or three colours, others would soon suggest themselves as necessary. Pass not a single thing, however small or despised, for no colour was so contempti- ble but that it might furnish some hint, and there was no hour of the day in which something might not be learned. Fettered by rules, all these opportunities of gaining knowledge would be lost to the student. He was most anxious, in any remarks which he had made, that he should not be understood as depre- ciating the value of any of those ably illustrated works of Mr. Owen Jones and others who had studied the subject of the laws of colour—a subject, in the abstract, of great interest. All he meant to convey was, that these rules would never teach any one to colour, and the artist who submitted himself to the law of these three primaries was lost for ever. In connection with colouring there were, however, three necessities which should never be lost sight of by the student. They were—the necessity of gradation, of subtlety, and surprise; and these it would be found were most sedulously and carefully acknowledged by the most successful of colourists, whether ancient or modern. No colour was really valuable until it was ted. The t beauty of colour consisted in a sort of twilight melancho ana dying away; no colour waa in fact of use till it appeared to be dying. Colour might be gradated by pass- ing into other colours, or by becoming paler or darker. Instances of subtle gradation of colour were shown in the flowers of the scarlet cactus, and in some of the beautiful water-colour drawings of Turner. This same law was pre-eminently to be found among the illuminated works of the thirteenth century, where white lines or dots were most judiciously and effectively intro- duced for the purpose of gradating colours. A second and not less important point always observed by the successful colourist was the excessive delicacy to which he strove to bring all the hues he laid on, whether the working was large or small. When a person had coloured rightly, a grain more or a grain less would injure the whole. This delicacy was carried to such an extent by Paul Veronese that in one of his largest pictures, now in Paris, a small white hair upon the paw of a cat playing with a vase in the foreground was essential to the completeness of the picture. Another striking instance of this extreme delicacy was to be seen in & plum, painted by the greatest of living fruit-painters, Mr. Hunt, where a minute spot of scarlet was plainly seen upon the surface, and produced a most pleasing and eable effect to the eye. It was this extreme delicacy of all pool colour, and the care which was taken in its application even to architectural decoration, that rendered fruitless and unsuccessful all attempts to restore, or to represent the old decorations upon any archi- tectural works of the past centuries. We know nothing of what colours were employed by the Egyptians, or by any of the ancient decorators. We had found a bit of red in one place and & powder of blue or yellow upon some other, and we know nothing more. There were nearly twenty different reds now known to us; which one did the Egyptians use? Most certainly not that one which was now employed to represent the revived monuments of that age and country. Tillthey knew it, they could not restore the rudest monument of past ages. Until we knew absolutely and certainly what colours they used, —till, in fact, we could call the men up from the dead, we had no right to touch what they had left behind. Another important law to be always kept in mind was that of the law of surprise. This law in colour was one of the chief sources of pleasure, —just as in music, the change to one note, when another was expected, formed the principal cause of the delight up in listening to the finest works of the com- posers. To the works of the old masters this “law of surprise” was uniformly acted upon, and the painters appear to have set themselves certain laws, and then Suddenly to have transgressed them in the most playful and effective manner An instance of this was shown in an illuminated MS. On one side was a number of heads within ovals, following each other regularly, when suddenly towards the close of the series, an irregularly- minded angel clapped his wing over his head, outside the oval. In another part à disobedient leaf suddenly appeared out of the ordinary and expected line, and all who saw the change could not but feel thankful to the unruly leaf for the excellent effect it had produced. ae from the laws affecting the management of colour, he roceeded to point out what colours ought to be used. The best esson in colour to which he could point was a sunset. The clouds were scarlet, golden, purple, white, grey, but not crimson, except in stormy weather. Crimson was a colour which rarely occurred,—when it did, almost always giving the idea of a bloody hue—and it was curious to notice how, in the cacti and some other flowers, the purple, passing from scarlet, rarely, if ever, touched crimson. But one, at least, of the most beautiful of flowers in nature was crimson, viz. the rose, and the blush on the cheek was the most beautiful of colours, but the crimson which they displayed was always associated with the idea of life. ere were undoubtedly cases in which crimson could be used with the greatest success, and one of the finest windows which he had ever seen was one at the western end of Chartres cathedral, of the twelfth century, upon which “gouts” of blood appeared to have been dropped. Nothin could exceed the richness and beauty of this window beneat the gorgeous rays of the sunset. Blues, whites, scarlets, yellows, and greys were all colours of the clouds—of heaven; fixed green and a particular kind of ashy buff were the colours of earth. All that was calculated to attract the mind in this peculiar art of illumination was to be found in the colours of heaven. The golden, scarlet, white, russet, purple, and grey colours all kept to the sky; the greens and the buffs to . There was, too, a sort of a blueish green in the sky; and, as a general rule, greens should be always tinted and tempered with blue. The earthy, ashy, buff colour of earth—the ugliest of all colours—was pre- eminently the one used in this boasted nineteenth century. Some attempts of a most P nature were being made to improve the colour of the ordinary tiles for architectural purposes, and a manufacturer of those tiles had covered the whole front of his house with them, where they would have had a most excellent effect, had he not, with the worst possible taste, made the ground of the whole of them this ugliest of all colours. The purple was a colour to which great importance was attached by the ancients. The old Greek purple was . not of a scarlet hue, but a deep and sombre colour. the Odyssey, Menelaus, in his interview with the sea-king Proteus, when told of the assassination of Agamemnon, is represented as going away sad. Homer says his mind became purple. Many persons would suppose it meant “crimsoned” over with blood. But this was not the meaning intended to be conveyed; for in one part of the Iliad, he describes the sinking and darkness which came over a dying soldiers eyes, as he faints with his wound, and death comes to him as “purple death.” The words are weak as given by Pope:— “ Down sinks the priest, the purple hand of death Closed his dim eyes, and fate suppressed his breath." But there were other passages where this purple was referred to, which proved that it could have had nothing of the scarlet about it—that was a description of the sea. When dark brown clouds pass over the blue Mediterranean, they give a dark, leaden-like purple to the waters as they lie motionless. Homer thus desoribes the sea when in this state:— * As when old Ocean's silent surface alecpa, The waves just heaving on the purple pad us While yet the expected tempest hangs on high, Weighs down the clouds, and blackens all the sky." There could be no question but that the purple here referred 54 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. to was a dark leaden colour. The same epithet of “purple” has been applied by Homer to the face of oxen, and they certainly had not scarlet faces; but they had a peculiar russet passing into blue, which could frequently be seen in their dark foreheads. When Achilles went to the sea to seek his mother Thetis, Homer says that the sea appeared to him of this dark strange bloody purple. The ideal of blood among the Greeks was that of a dark, rich colour. Homer said of Menelaus, when wounded by Pandarus, that his blood distilled down his thigh, as when a Tyrian girl stained the ivory. Reverting to the strange manner in Which in nature the purple gradated into scarlet, without touching the crimson, Mr. Ruskin urged upon the student of illumination the propriety of not using the sacred colour, crimson, Without extreme caution. , Passing from that colour itself, the lecturer next called atten- tion to the necessity of a careful study of the abstract lines which were to enclose it, instancing the noble and graceful curves which were to be met with in many of the illuminated letters of the thirteenth century. As instances of such, he exhibited an enlarged drawing of a small letter from one of the missals, the curves in which were of the most graceful character, and could only be drawn by the most skilful hand. Having pointed out the grace and beauty of the original, Mr. Ruskin produced, amid the laughter of his audience, the same graceful design vulgarised by the use of combined mathematical curves, and showed, by adding a few strokes, that this vulgarisation was, in fact, the form of an Ionic capital. Mr. Ruskin intimated that he had placed in the adjoining room, under the care of Mr. Allen, to whom he confessed himself deeply indebted for the very valuable assistance he had rendered him, several examples of this class of curves, taken from MSS. which they might glance at now and then, and expressed his readiness to attend at the Musvem upon stated days, to look over any examples which might be brought to him, in order, as far as he was able, to help the student forward in his work. It was grievous to think how large an amount of power was lying dormant at this time of the world, because bound down and darkened by the absurd scientificalities which it was the fashion of the day to promulgate and insist upon as indispensable. A day or two since a person who had attended his previous leetures, had sent him some books of sketches, stating that he had been in the habit of illuminating, not for profit, but merely because it satisfied his mind. ‘These books were filled with the most marvellous sketches aud most felicitous ideas, Among the various sketches, he had found one which was a perfectly new thought, even on the subject of “The Lord’s Supper,” a theme which had exhausted the genius of some of the finest painters of ancient and modern time. “And when they had sung a hymn, they went up to the Mount of Olives.” The sketeh represents the group of the disciples singing the hymn— a most beautiful and charming subject for the painter. A few days since he had set some boys to work to produce some specimens of illuminated letters; they had been most successful in their work. and the lecturer exhibited the results of their labours in two large initial letters for the “Kyrie Eleison.” There was, therefore, none of that insuperable difficulty about the use of ornamental letters which some persons had imagined, and he was most anxious to impress upon those of his audience who might be engaged in the execution of ornamental designs, and lettering on walls and shop-fronts, how easily and with what success they might introduce initial letters of this description. It was surprising to see the dexterity and skill with which many of these writers could strike the curves of the letters they were painting. It was a most marvellous power, one which could only be attained by constant and long practice, but he was anxious to see this sleight-of-hand turned to greater advantage, and used to more effect. They might depend upon it, that if they once introduced these ornamental letters, they would achieve for themselves a vast amount of success, and carry the public along with them to an extent of which they could form no opinion. There were two points about the art of illumination which, in closing, he desired to refer to—they were the uniform attention which was paid to purity of colour, and the vast power of the grotesque which could be advantageously employed by those who were in the habit of using the art. An examination of the works of the old illuminators, would show in the most striking manner the great attention which they always paid to purity of colour. Between the good colourist and the layer on of paint, there was the widest possible ditference. The Dutch excelled in the art of laying on paint, but their work was far different from that careful system of colouring adopted by the illuminators of the thirteenth century. Observe how carefully, and with what exquisite taste, the small lines and dots of white are introduced in order to produce harmonious effects where the immediate contrast of strong or bright colours would offend the eye. In some of the smaller work of these illuminated missals, the white was introduced in such small quantities as to be only visible by the aid of a microscope. Some specimens illustrative, in a high degree, of the great care and labour bestowed in this respect, were handed to the audience. In the works of the old masters of painting, the holiest subjects were always depicted in the most powerful and purest of colours; as the subjects lowered in character, they gradually lost their dignity of colour, until they came to the lowest character of all in colour—the works of Salvator Rosa, which were nothing more than mere drabs and browns. The second highly important consideration in connection with this art was that to which he had alluded on a previous occasion viz., the vast powers of grotesque which it afforded. This power of the grotesque was one which ought not to be overlooked by the people of this country, for most undoubtedly the faculty belonged peculiarly to the northern nations. Carlyle, to whom he (the lecturer) owed more than to any other living writer, in his “Hero Worship,” thus referred to the exercise of this power. “Tt is strange,” said he, “after our beautiful Apollo statues, and clear, smiling mythuses, to come down upon the Norse gods ‘brewing ale,’ to hold their feast with the sea Jotun, sending out Thor to get the cauldron fur them in the Jotun country. Thor, after many adventures, clapping the pot on his head like a huge hat, and walking off with it, quite lost in it, the ears of the pot reaching down to his heels! A kind of vacant hugeness, large, awkward gianthood, characterises that Norse system; enormous force, as yet altogether untutored, stalking helpless with large uncertain strides. Consider only their primary mythus of the creation! The gods having got their giant Ymer slain—a giant made by ‘warm wind, and much confused work, out of the conflict of frost and fire—determined on constructing a world with him. His blood made the sea, his flesh was the land, the rocks his bones—‘good geology that!’—of his eyebrows they formed Asgard, their god's dwelling; his skull was the great blue vault of immensity, and the brains of it became the clouds. What a hyper-Brobdignagian business! Untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous, to be turned in due time into the compact greatuess, not giant-like, but godlike, and stronger than gianthood, of the Shakspeares, the Goethes! Spiritually as well as bodily, these men are our progenitors.” The works of Albert Durer, and the great German artist to whom allusion had been made in the previous lectures, were also full of this power of the grotesque. The plates of “Death the Avenger,” and “Death the Friend,” were the most remarkable modern instances of the grotesque in its peculiar moral power he knew. In the one, Death appears suddenly as a masquer in a masked ball at Paris; and, although the subject was similar to that which had been pre- viously treated by Dr. Young, he did not think that the German artist was indebted to Dr. Young for the idea. Dr. Young was remarkable for this power. “Twas in the circle of the gay I stood; Death would have entered, nature pushed him back.” Now mark the grotesque,— „Supported by a doctor of renown, His point he gained :— Then artfully dismissed The sage; for Death designed to be concealed. lle gave an old vivacious usurer His ineagre aspect and his naked bones, In gratitude for plumping up his prey, A pawper'd spendthrift, whose fantastic air, Well ta-buioned figure, and cockaded brows, He took in change, and underneath the pride Of costly linen, tuck'd his filthy shroud. His crooked bow he straightened to a cane; Aud hid his deadly shafts in Myra's eyes.“ The other plate, *Death the Friend," showed the grotesque in its gentler power of teaching. The old sexton sat at the window of the church tower; the suminer evening was falling— Death had come for hin, his ghostly horse waiting in the clouds; and tolled for him at once the vesper, and the passing bell, while a little bird in the window-sill sings his vespers as the good man dies. The whole is full of that poetry, and that feeling which were 80 characteristic of the thirteenth century art, of the period when Walter, the Minnesinger, left this charge in his testament, “Let the birds be fed daily on my grave." THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 55 ON THE DRAINAGE OF TOWNS.* IN our Number for December last (Vol. XVII. p. 435) we published a paper by R. Rawlinson, C.E., on the Drainage of Towns, read at the Institution of Civil Engineers: we now give an abstract of the Discus- sion which ensued, and which occupied the attention of the members of the Institution for several consecutive mecting nights. Mr. G. DoxALDso said it was generally admitted, that partial failures had occurred in alinost every locality where earthenware pipes bad been used; the causea were, frac- ture of the pipes in unsound ground, and choking up wherever there was not a rapid fall. Now the frequent occurrence of these fractures would render the pipe system eventually more expensive than that of good brick sewers, aud the aunovance and inconvenience to the public from continually opening the streets to discover the stop- pages and clean out the pipes, would become unbearable, Common sense and practical experience dictated the course of having good brick main sewers, and well-burnt earthen pipe drains, of sufficient diameter leading into them, from the houses. By this means such failures as had occurred at Croydon, and the accompanying annoyauces and ill effects ou the health of the inhabitants, would be avoided. He had visited Croydon and satisfied himself as to the correctness of the statement, that iu several places the pipe sewers were crushed, and the workmen in charge of the repairs stated, that several thousand feet of the larger pipe sewers were also fractured; indeed it was difficult to aay how much remained ina fit state for conveying away the sewage. In several in- stances he observed that a covering of clay was put, and half-brick arches were turned over the pipes, to preserve them from the pressure of the earth; in almost all cases, tho pipes Were split from end to end, and the clerk of the works, on the spot, informed him that the broken pipes were very tender and friable when first taken up out of the earth, but on being dricd by exposure to the air the substance became hard and comparatively strong agin. Now it did appear to be false economy to push to excess the use uf a systema Which, if applied with judgment, was calculated to be extremely useful. Mr. RawLixsoN hoped, that as he had not been professionally enzaged at Croydon, he should not be held, even remotely, responsible for any failures there. He had been informed that the pipes used there were thin aud of bad quality. He quite concurred in the proposition, that if pipe sewers could not be laid so as to be permanent, and to keep themselves clear without being apnea to do away with stoppages, it would be far better to abandon them. Experience had enabled him to arrive at some conclusions, as to the extent to which they might be used, and he had decided never again to lay down socket pipes larger than 12 inches diameter, especially if approaching a depth of 10 feet. He had experieuced considerable difficulty with socket joints, and did not believe it aible to lay them, so as to avoid occasional failures, if their diameter exceeded 12 inches. He preferred“ butt" joints, and he thought that sewers constructed of hollow bricks, with radiating joints, would be great improvements on the ordinary system; in good ground the half-brick would be a sutficient thickness, and in bad ground the head- ers would impart strength, whilst the lower range of perforations would serve as land drains. Mr. G. Doxarpsos disclaimed any intention of connecting Mr. Rawlinson’s name with the sewerage works at Croydon; he spoke of the failures there from personal in- spection, and from information obtained on the spot, and as instances of the result of the injudicious use of pipe sewer. 1 Lord Ennuixc TON, M.P., said it was well known that he had felt much interest in the important question of the sewerage of towns, but of course he could ouly look at gencral results, and leave to professional men the discussion of the means to be employed, Takinz into consideration the great weight of the cylinder of water contained in a large ipe sewer wheu full, and the tendency, whenever there had been any carelessness in hw to allow all that weight to rest upon the projecting sockets and joints, he con- ceived there would be considerable practical difficulty in laying large pottery pipes so accurately as to avoid fracture, aud he had been surprised to observe, at St. Thomas, Exeter, how satisfactory the result had been, although the soil was not favourable, the supply of water waa inadequate, and the outfall was bad; yet, atter being at work for nine months, the pipe sewers appeared to be clear fromm deposit.2 In that locality, a pipe sewer, 18 inches diameter, had been laid, where a more expensive brick coustruc- tien would never have been placed at all. There were many instances in the metropolis of lary: brick sewers being crushed, and he apprehended, that in the construction of sewers through the made ground of streets, it was impoxssible to guard against such contingencies, therefore the occasional fracture of the pottery pipes should not be used as an argument for preventing their use, wherever practice showed they micht be ad- Vaniageously employed; and he hoped the result of the discussion of the question here, aud elsewhere, would be to induce the introduction to the metropolis of a complete system of sewers, by which the drainage of the houses and strects would be much mure cheaply and effectually accomplished than at present, Mr. RAWLIN ox, in answer to questions, stated, that generally he would prefer con- structing a brick sewer 20 inches diameter, to using a pipe sewer of that size, and he believed it would be cheaper. At Ormskirk, earthenware pipes, 20 inches diameter, would have cost 93. 6d. per yard, where a brick sewer, 30 inches diameter, cost 6s. 6d. per yard. At Hitchen, he could not use brick drains, because it was necessary to lay only short lengths at a time, and under circumstances of diilicultv, he had therefore in that case Waived his preference for à brick sewer above a certain size, The pipe sewer Was more expensive, but it had been adopted because a Puh had to be laid beneath the bed of the river, and pipes were more convenient for that locality; there was not, however, any heavy pressure upon them. With another outfall he shouid probably have used a brick sewer 3 feet diameter. He objected to the system of sending men into the sewers to cleanse them, and thought they should. be so constructed as not to require manual labour for clearing them, The dimensions of pipes could only be decided with reference to the nature of the material of which they were made, and the mode of manufacture. The limit of thickness for good London-made pipes was 1 inen, but those used at Manchester were 2 inches to 24 inches thick. He believed the failures must be generally attributable to the bad material, or the careless manufacture of the pipes; as some of those at Croydon were, he believed, only 8-inch thick, aud many lengths had been laid in headings alternating with trenches, so that there were very unequal degrees of pressure upon these thin pipes, and hence the failures. The real limit of thickness was that which could be thoroughly and equally burned in the kiln, without employing snch a temperature as would distort the clay. The pipes at Manchester were made of fire-clay, generally of an oval form, and upwards of 2 inches thick; which chu be com- pletely burned through. Whereas the clay used in Londou required considerable ad- mixture of extraneous substances and great working, to produce pipes of such quality aa were Dow understood to be manufactured by the best makers. Excerpt ' Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ Vol. XII. Session 1852-53. Edited by CHARLES Mansy, F.R.S., M. Iust. C. E. Secretary, 1 In the ‘Reports by Neil Amott, M.D., and T. Page, C.E., on the Prevalence of Disease at Croydon, and as to the plan of Sewerage,’ 4to. 1553, it ia sa-“ We regret to state, that the result of our investigations, is a conviction, that the operations of the plan for the sewerage have been influential in producing the disease, and that the ab- sence of proper provisions in that plan, for some of the general requirements in town drainage, and the especial requirements of Croydon, has been productive of misfortunes to the inhabitants.“ IC M.] 3 For an acconnt of the actual state of the sewerage of St. Thomaa, Exeter, aer the ‘Report to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, by Mr. Bazalgette. Feb. 1851.“ (C. M. See Journal, Vol. XVII. 1864, p. 173 Mr. Harwoop said he was glad to perceive, that the propriety of an engineer exer- cising his own judgment in matters of sewerage, was admitted by the author of the prr he had carefully perused a number of reports emanating from the Board of ealth, and they certainly left on his mind an impression, that the empirical rules laid down, were required to be implicitly followed; it was satisfactory to tind that this was an erroneous supposition. The real question at issue waa that of size, which would also determine that of the material to be employed in the construction of sewera, as there was a manufacturing limit to the dimensions of pipes, which, of course, did not exist with regard to brick structures. Up to a certain size, pipes might be advantageously employed, but for the main sewers of towns, larger dimensions and other materials must be adopted, He did not concur in the principle enunciated in the paper, which was to the etfect, that the sewers of towns should not be adapted to receive excessive flood watera, or to provide for carrying off a heavy rainfall, but that such water should pass off over the surface, as betore the construction of the sewers. It must, however, be remembered, that the condition of a town, when sewered, was very diferent from that of its site, previous to the building of the houses and forming the streets; artificial levels had been created, and a rainfall or flood, which might previously pass off inuocuously, could not do 30 under the altered circumstances, unless the sewers were of sufficient capacity to receive and convey away the excessive rainfall, If they were only of limited capacity the effect would be, that as soon as they became charged and ran full bore, the excess of water would rise in the gullies to the level of the street, which would be flooded, —the sewers would be under considerable pressure, —the water would be forced back up the house drains, and the basements of the houses would be inundated. It was, therefore, evi- dently necessary to provide for large rainfalls; and he contended that, as a general rule, it was a better systein to convey all the surface drainage, with the house sewerage, into one good aewer, rather than into two or more pipe sewers, as in the cases of the sepa- ration of surface water frum house drainage, which, he considered, it was almost impracticable to effect in a satisfactory manner, As to the apprehended danger to the adjoining houses from the construction of large sewers, that was not a valid objection, as it was only a case of degree of width of tie trench,—in both cases the depth must be very nearly identical, and the skill of the engineer ought to enable him to guard against any casualties arising from the excava- tion. Mr. Haywood had laid many miles of sewers aud drains, through very narrow Spaces, without doing any injury to the houses, It would only lead to error to quote the Paris aystem of newera, as an argument for separating the surface- water from the house drainage; erroneous ideas prevailed as to the condition of the Paris sewerage; formerly there was an entire prohibition to any fecal matter going into the sewers, and that prohibition existed legally to the present time; but, by degrees, exceptions were made in favour of the prisons, the barracks, the hospitals, the markets, and other public buildings, all of which had for many years com- municated directly with the sewers, which debouched in the Seine, in the middle ef the city. Between the Pont de Jena and the Pont de Bercy, there were the outlets of seventy sewers discharging into the Seine. Probably all of them did not convey fecal matters; but that a large number did so waa clearly evidenced by the atrcains of sewage running on the open shore, between the mouths of the sewers and the water-liue, during the summer, when the river was low; the efHuvium was intolerable in the hot Weather. Dr. Parent Duchatelet3 gave copious details of the atate of the sewerage of Paris, and the system adopted there, which were not only interesting in themselves, but, as pro- ceeding from so high an authority, might be used to contravene many of the erroneous statements so industriously promulgated at the present time. The construction of sewers generally should be looked at, with a view to the ultimate total cost; and he must contend, that if a system of town sewers was only laid down, and proportioned in size, to the house drainage-water and sullage, and entirely upon what had been very happily designated“ the telescopic system," instead of the leading sewers being made large enough to carry away the storm waters, and alao to admit workmen to cleanse them, it would be eventually found that a serious and very expen- sive error had been committed. Mr. Haywood was not opposed to the use of pipe sewers in proper situations, and under certain limitation, but he was decidedly opposed to the abuse of substituting thein for brick sewers, in positions for which the latter only were adapted, He made exten- sive uae of pipe drains for houses, taking care they were never below 4 inches in din- meter; he had, also, within the last few years, laid more than two miles of pipe sewers within the City, and he still contiuued to use them where he thought they could be employed with safety; but be waa still of opinion, that a system of pipe sewers was open to serious objections, the principal of which was the liability to stoppage fr deposit; in the pipe sewers he had laid, there had been only three cages of sioppage,— the first from some deposited rubbish, the next from some fish cleanings, and the third from a breakage of the pipe; none of these would have occasioned the slightest juron- venience if the sewers bad been of larger dimensions, He did not admit that ihe experience of two or three years in provincial towns atforded any criterion of the pro- bable success of their application to the sewerage of the metropolis, where the condi- tions were as totally dittereut as the scale of the work to be done. With a new sistem under trial; or, it might be said, almost under experiment, the attention of the engineer would be unremitting, but when that ceased, or diininished, the stoppages from acere- tion and from other causes would be commencing. The great objection against pipe sewers was, that the only method of discovering the precise locality of a stoppage Was by examination of the neighbouring house drains, to enable a guess to be made as to the spot; then it was necessary to open the street, to dig down to the pipes, and take up ada. and if, fortunately, the accretion was within reach of a rod, it might be removed, but if not, it became requisite to open other placer, until the stoppage was discovered and remedied, Now with main sewers, sufficiently larce to allow à. man to pass along, the precise spot of the stoppage was discovered, without delay ot expense, or any annoyance to the neighbourhood. It was admitted, that it was not desirable to gend men up scwers, and even that accidents had occurred; but neither waa it pleasant for a miner to be obliged to zo daily down a pit, where there was generally more or legs of inflammable air; society was, however, so constituted as to demand for its necessities, or its luxuries, much that was not pleasant, and, in the case of sewers, if they were ventilated and maintained under such a system as would enable thein to be traversed at given periods, 80 as to prevent accumulation, there was less objection tothe labour than mizht be imagined, and, even with a considerable first outlay, it would eventua!ly be found a cheaper system to have sewers of adequate dimensions and certain action, than pipes of restricted dimensions, if their action produced only uncertain results, n practice he found, that pipes once removed, or broken into, could rarely be relied on again, as it was ditticult to make good the joints, and to maintain the original tevel; especially where the gradient was slight, and the accretions were, therefore, likely to take place again, Where there was not a rapid fall, a pipe of 4 inches diameter cou'd not evidently afford any margin for accumulation, and in cases of limited fall he had almost invariably found a tendency towards stoppage where there was not à very con- siderable flow of water. It was admitted that the pipes required great care in layin, —that in many caves it was requisite to bed them in cradles to prevent their being broken,—and that it was requisite to establish ventilation fur them, although it bad been originally stated that it was not necessary. Inthe published accounts of works at varioua provincial towns, there appeared some good iNustranons of the practice of experienced engineers who had devoted tine and attention to the anbjeet, At Liverpool, Mr. Newlands, the Borough. Enidineer, bad only used pips sewers to a limited extent, and under circumstances apparenily precisely annlogous tu the practice hitherto adopted in the metropolis, In three years, bexin- 3 Vide ‘Hygiène Publique,’ par A. J. B. Parent Duchatelet. Svo. Paris, 1836. 56 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL ning in 1847, and ending December 1850, there had been constructed at Liverpool : Pi Lineal Yards. 0 is a wa ve 9888 LL ee ee ee ee ee 6 ee as . 252 i $35 : T Total — — sr These figures indicated significantly Mr. Newland's opinion, and it was understood that he still used pipe sewers only in exceptional positions, where he was convinced there would be little liability to stoppage. At Leeds, Mr. J. W. Leather, the Engineer for the town, only used pipe sewers for courts and minor streets, and then almost invariably in positions where they could be connected directly with sewers, up which men could pass. + At Birm in the extensive and well-conducted system of sewerage under the control of Mr. J. Pigott Smith, the Borough Engineer, pipe sewers had been tried, and were only used to a very limited extent. e practical experience of large towns only had been cited, because, as had been re dly stated, the ‘‘ telescopic system" of pipe sewers, which might under favourable circumstances suffice for a small country town, could not form a precedent for the sewerage of the metropolis, which, at last, was the main consideration. It mcr to allude to the opinions of Mr. John Roe, C.E., who for a vety lengthened period held the post of Surveyor of the Holborn and Finsbury district of sewers. His Reporte showed that the cost of cleansing small drains was greater than the expense of constructing an efficient sewer; and that no amount of water eufficed to cleanse a small pipe drain, if it once became stopped; but that in a large sewer, flushing and other means could be effectually adopted, without any inconvenience being expe- rienced on the surface. Mr. Haywood then read the following extracts from Mr. Roe's Reports :— 5 January 29th, 1847. „The desire of some persons to effect a further sa has led to the advocacy of drains, or small sewers to be placed in streets or roads without discrimination. Others advocate two lines of small sewers, or pipes, one on each side of a street, to receive the drainage; but as two such small sewers would not carry off the surface drainage in all cases, other parties consider that one line of sewer should be formed for the surface, and another for the house . In practice this would be found unnecessary, as regards any advantage to the sewer water for manure; and as regards expense, it would, besides causing an immediate extra outlay, entail a perpetual annoyance and charge. A fact that will serve to illustrate this, is that of the new sewer lately built in Hoxton Town. On each side of Hoxton there was a line of small sewers in front of the houses. The cleansing of these and other small sewers have cost, on an average, one shilling and threepence per foot lineal, each time of cleansing. Taking fifteen such sewers, the ave- rage time ot cl has been four years and a-half, and reckoning the first cost of the two small sewers with the cleansing, the cost in about twenty years would have amounted to the expense of constructing an efficient sewer.”....‘‘ This Commission has caused a new sewer to be built in Hoxton Town, which will require no repairs for more than a century. The saving to the public, therefore, by constructing an adequate sewer, and thereby doing away with the two inefficient ones, will be double the amount that the now sewer has cost." At page 7 of the same Report it was said: ‘‘After many years’ experience your Sur- veyor begs to state, that except a sewer has an extraordinary inclination, or has a body of water ing along it with a considerable velocity, deposit will accumulate. If a sinall sewer or be choked with filth, no water will wash it clear, but the d it must be raised and removed by manual labour; but if two or three feet (in depth) of deposit is accumulated in a sewer e enough for a man to through (your new sewers ranging from 8 ft. 6 in. to 5 feet in height in the streets), such deposit could be washed away in the manner adopted in your own sewers.” Again, in an extract from Mr. Roe's report upon the sewerage of Southampton, in 1845, quoted in Mr. Rangers sun ie raport upon that borough, Feb 1850, it was stated : I would observe generally, that in an extended drainage it will found ultimately a saving to the public, to make them large enough for a man to pass through them occaaionally, except where the inclination is 80 great, and the supply of water so plentiful, as to insure their never requiring to be opened.’ Such were Mr. Roe's opinions in 1845 and 47; as, however, the extract had been read as given in Mr. Ranger's report, it would only be proper to add & statement made by Mr. Ranger upon the same subject, as in that report, directly after the above quotation of Mr. Roe’s opinions, it is said, ‘‘It is due to Mr. Roe to state, that I have good reason to believe su uent experience haa convinced him, that the system was not the correct one, and he would now adopt a different mode.” Now Mr. Haywood thought, that if Mr. Roe had really altered his opinions, it must have been very recently, and only since he became one of the officers of the Metropo- litan Commission, and was retained by the Board of Health, and it was important to inquire into the reasons which, after so many years’ previous practice, had so suddenly convinced him that the system he had previously acted upon was so utterly erroneous. Indeed, he was inclined to suspect there must be some error in the statement, and until Mr. Roe himself stated hia recantation of those principles, and gave his reasons, Mr. Haywood would prefer remaining in the belief that Mr. Roe's real opinions were still thuse which he had recorded when he was an independent officer of the Holborn and Finsbury commission, perfectly unfettered and free to pronounce his opinions, whether they clashed with those of other persons, or not. But even admitting, for the sake of argument, that Mr. Roe had c ed his opinions, he could not alter the facts with which his reports abounded, and all of which were strongly in support of the epinions he originally entertained. It had not been stated by Mr. Rawlinson what formulæ he had used, for calculating the sizes of his pipe sewers, although he had recorded his non-accordance with certain accepted formule and tables, on the ground of their giving too large a sectional. If this uncertainty as to the correctness of formule was admitted, the profession would soon be at a loss to determine whose formnhle should be used; whether those of Phillips, Roe, Austin, Cowie, Cresy, or Ranger; or those derived from the experimenta made by Messrs. Lovick and Medworth, for the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers; all these gentlemen objected to hitherto-received formule, TER n it did not appear that anything very uniform or satisfactory had been substituted for the results of the researches of Du Buat, Eytelwein, Prony, Hawksley, and others, which it was the fashion row, either actually or inferentially, to condemn; and it was of vital importance to ascertain, whether these al er ge whose works had hitherto been looked upon as of standard character, were really still deserving of confidence. It was incumbent on those who unsettled creeds to supply worthier articles of faith. Mr. RAwIIxsox said, he feared some parts of the paper bad failed to convey the impression he had intended. It must be borne in mind, that there were still many places of considerable population, without any adequate systcin of sewerage, where the 4 The ‘Report by Dr. Arnott and Mr. Page, on the Prevalence of Discase at Croy- don’ gives an interesting comparison between the pipe sewers used at Leeds and at Croydon.—[C. M.] . s Vide Report to the Commissioners of Sewers for the Holborn and Finsbury Dis- trict.” 8vo, London, 1847, p. 6. rainfall away by surface 5 with, but rather lad by artificial means, the excessive rainfall t be ed for in such a manner, as also, eventually, to assist any system of and sewers which might be constructed. In fact, the question of applica- bility of m to situation should never be lost sight of. .J. Mosa r said, that tubular drains had lately been extolled, as psc pe gall e former 1 Sewers, ostensibly for the purpose of veing a act of uantity official ty.6 It ap JJ mado on Hines of pipoa of eo eh Wg E in len and of 8 inches, 4 inches, and 6 inches diameter, perfectly straight, and at y at different gradienta; uently the quantity of water from them would, necessarily, exceed the volis which could pass through lines of pipes having curves of such various radii as would be met with in the streets of a town. The experiment at Hitchin? was equally fallacious. An earthenware pire 15 inches diameter was there tem laid, with an inclination of 8 inches in a length of 285 feet = a fall of 1 in 8524; the stream of water was stated to have been wire-drawn, at 10 feet from the upper end, to 14 inches, —at mid-distance to 11 inches, and at the outlet to 6 inches, when the inlet was just covered with water. The velocity of the stream was measured at 188 feet per minute, and the quantity of water was 1025 gallons, or 164 cubic feet per minute. This pipe was also laid perfectly straight and at a uniform inclination, and therefore the result would be greater than if there had been the ordinary practical ties of bends, &c. The according to Prony’s formula would be 210 cubic feet per minute. Mr. Murray was not prepared to admit either the of the results, or that such diminutive riments could impugn the formulse of Du Buat, which were based on an extended series of experiments, performed with all the care and skill of men of acknowledged scientific attainments, and accustomed to minute observation: whereas the operators for the Board of Health evidently did not possess the necessary qualifica- tions for the investigations which had been intrusted to them. The simple formula of Prony was founded on a selection from the experimenta of Bossut, Couplet and Du Buat; the formula of Eytelwein was deduced from tlie same source; and that of Poncelet, Inr Murr had reper. following tabl showing the delivery of water, by pi . Murray pre e following table very of water, by pipes of small and of large dimensions, through moderate and more extended lengths and under various pressures, and he contended, that far from thro discredit upon the researches of the experimenters, whose w rhs he had mentioned, accuracy of the formule had been satisfactorily confirmed by practice. Discharge through Pipes, calculated by several Formula. In explanation of the table it was stated, on the authority of Dr. Robinson,8 that water was 1 dl into the town of Dunbar, in East Lothian, from a epring, through pipes, the first length of which was 1100 yards, of 2 inches diameter, with a agar Ad 12 ft. 9 in. The actual quantity discharged was 1:617 cubic foot per minute. mean calculated quantity was 1°5539 cubic foot per minute. Again it was shown by Mr. Jardine,9 that the main pipe of the Edinburgh Water- works, extending from the fountain head, at Comiston, to the reservoir at the Castle Hill, nburgh, was of lead throughout, 14,950 feet in length, 44 inches in diameter, and the head was 51 feet above the point of delivery. The um di d five consecutive years, was 11:333 cubicfeet per minute. The mean calculated quantity was 11:202 cubic feet per minute, The next three results were taken from Bossut's ‘Treatise on Hydrodynamics,’ poop into English measures, and they were stated to be his own experimenta, com- bined with those of Couplet. The pipes were of iron with several horizontal and vertical bends, which were taken into account in the lengths mentioned :— Cubio Feet Mean calcu- per Minute. lated quantity. The first yielded — .. - .. 155 160 cub. ft. per min. The second... - 2s us 111 99:5 „ $i The third af Ss - z 217 223 ˙5 „ a 6 Vide ‘ port on the Supply of Water to the Metropolis,’ Appendix No.2; p. 186; and ‘ Minutes of Information? General Board of Health, 1852, p. $9. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL The last statement of the table was obtained from the late Mr. Cha C.E. of Newcastle; but whether it was derived from actual measurement, or was simply the result of his an ae From a pipe of 30 inches diameter, witha fall of 9 feet mile, actual quantity d was 880 cubic feet per minute. The mean ulated quantity was 908 cubic feet per minute. The following were the formules employed in the calculations of the table :— Du Buat's Formula reduced to English Measure. Q 207 (V - 01) VSL VS r-) velocity in inches per second. hydraulic mean depth = 4 diameter slope or difference of leve by perbolic logarithm, and found by multiplying the common logarithin by 2:$026 In the following formul:» English feet were employed: X being the velocity per second. — 0'8 (V B — 0'1). v R 8 L ES diameter H „, head of pressure c the pipe. L „ the length Prony s simple Formula. V = 494194 / DH, Eytelwein's Formula, as given by Tredgold.10 v= (NV (ap)) Poncelet's Formula. V = 47-95 ADH SM: | á L+64D Mr. HAwESLBY had also repeated some of the experimenta for his own satisfaction, and in al] cases had fouud them accord with the results anticipated based ou the formule, which appeared now to be condemned. In tha same manner he had repeated some of the Board of Health experiments, and had in their case been as uufurtunate in the results as he bad been happy in the previous cases, for in all instances he had found the experiments based on the Blue- Book reports entirely wrong and totally at variance with fact. Asa proof of the correctness of the furmula he wa; in the habit of using, he stated that where Mr. Roe'3 practical tables would lead to the adoption of a sewer of 43inches in diameter, his formula gave 49 inches, and in another case the approxi- mation was as near as 120 inches to 124 inches. Some triala on a inain of pipes 18 inches diameter and nearly three miles long, near Whitehaven, had also verified the accuracy of the formula, in which he was able to place implicit confidence. He could not agree with Mr. Rawliuson'a proposition, that the size of the sewer outlet should be in proportiou to the number of houses; this might be the cas» if all surface drainage was rigidly excluded from the sewers; but in almoat all cases the real question was, the area to be drained, and whether that surface was covered with roofs and paved courts or roads and gardens. In case of sudden storms, the water would pass off rapidly, and must be conveyed away by sewers, or else the basements of the houses would be flooded. The documents issued by the Board of Health, instead of furnishing practical rules for enabling a district to be cleared of the water falling on it, appeared to be chiefy occupied with the attempt to discourage the application of previously accepted rules, aud to be devoted to persuading the public that the only sewage to be coaveyed away was the foul house water; now it muat be admitted that this was too limited a view for the present age. in fact it was a deplorable state to be left in, aud would not be suffered to prevail. Partial success might for a time be obtained; but the undue substitution of small pipes for proper-sized sewers wonld eventually lead to serivus failures and accideuts, and after considerable expense had been incurred, they would be obliged to recur to main sewers of properly-proportioned sections, aud he believed there was no instance of any town ao sewered having been permanently inconvenienced by any amount of rainfall. The most serious inconvenience had not always been found to arise from a sudden and heavy fall of rain of short duration, but more frequently from a pro- longed fall of less hourly amount; aud in such a state of thiuzs the limited capacity of pipe main sewers had already been productive of serious inconvenience. The expe- rienced practical engineer would therefore provide sewers of sulfivient dimeusions for the conveyance of water under all the ordinary circumstances of heavy and continued rains, and be governed by the amount and value of the property to be endangered or im proved iu determining the magnitude requisite to ineet special necessities. Ir. Ra wuis4os stated that other engineers besides those connected with the Board of Health were in the habit of using pipe drains; for instance, they were employed at Durham to a considerable extent by Mr. Hawksley. Mr. Hawxsugy explained that earthenware pipes were, in his opinion, very useful for the drains of houses, courts, and minor thoroughfares, but not for main sewers, Durham was not an instance in point, because that city was for the most part built upon ridges, and the streets were in consequence so precipitous, that the sewers were required for little more than conducting away the drainage frora the houses and. the Surfaces of comparatively narrow streets, There were also many outfalls into the river, and the separate drainage areas were therefore small. Yet, FFF peculiarities, the system so rigidly enforced by the Board of Health had compelled him to employ pip: drainaze to a greater extent than he thought advisable, aud it was only by so far adopting th: dicta of that Board, and after a serious losa of tiine, that he had been euabied to get his plana passed by the General Board as a preliminary to their consent for power to borrow the money necessary for the execution of the work. 11 He must contend against the manifest injustice of this system, and it was easy to predict the serious consequences that would inevitably result from it. Mr. Nerukrwar said, that as the success or failure i gw sewerage principally depended ou the strength of the earthenware pipes, he he with the view of ascertaining what weight they would bear. Each experiment was tried upon two pipes laid parallel to each other, with an interval between, aud bedded in vel up to two-thirds of their diameter. A saddle of the length of the pipe, curved to fit the surface, was laid in each, so as to distribute the weight throughout the length, and the load was increased gradually. It would suffice to give the results of two trials. 7 Wide ‘Minutes of Information,’ General Board of Health, 1852, p. 78. 8&8 Vide Robinson's ‘Mechanical Philosophy,’ vol. ii., p. 441. e Vide Brewster's Encyclopedia; Art. ‘Hydrodynamics,’ p. 526. 10 Vide Tredgold’s ‘Tracts on Hydraulics,“ page 215. 11 Wide. on this subject, ‘Remarks on the Dictatorial Interference of the General Board of Health,’ &c, svo, Tract, London, 1852; and ‘A Letter to the Marquis of Chandos, M. P. in relation to the exercise of some of the extraordinary ae assumed by the General Board of Health.’ &c., by T. Hawksley, Svo, Tract, London, 1353.— [C. M.) tried some experiments - 67 Two Staffordshire blue pipes (Haywood's make), each 2 ft. 4in. long, 12 inches diameter, and 15-16ths of an inch thick, sustained a load of 46cwt., or 28 cwt. on each pipe; under this weight one of the pipes gave way, and split longitudinally into four nearly equal portions. The other pipe was only slightly crushed on the top at one end. Two London glazed pipes ( ton's make), each 2ft. 2 in. long, 12 inches diameter, and of a mean 1 of nearly 13-16ths of an inch, were tried in a similar manner, and one of them was crushed exactly as in the previously described experiment, but with a much less load, being only 23 cwt., or 14 cwt. on each pipe. Mr. Dourtox said, it must be borne in mind that the manufacture of earthenware pipes for sewers and house drains was of recent introduction, as they had not been generally used until within the last four or five years; the first demand being rather Sudden, and exceeding the supply, the manufacture was undertaken by persons only imperfectly acquainted with it, and it was only by experience that improvements had been introduced, and the present quality had been attained. Considering the quantities of earthenware pipes now made, the fallures had been very few, and soine idea of the extent to which they were adopted might be arrived at from the statement that Mesars. Doulton now produced at their various manufactories about 18,000 yards per week, aud had for the last four years made very large and increasing quantities. Other manufacturera had also manufactured similar pipes very extensively, and it would be strange, considering the novelty of the application, the inexperience of those using them, and other causes, if soine failures had not occurred; they did, however, bear but & small proportion to the large quantity used. The chief demand was from those who had partially introduced them, and claimed to have had practical experience of their efficiency. There was not any practical ditficulty in making stoneware pipes up to 18 inches diameter, true in form and sufficiently strong to resist any pressure they were at all likely to be ex to, but in the presen: state of the manufacture it was not desirable to go beyond that size. Many pipes, particularly of the larger sizes, had been made of insufficient strength, arising either from bad material, imperfect vitrification, or insutficient substance. Thousands of pipes of 18 inches diameter, and of little more than 4-inch thick, had been laid, and failures in many cases had naturally resulted. Thickness alone was nota correct teat of strength, and unless the body of the pipe was of close texture and well vitrified. it would be weak as well as permeable. It was easier to make a very thick pipe of loose and open substance, than to produce a pipe of moderate substance close and well vitrified 1 which would resist more pressure than one much thicker only imperfectly vitrified. There was a danger that if pipes were required too thick, the material would be deteriorated and more would be lost by looseness of texture than would be gained by the additional substance. The quality of pipes should be tested by an examination of the body after fracture. A good surface was no indication of a good pipe; when broken it should resist all attempts to scratch or cut it with a knife. Complete impermeability was stated to be a necesaary qualification for good sewer pipes, and could only be secured by thorough vitrification; in that respect stoneware drain pipes had an advantage over the most perfectly-constructed brick sewers, which were generally porous. Mr. Rawlinson thought an impermeable brick could be obtained, if 80, it would lessen the objection to brick sewers, though it was impossible to overcome the difficulty arisiug from the joints. From their internal smoothness and regularity, pipes could be used of smaller sizes than brick sewers under similar circumstances. There were numerous causes of failure apart from the manufacture of the pipes—such as improper application, imperfect laying, and the system of partly tunnelling and partiy treuching. The latter practice was very objectionable, in consequence of the rregular settleinent of the earth when filled in, the pressure bearing only on some parts of a long ling of pipes rigidly laid; they were therefore liable to be broken by the powerful leverage. Lengths of 3 feet each were not so strong as those of 2 feet each, and the occasional on cis of half-socket pipes would relieve the pressure where the settlement waa rugular. Actual works had been referred to as giving the best test of the efficiency of the pipes. Messrs. Doulton had supplied pipes for the complete drainage of nine or ten towns, all of which were atated to have succeeded; among them was St. Thomas, Exeter, referred to by Lord Ebrington as a very satisfactory work. 1 2 Rugby was among the tirst towns completely drained by tubular earthenware drains; upwards of 6000 feet of pipes, Is inches and 20 inches diameter, were laid in cuttings even a3 much as 28 feet deep; they had been down about eighteen months, and though less in substance than those now beiug made, they had resisted perfectly all pressure on thein. Mr. Doulton then read an extract from a letter from Mr. Phillips, the local surveyor, dated Rugby, 27th November, 1852:— „Afar as our system of drainage had been adopted, the result haa been highly satisfactory. What the exact number of houses may be whose sewage matter traverses the new sewer, I cannot say, as during the laying of the pipes a vast number of houses were necessarily connected, in consequence of the old system of drains having bern taken up; there are, however, upwards of 400 houses enjoying the combined system of drainage and water supply which have been connected under my owa supervision, the drains being all newly laid with pipes exclusively. We have not yet had more than one instance of fracture in the sewer, aud that owing to a fall of earth thy sub-stratum having been washed away by an old culvert; this is also the only case of stoppage.” In order to aatisfy himself a+ to the strength of well-made pipes, Mr. Doulton had caused a series of trials to be made of more severe character than tubes would ever be subjected to practically. The pipes experimented on were 2 feet long: each pipe Was supported at the ends on blocks; a piece of wood 12 inches long was then laid on the middle, and the weight was gradually increased until fracture ensucd. The following were the results :— Weight on Weight over the Diameter of Thickness 12 in. 3q. entire aurface pipes in — of the pipe in inches. inches. Broke at dn cwt. qr. tons cwt. qrs. 18 ids 53 3 14 2 1 15 8 31 3 7 11 12 1 U 53 3 8 13 2 12 1 1 71 0 13 12 0 9 $ 64 3 8 18 3 Mr. RiTCU5 had tak n great interest in the sewerage of Edinburgh, and had carefully watched the trials of the new system; after the experience of a year it had been declared to be an entire failure, chietly on account of the silting up of pipe drains, which were too small; of the repeated stoppages and the consequent. inconvefrience to the public from breaking up the strests. A report of a aub-cominittee of the Paving Board of Edinburgh 13 gave some useful iuformation as to the employment of pipe 12 Mr. Bazalgrtte (the Engineer to the Metropolis Sewera) has since examined and given an account of the condition of this and other towns iu his ‘Report to tlie Metro- olitan Commission of Sewers upon the Drainage and Water Supply of Rugby, Sandgate, Tottenham, St. Tuomas (Exeter), aud Barnard Castle.“ (See Journal, Vol. XVII., 1851. . 125, 177. d 3 Vile’ Report on Surface Dreiinaz: by a Snb-Committes appointed by the City of Edinburgh Paving Board,’ 20th September, 1852, R. Ritchie, conveuor, 10 58 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. drains in some of the wynds of the city. It stated that Sosa were well foanded; the tubular drains, ially where there was only little declivity, though laid at considerable depths below the surface, had been repeatedly choked up, and had occasioned considerable expense and inconvenience in opening the ground to remedy the defects; the vttluvium traps, though numerous, were defective, and were constantly stopped up by surface mud; the bent tubular drains serving as connections with main sewers, where the latter existed, were inefficient, as the matter hardened within the bent portion, and it becaine necessary to open the ground and break the pipes to do away with the stoppage and then to replace them. The report stated the committee to be of opinion ‘‘that the tubular system of drainage does not appear applicable or well "wm to many portions of Edinburgh where no constant supply of water exists to f the drains, as the liquid which finds its way into the drains trom the street gutters is always mixed with refuse and mud, which must soon choke up any small tube, more especially if there be bends in it, or if its position be at all horizontal. The sub-com- mittee think it proper to state, that from every inquiry they have made, probably all the tubular drains laid down under the provisions in the Police Act are liable to the objections pointed out, and may ultimately entail, from their liability to obstruction and difficulty of being cleansed, considerable expense upon the inhabitants.” And it recommended that all main sewers should be so constructed as to be accessible for manual cleansing if necessary. Mr. PaRK IR was of opinion that the most probable cause of the failures of the tubular drains might be traced to carelessness in laying them; it not unfrequently occurred that they were merely laid down iu the bottom of the trench with the shoulder of the socket resting on the ground, no care being taken to ascertain whether the ground was ramined under 80 as to pack up and support the body of the pipes, and of course fracture ensued when any weight was brought upon them. Now all pipes should be well bedded in mortar, in clay, or in scree sand; and the sides of the trench should batter or incline towards the surface, in order to receive some of the pressure of the ground when filled in and rammed. He had seen such extraordinary instances of accretion in sewers and drains, that he feared cases of stoppage would constantly occur in small tubular drains; and the sub- stances found inthem were so heterogeneous that it was impossible to conceive how they arrived there, In most cases they caused accretion, which could only be removed by ko the street and breaking the pipes. Mr. BAZATORT T fully coincided with that portion of the paper where the Cloaca Maxima, with its massive ashlar, dove-tailed joints, and pozauolana mortar was held up as an example of that stability and durability which, he admitted, was most desirable for the sewers of cities on account of efficiency, of public convenience, and of ultimate cost; but he was surprised to find that this just admiration of the solid structures of ancient Rome dwindled into the recommendation of the use for the sewers of modern London of fragile clay pipes, which, instead of enduring for centuries, were not unfre- quently crushed within a few months of their being laid, and if they escaped that fate were generally stopped up by deposit, and were obliged to be broken and be replaced within a few years. 14 Such a system could not obtain for the main sewers of a grea, city, even if it might in some iustances be made to answer for a small country town; there could be no analogy between such cases, and he was convinced, that it would be eventually cheaper for the authorities in London to construct good accessible sewers, through which mon could pass at stated periods to prevent or to remove accretion, than to be under the necessity of constantly opening the streets to search for stoppages, without regard to the cost and the inconvenience entailed op the public. He believed it was the want of scientific and practical knowledge upon this difficult subject which had induced unprofesssional amateurs to adopt and propound theories, which, however plausible, were at variance with the laws of nature, and to attempt to lay down general rules as appead under all circumstances; forgetting that the natural features and the variety of wants of different towns continually called into requisition the deepest science and experience of able engineers who had Cevoted their lifetime to the study of the subject, and that the application of any general laws was thus precluded. He denied that, as general rule, pipe sewers were, as had been asserted, more “economical and efficient" than brick sewers, or that a saving in the first outlay, sup- posing it could be effected by the construction of pipe sewers, must tend to ultimate ecouomy. He contended that the assertion of pipe sewers being self-cleansing,” and brick sewers being ‘‘ sewers of deposit, was incorrect, and he undertook to prove, both by theory and fact, that the advantage, in point of self-cleansing powers and non-liability to obstruction, waa in favour of the system of brick main sewers. He totally dissented from the statement of the bad effects on the health of the men employed in sewer works; both in London and in Paris the average duration of life of that class was as great as that of any other labouring men, and larger than in many trades producing ouly the luxuries of life. Dr. Parent Duchatelet gave excellent testimony on this subject. If the principle of back drainage” by pipes was adopted, there would be, on an average, five times the number of sewers required as by the system of each house com- municatiug independently with the one main sewer, and there would be a proportion- ately increased liability to stoppage, and with not only inconvenience to one house, but also to all the others combined with it. It was not fair to institute a comparison between the expense of laying down a series of pipe drains incapable of carrying away both the surface water and the house drainage, aud that of the cost of a good brick sewer of capacity to receive and convey away all that might be led to it, and not liable to be stopped up by deposit. 15 Mr. Bazalgette had used pottery pipes to some considerable extent for house drains, and in courts and small streets, and when of good quality, of adequate dimensions, well laid, and opening independently into brick sewers, they might be efficiently employed, but he complained of the too indiscriminate use or abuse of them, and of the attempt to employ them in situations for whch they were not fitted, or for which they had not been intended. Mr. Haywoop explained that he had been careful in all the pipe sewers he had con- structed to provide shafts at their heads, 80 as to have the power of flushing them periodically with a considerable body of water. For the sake of experiment, this perivdical flushing of the pipe sewers had been discontinued for some time, and although most of them were laid with excellent gradients, some of them had accumu- lated deposit varying from 1 inch to 3 inches in depth, measured at their outlets; but as to the condition of the pipes higher up, it was impossible to say anything, as no examination of them could be made without considerable expense aud inconveuience in opening the streeta, Mr. Duxcas gave an instance, at Kilburn, where there had been a line of pipe sewer laid at some considerable depth; it was soon found to be stopped up, and on digging down it was discovered that the clay had been washed in througua comparatively suiall hole, and had filled a length of nearly 100 yards, that several pipes were split or crushed, and in fact that it was necessary to lay the whole again with better pipes. It appeared that the unequal ramming of the clay iuto the trench had been prejudicial, or that alips of the earth had occurred after the work had been apparently completed. Mr. I@vick, in referonce to the failure of the pipes at Kilburn, said he cousidered it due to the engineer who advised the use of pipes in that situation, to state that they were crushed by the falling of the earth upon them in consequence of the giving way of the sides of the trench arising frum the improper removal of the timber shores. It 14 Vide ‘ Report to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, relating to the Applica- tion, State, and Examiuation of Tubular Pipe Drains or Sewers in the Metropolia By J. W. Bazalgette. 4to. London: June 1835. Also, On the Main Drainage of London.’ March 3, 1854. 15 Vide Mr. Bazalgette's Report to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers upon the Drainage and Water Supply of Rugby, Sandgate, Tottenham, St. Thomas Exeter), aud Barnard Castle. (See Juurnul, Vol. XVII., 1854, pp. 125, 177.) should also be stated that those which had failed were, for the most part, condemned and rejected pipes of 15 inchea diameter, very many being cracked before they were laid down, and they were crushed at the time of laying; these remarks applied to the whole length of nearly 1000 feet of pipe sewer mentioned by Mr. Duncan. Mr. Duscanaaid the whole line of sewer had failed, and was then being recon- structed at a very considerable expense. It was not correct to state that all the pipes were defective; some of those of 15 inches diameter were of indifferent quality, and were previously cracked; they were laid at a depth of 16feet from the surface, and could not bear the weight of earth upon them; the other pipea, 9 inches and 12 inches diameter, were sound when laid. His objection was, not to the use of pipe drains in proper situations, nor to the material of which they were manufactured, but to the system of constructing main sewers of such dimensions as precluded the possibility of men passing up thein to clear away deposit, to make good the junctions for the houses, and to do general repairs which would inevitably be required in time in all sewers; when that period arrived, if pipes were used for the main sewers, the expense would be terrific for the ratepayers. Mr. Tovtmix SwiTH said he had heard the paper, and had listened to the discussion with attention, as he had taken great interest in the sanitary part of the question; and although not an engineer, he believed that he understood enough of the subject to enable him to demonstrate sume fallacies which had been already widely promulgated, and which unless they were contradicted, might be very prejudicial to the community. In doing this, it would be necessary to mention the General Board of Health, and to take exception to the proceedings of that body, but he would coufine himself carefully to the statements and doctrines contained in the published reports of that Board, aud he would beg his remarks might be so understood. He thought, that in order to examine fully into the question of the drainage of towns, it was neceasary to do more than merely discuss the respective merits of pipe drains, or of brick sewers. The means to be employed were subordinate to the general plan; and the ublic, whose welfare was deeply concerned, had a right to understand the principles onning the basis of the system pursued; particularly when a government Board reserved to itself the power of ide facto) rejecting all plans which did not appear to be in accordance with the published rules, or were disapproved by the examining engineers appointed by that Board; for this was the actual result of the power, under the Public ealth Act, of refusing consent to borrow money, for the execution of works, unless the report of the Inspecting Officer was favourable, n the paper which had been read, certain propositions had been laid down; and it was, he conceived, the object of the meeting to examine into their soundness, or their fallaciousness. It would not be sufficient that they were dogmatically dictated in Blue Books: if they were sound, their foundation should be clearly detined and under- stood; but if unsound, it became highly important to ascertain on what data and on whose authority they had been founded aud were promulgated. These propositions were— Ist. It was not necessary, that a system of town drainage should provide for carrying off flood-water, or urban rain, fall. 2nd. It was equally unnecessary to construct sewers large enough for men to traverse; and small-sized drains were in all cases preferable. 8rd. All drains should be constructed of materials impervious to water, Now Mr. Toulmin Smith, differed entirely from all these propositions; and he disputed both their theoretical aud practical accuracy, As to the first, the author admitted, that the original object of sewers had been, not to convey away house-drainage, which was a modern refinement on the system, but to carry off the surface water, which it was now proposed to exclude. It must not be forgotton, that nature, who sent the rain-fall, also provided for its passing off by the natural inclination of the surface. Much had been said about preserving the natural outtall; but wherever man interfered with the natural drainage ‘and it was impossible for hiin to avoid it, in grouping together houses in towns, and arranging altered levels of streets), sotue artificial system, superficial or subterranean, must be provided. If the latter, then either the house drainage must be combined with it, or two sets of sewers must be constructed to maintain the separation, at a greatly-increased cost, as well as at the chance of greater annoyance from the increase-risk of stoppage of a double set of drains, one set of which would be dry, when there was no rain, and the other would, generally, have only such a quantity of water passing through it as would scarcely suffice to keep the contents in a fluid state, and be wholly inadequate to scour the drains out, as was effectually done in ordinary sewers, whenever a heavy fall of rain occurred. The paper protested alto- gether against the use of guliy-holes, although it might have been imagined, that the most superficial investigation would have demonstrated the fallacy of such a proposi- tion, It would only be requisite to quote one instance, in support of the necessity for them; he alluded to the case of Highgate Hill, where, in consequence of the stee declivity, the rain-flood rushed over the surface, accuinulating in its passage, until it formerly inundated and committed serious damage in the low grounds; but by the construction of drains, and the insertion of a large number of gully-grates in one part as many as nineteen, in a distance of three or jour hundred yards), the water was effectually conveyed away without difficulty. As to the second proposition; it must be obvious, that a body of water unnecessarily expanded in a thin sheet, over à wide surface, Was retarded by the extra friction, and had a tendency, with the loss of velocity, to deposit the matters held iu suspension; and also that, if the channel was contracted, the friction was diminished, the course of the fluid became clearer and more rapid, and the tendency to deposit was diminished, It Was, at the sane time, equally obvious, that whether this contracted watercourse was 12 inches diameter, or 5 feet high and 12 inches wide ‘the form of the bottom remainin identical in either case!, there could not be any difference in the facility for the flow water, or in the friction over the bottom; but the latter form (the brick sewer: pos- sessed the manifest advantage of permitting free acceas for inspection aud repair, whilst the former (the pipe drain: had the evident disadvantage of being liable to be choked by deposit, and of its being necessary to open the ground to discover the position of the stoppage. Hence, ax also iu cvery case of laying on new junctions with houses, there arose great breakage of pipes, as well as general dislocation of the system. It was adinitted, that pipe drams, in order to insure efficiency, required to be laid with the greatest nicety and accuracy, —a thing practically impossible, It was further admitted that, above a comparatively amall size, brick sewers were cheaper than pipe drains. If this were 80, common prudence dictated the use of auen subterranean conduits as might be cleansed and repaired, without causing annoyance to the public, and at an infinitely less cost, than by digging down to and replacing broken pipes. Besides with the larger sewers, all possible contingencies of rain-fall, &c., were provided for, without the liability to such instances of false economy as had been recently exhibited at Holloway, where a pipe drain of 12 inches diameter, which had been laid only about four years previously, was now being taken up and replaced by a brick sewer of 4 ft. 3 iu. diameter.16 This was not ouly a public annoyance, but au unjustifiable waste of money, 16 Tho following letter was given as the authority for the statement :— Sewers’ Office, Great Alie-street, Whitechapel. Deo. 18, 1852. Sig—Durine the discussion at the Institution of Civil Engineers, reference was made by you to the 12-inch pipe sewer in Holleway-road. The statement was correct; but such pipe was laid down by the engineer previously having charge of the Finsbury divi- sion. lam, as you perceive, taking up the 12-inch pipe, and placing, in lieu thereof, a circular sewer 4ft. 3 in. diameter; and even this will be full in heavy storms, as of late, in takiug up the pipes in question, I found three of them broken. In almost every case where we have to put in junctions to these pipe -sewers, the aame is the result. Ona recent occasion, in Mile-End, in an lsinch pipe, laid down about four years since, under the supervision of another officer, in every opening that has been made to the game (Which are many) the pipes are found split down the centre. My object in writing THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL manch as it resulted from the dictatorial enforcing of certain dogmas, which were put forth in defiance of scientific investigation or practical facta, and entailed on the public heavy and uncalled-for cost. As to the third proposition; it appeared to be lost sight of, that, for the sake of health, it was as requisite to drain the subsoil of the site of houses, as it was to convey away the artificial foul house-water. Now for the former purpose, glazed or vitrified pipes were entirely unfitted, unless the jointe were left open, when the fetid contents would ooze out. Therefore, if they were used, the keeping dry o: the cellars or basements could not be hea although in a sanitary point of view that was of the utmost im- portance. The subsoil moisture would then have a tendency to saturate the ground, would undermine the pipe drains, and allow them to sink and be fractured; and, as another incidental] result, the sewage matter would exude, and add to the causes of disease-bearing miasma. Such was not the case where properly-constructed pervious brick sewers were used, with the inverts laid in cement. These not only conveyed away the sewage, but they drained and kept dry the soil through which they , render- ing the lower portions of all the abjoining houses healthy and habitable, and the neigh- bourhood less likely to be flooded by sudden rains falling on a saturated soil. The other practical objections that might be urged against the newly-introduced sys- tem of pipe drainage, were far too numerous to be descanted upon within the limits of a discussion at the Institution; especially as there were other points of equal impo to be noticed. One of these was, Why had the Toe submitted without inquiry, almost without remonstrance, to the dictation of the General Board of Health? The reply would be best given in the words of a petition from the local board of health of Swaffham, Norfolk, to the House of Commons, in 1851, wherein it was stated, ‘‘ That the General Board of Health has the power of refusing to any local board the privil of borrowing money; thus having a veto on every act of any local board, unless the rules and regulations laid down by the General Board are fully carried out." This allegation was confirmed by the text of the Public Health Act, and also by the state- menta in all the blue-books published, at the public expense, by the General Board of Health. Thus, it was expressly declared (Bepon 1849, p. 72) that works should be carried out, upon approved plans by the | surveyor, under the superintendence of the inspector;” and again, new works must be ‘‘under the superintendence of the in- spector;” and again, it was declared, that the Board of Health ** adopts, as a principle, to sanction the mortgage of rates, and the distribution of chargos, only on conditions such as the following : “lst. That plans and estimates have been prepared in detail, and submitted for exa- mination to an inspector. “a And upon his report found to be deserving of approval, &c. *2ndly. That the works shall be executed upon contracts, on the following condi- % Vire (MT ass covered un, or puik in operation, they shall be examined e inspector. JD Tos ecm Ue Cente examin nd Dy him Kben i action; and be certifled the characteristic tendencies of the same Board were well shown, in the same when they rely on compulsory powers being given, adequate to the enforce- ment" of their schemes; and represent to Parliament that the ‘‘ Board should be en- trusted with the power of prosecuting, for the neglect of ita lations.” The foreign system of centralisation was gradually pervading all branches of the administration, and producing the must pernicious effects; the opposition offered by the Admiralty and the Railway Department to many useful enterprises, was notorious, and would ere long no doubt be noticed publicly; but the General Board of Health, profiting by an unaccountable supineness on the part of the profession, bad already succeeded in reducing the engineers—to the triumphs of whose enterprise and skill England owed 80 mnch of her wealth and proaperity—to the position of mere clerks of works, mere sub- ordinates to the obedient retailers of its own procrustean dogmas and bureaucratic crotcheta, It d rs that its own express sanction should be given to every system of drainage adopted in any town that came under its jurisdiction; thus altogether inter- fering with the independence of inquiry, gd ie and action both of engineers and of those who called in their assistance. The immediate, necessary, and fatal effect of this circumstance, upon the realising of just views or real progress, in the question of the Drainage of Towns, waa very obvious. Mr Toulmin Smith could but call attention, as inrnediazely illustrative of the subject, to the well-known fact of how, one after the other, different schemes, in reference to the drainage of towns, had been promulgated by the same authority; each in its turn put forth with equal positiveness and pretences to infallibility, and then, by the same authority, discarded and denounced, after great and us-le«s expense had n incurred in many places. Thus it had been with the system of flusbing, with that of contour lines, and with that of the 5 feet-to-the-mile surveys. A great deal had been said of the success of the pipe system at Tottenham; now with respect to that place, it should be known that only about two hundred houses were con- nected with the pipe sewers, and that the works were still proceeding; so that neither froin the small number of houses, nor from the length of time the works had been in action, could any correct result be asaumed. From the considerations which had been brouzht furward, these general conclusions were to be drawn :— (1; That tubular drains were useful for house drainage, and for short distances, under special circumstances, —but that glazed or vitrified pipes should not be used unless where actually within walls: (2; That they were not usefully applicable as part of any system of arterial drain- ut^ That drains should be made of such size as to enable them to meet all probable contingencies; whether of increased town drainage, or of flood-waters and rainfall;— icr i form should be such, that a clear and rapid flow of the ordinary run should insured : (4! But the most essential point, for securing efficient town drainage, and promoting sanit and other improvements, was, that engineers and those who engaged their rer- vicea, should maintain themselves independent of the dictation of government Boards and should be guided, as in other cases, by the accepted opiuions of acknowledge competent authorities, and by the practical results obtained and recorded, as the fruit of the most careful inquiry, enlarged experience, and unfettered skill, of the ablest professional men of aelf-earned reputation. Mr. HOLLAND said, that after the disparaging observations just made, it might seem to require some courage to avow himself an advocate of pipe sewers, were it not for the remarkable circumstance, that the manufacture of these pipes, which until within a few ears had scarcely been heard of, had grown into such an important branch of national industry, that one manufacturer alone produced 18,000 yards a week, and that was of course but a small portion of the whole quantity made. In the face of such a fact, it would be as useless to attempt to persuade the public that pipe sewerage was a failure, as to make a Manchester-man believe that calico was an unfit article for clothing. It had been remarked, that all were agreed as to the utility of pipe sewers; the dif- ference of opinion then was, as to the extent to which they should be used or the manner you is that you may set the matter right at tho Institution. Many may conaider that the pipe was laid down by me; whereas this sort of thing is in opposition to my prac- tice, and to that of my respected father, who was Surveyor to these districts for many years, and who has coustructed more brick sewers than any person in the kingdom. I am, &c., Groroe Ror, * Engineer for Finsbury Division, Tower Hamlets, Toulmin Smith, Ea. Poplar, and Black wall. 59 of their application. He was glad to bear that admission, but still, all did not appear to be agreed; for by some it was contended that though pipe sewers were cheaper to construct, they were dearer to keep in order, although no proof of the correctneas of that assertion had been offered. It bad been said, that it was desirable to attain some form and material for the con- struction of sewers which should not require to be opened twice in a year. He trusted it was not meant to assert that this was anything like a fair representation of the case, with res to pipe sewers. (It waa here explained, that no statement had been made to the effect that pipe sewers generally required to be opened twice in a year, but that some of them required to be so opened.) Mr. Holland contended, that the statement, as quoted in the authorised reports of the proceedings, was calculated to produce such an impression, and that impression was contrary to fact. In Manchester, pipe drains had been extensively and satis- factorily used for several years. In the city of London, there had been only three stop in about one hundred pipes, during eighteen months; and at Richmond, on inquiries made at one hundred houses indiscriminately, no failures were met with, nor any stoppage that had not been cleared away by water alone. But even supposing that pipes were expensive to keep in order, which however had not been proved, the eation was, whether that expense was so great as to counterbalance the economy of the original construction. The town of Rugby had been drained with pipes, at a cost of 86002. ; now if the same length of brick sewers had been made, according to the scale, for general adoption, given by the former surveyor of the City Sewers Commission, the cost would have been 15,000/., or 11,4004. more than the actual cost. The interest of the difference (570/.) would pay for replacing nearly one-sixth of the pipes every year, and nothing approaching to such a proportion of repairs could possibly be required. 1 7 In spite of the violent opposition to which the new system had been exposed, it was making rapid progreas, and many of those who had opposed it, and appeared still to oppose it, were now using certain portions of the system. This improvement had been ike every other great innovation, at first disregarded and despised,—next abused as quackery, —and at length gradually adopted, whilst the proposers were abused; eventually it would be discovered that the inveution was a good one, and that its pro- posers should have been praised and its opponents censured. Mr. A. Fraxcis said, that unglazed earthenware might, he thought, be as advan- tageously used for pipe drains as the most impervious iue pipes; besides, the cost of the latter was about double that of the former. e exhibited specimens of red unglazed pipes, fouud at Chester, and which were believed, from the inscriptions, to have been laid by the 12th Roman Legion. The Babylonians also employed unglazed ware for tubular drains. Mr. J. Curry through the Secretary, said he had, for some time, been making con- siderable quantities of large-sized pipes, or tubes, at the Wortley Fire-brick Works, for the drainage of the towns in the district. The pipes were generally egg, or oval-shaped, ` and the largest sizes wore 20 by 15 inches, 25 by 18 inches, and 30 by 21 inches. Of this latter size, nearly 1000 yards had been already laid down in the streets of Lecds, since the drainage commenced. In consequence of a doubt as to the advisability of the system of pipe drainage, men had been sent up the sewers, to examine thein and to report upon their condition. They had been exposed, in many parts, to the heavy traffic of the streeta, and the late heavy rains having caused subsidence of the ground in the trenches, and in aeveral instances filled the tubes themselves full of water, they had been as severely tried as it seemed probable they ever could be, After a minute investigation, the pipes were found sound and good, and not one single failure was dis- covered in the whole line, which had the ar io of being self-cleansing. These pipea were made of a strong metallic fire-clay, which by resisting an intense heat in the kiln, allowed the inner and outer surfaces to be vitrified and to receive a good glaze, still retaining their shape, and not splitting or cracking in cooling. They were made about 24 inches in thickness, and if it was found, by erperieuce, that ter strength was required, there could be no difficulty in making them thicker. ose used in Leeds, were all socket-pipes; while those laid in Manchester and that neighbourhood had only plain butt-joints. It appeared, that many of tho gentlemen taking part in the discussion, were not aware of pipes of that size and thickness being made, and their objections to pipe drainage were founded, to some extent, on the size, nature, and thickness of the London-made pipes, with which they were alone fainiliar. It was impossible to make the London pipes of the sizes and thickness mentioned; the quality of the clay forbidding it, and appearing to involve the uecessity of their being made thin and merely as pottery-ware, or pot-pipes, and therefore possessing the ordinary characteristic of pottery-ware,—a liability to snap, or break, by sudden con- cusesion, or under heavy pressure. Large sizes, of the necessary strength, could not therefore be made from London clay. In the Leeds district, however, there was not any difficulty in making pipes of almost any size, and strong enough to bear any external pressure. The pipes he had mentioned were made under pressure, by Spencers machine, the socket being made at the same time. and not being put on Mic run Nds as was often the case. If required, still larger p could be made, up to 86 inches, and of any requisite thickness Mr. H. Wrigy had used large quantities of these pipes, at Preston; he preferred having them of circular section, giving to them the dimensions of j-inch in thickness to each inch of the diameter; thus a pipe 24 inches diameter would be 3 inches thick. It might be considered as a fact, that oval gipes could be made even up as high as 3 feet by 2 ft. 4 in. and of proportionate thickness, without difficulty. Mr. Cawrzy stated, through the Secretary, that at Manchester, the substitution of pipe drains made of fire-clay, for all sewers of less than 2 feet diameter, had been successful, and he believed that few breakages had occurred, except in cases where the ipes had not been autficiently covered, and the concussions of the wheels of heavilv- oaded carts had affected them. He had used earthenware pipes, of 12 inches and 20 inches diameter, for conveying pure water to a reservoir, laying them at depths varying from 3 feet to 6 feet, and without any case of breakage. It was true, that the pipes in Manchester were, for the most part, laid in hard gravel or strong clay, and lie could not conceive why any fracture should occur, if the pipes were well bedded, and the earth was well rammed around and above them. If there was unequal pressure, fracture must ensue. He had received from Mr. John Francis, the Surveyor of the Paving and Seweriug Department of the city of Manchester, the following reply to questions proposed to him, in consequence of reports as tothe state of the pipe drains at Manchester:— “The main, or street drains, are laid at various depths, from 9 feet to 30 feet; the pas and brauch drains at all depths, from 2 feet to 10 feet. The ordinary inclina- tion, for main drains, is half an inch per yard, but a few are laid at a quarter of an inch per yard, I do not remember any with less than that inclination Branch, or house drains, have an inclination of 1 inch per yard and more, according to circum- stances. The largest aize we have used is 25 inches by 18 inches, and the maxi size, at which tubes are likely to be preferable to brickwork is, I think, 3 feet by 2 feet. “The largest area drained into a tubular sewer is about 50 acres;— but the whele area is not yet drained, and the tube at ita outlet has never been half full. Witi res to areas of draiuage, iny experience is in accordance with the recent“ Minutes of Information of the General Board of Health’ as to the aizes of sewers required, But in practice I have adhered to sizes in excess of any forinula. I think this should be done for the sinaller areas, and greater exactness be observed as you approach the larger areas. 17 The state of the drainage of those parts of the metropolis and of numerous towns, where tubular pips sewers have been us d, is shown in the ‘Copies of Reports and Communications in reference to the Drainage of the Metropolis, &.,“ Parliamentary Paper, folio, 11 Apri! 1854; and the Reporta of Mr. Bazilzette on Tubular Pipe Draius and Sewers, &c., Pasiiamentary Paper, folio, 21 June, 1353. —[C. M.] 60 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. “I am now constructing an oval sewer 64 by 48 inches for a brook, having a drainage area of 550 acres, with an inclination of 1 in $00;—(commenced before I saw Mr. Roe'3 table and agreeing very closely with it). “The smallest tube I have used for main drains, in small streets and pa , is 12 by 9 iuches, and the smallest branch drain, for foul water, is 6 by 4 inches. ere is a principle which appears to me inimical to the use of very small tubes for foul water, or water loaded with solid matter; viz. the ratio of the periphery to the transverse area increases inversely to the size; therefore also the friction aud liability to stoppage; other circumstances being similar. „Our drains and sewers are intended to take off storm waters, and no case has come within my knowledge, where our tubes have appeared to be incapable of this duty. “We have not had one case of breakage from pressure, whore the tubes were laid 2 feet or more below the surface. The laying and packing well with earth is the main point. All decay in sewers arises within my experience’ more from the stream within than from the pressure outside. Our soil here, both clay and gravel, is tunnelled for sewers, ordinarily without timber, therefore, when the soil is laid compactly about the tube, the pressure upon it is next to nothing. We use no sockets to our oval tubes for the draius, but have them to the round pipes which form the vertical shafts, connecting the surface with the main drains. I am more satisfied every day with our rejection of the socket joint. Iam not aware of any disadvantage from its absence, and I partly attribute to that cause our immunity from breakage. It is easy to see, that in pipes having sockets carelessly laid, the said sockets become so many points of unequal pressure. We have had many cases of stoppage, at the upper extremities of our drains, which soon caused me to adopt universally a syphon trap to every grating; but upon the whole, and taking into consideration that we were left to acquire our experience unaided, I think our success, in the use of tubes, has been most signal, — and for Ininor sewers and drains, glazed fire-clay tubea are preferable to anything else.” Mr. J. Evans, through the Secretary, said that, as Borough Surveyor of Salford, he had paid considerable attention to the working of the pipe-drain system, and had given it a fair trial himself. IIe had not used any pipes of less dimensions than 6 by 44 inches, nor larger than 12 by 9 inches, and those only for conveying the surface water from courtyards,—passages,—and streets, into the egg-shaped main sewers, which were built of brickwork, and varied in size from 42 inches high and 32 inches wide, down to 24 inches high by 18 inches wide. In fact, the committee would not permit any earthenware pipes to be used for main sewers, as they had individually suffered from having allowed them to be laid down on their private properties in Manchester, where they found that the trouble and expense of keeping thein clear, and the ditficulty of connecting branches into them, formed serious objections to their uae. It waa even broadly stated, by men who appeared to have experience, that tho pipe-drain system had been carried to an extent in Manchester which would eventually cause serious inconvenience. Mr. B. Bayurts, through the Secretary, said the extensive system of egg-shaped brick sewers, varying from 3 ft. 6 in. to 2 feet high, constructed uuder his direction at Chester, had proved thoroughly effective, and were fuund to be less costly than auy other system that conld have been adopted. IIe had tried a few pipe drains in mews aud back streets, but none of less than 12 inches diameter. In the course of the sewering operations, it had been necessary to take up several old pipe drains, 9 inches in diameter, in consequence of their proving ineffective and being choked up, although nn rats having good iuclinationa, and in all cases he had substituted larger pipes, or wick sewers, as being the cheapest at last. From his experience, he believed earthenware pips, if not less than 6 inches in diaiueter, to be well adapted for house drains, but totally unfit for the main or even the subsidiary sewers of a town of auy iinportauce, unless the inhabitants were prepared to submit to the expense and the annoyance of having the:n taken up once in three or four years, The system of sewerage in Chester had been in operation for some years without there having been a single failure or stoppage siuce the completion of the work. Mr. PLOM said, if it was considered advisable to go to such expense in the subsoil drainage of agricultural land, how much more important was it to use such forms, capacities, and materials for the sewers, as should secure the perfect drainage of town arcas, at the same tine that the couveyauce both of the surface-water and of the house- sewage Was provided ror! He agreed in the disadvantages of the glazed. pipe draina, cause, being inpervious, they could not aid in drainage, unless, as with common drain-tiles aud pipes, the joints were left open, which in town drainage could not be permitted; it appeared also that the gradual deposit iu some cases, and the presence of extraucous substances in other cases, were the causes of the stoppages in both pipe drains and brick sewers; it became then a grave question, whether the solid matters of house drainage should be permitted to pasa, unchanged in their character, into the pipes or the sewers, aud whether the house draiuage should be mingled at all with the surface-water; the latter might, in all cases, be permitted to flow iuto the natural outlet —*he adjacent river, at the nearest points—but the former should not be allowed to pollute streams, especially if the matter could, as was stated, be advantageously used for agricultural purposes, That part of the question was, in his opinion, the most important, and to that the attention of the meeting should be devoted. Mr. May said the broad question had not yet been adequately treated, and he apprehended the hesitation arose from an unwillingness to attack the doctrines which had ben so authoritacively proswuivated; as, however, he thought there should ust be any scruple in. publicly examiniug public questions, or the acta and opinions of public Boards, and it was the duty of engineers to canvass this town-drainage question very frecly, he ventured to direct attention to the general question. It appeared to him, that one of the great errors committed had arisen from the appareat advocacy by the Board of Health of the schemes for the preservation of sewage refuse for ultimate use. Now it must be evident, that the primary cousidera- tion should be, as stated in the Paper, the best method ‘of the instant removal, trum the vicinity of dwellinz-houses, and from the sites of villages, towns, and cities, of all refuge,” foul-water aud surface-water, accumulating amoug the habitations of man, in order to avoid those exhalations, which were known to be prejudicial to health, and Were admitted to be most frequently caused by sewer deposits. If the contents of the sewers could, ultimately, be beneficially employed for agricultural purposes, they should not be nogleeted; but he thought a very exaggerated value had been attached to that kiud of inanure; and, from all he could learn on the subject, he believed there were very few situations where the attempts to combine sewage manure schemes with the drainage of large towas, had been found practicable. In some small towns and Villages the system might be successful, but they were exceptional cases, which could scarcely be used as arguments ia favour of the adoption of the system, aud the drainage of the metropolis, or that of other large cities aud towns, should not be tampered with for such purposes. It did not appear to be proved, that the method of having separate conduits for the surface-water and for the house-sewage was either the best, or the cheapest; inasmuch as the opponenta of the scheme asserted, that unless the occasional action of flushing by storm-water was permitted, gradual deposits occurred, and tho pipe drains became choked; and no fair comparison of the relative expeuse of the two bysteins could be obtained, because the separate method bad only been tried where oid sewers previously existed, but which were now entirely devoted. to surface-drainage, and the outlay was really only that of amall pipes, of just sutlicient area to carry away the house-sewaye. He took excoption to the accuracy of the statement, in the Paper, as to the rate of mortality at the Portland convict establishiu sut; if that statement was to be received as accurate, it would lead to the assuinptioa of the extension. of human life to one huudred and fifty, or two hundred years; ind though the decrease of mortality, resulting from a general improvesiat of the sanitary condition of towns, might ba admitted to the fullest extent, yes he coah} nos er lic such results as those given for Portland, and he thought great injury would arise from the promulgation of statements, siii when analysed, would be found te exhibit untenable inferences and impossible results. Mr. R. STeruexNsoN, M.P., V.P., said it had not been, y, his intention to take part in the discussion, but so much had been said that was either wide of the subject or dictated by preconceived notions, to be supported at any rate, that he could not resist attempting to bring back the discussion to a useful track. It had been said, that converts were rarely made by discussion ;—that might be true with respect to questions in which the passions became excited; but when, as should be the case, in considering all scientific questions, truth was the only object sought, he must submit, that honest statements of facta must carry conviction with them, and would eventually produce effect; time might be required for consideration, before conviction was induced; but even if discussion only produced repetition of experiments, or more careful analysation of known results, the end was fully answered and good must result, Now in such a question as the present, honest facts had an amount of weight, which mere unproved theoretical schemes never could possess; and it was admitted, by unquestionable practical authorities, that mere abstract principles did not hold good, in questions of the sewerage of towna, where so many local circumstances and domestic occurrences interfered with the perfect working of even the best-designed general plan. When he first joined the Commission of Sewers, he believed that he did understand the Subject and could have designed any work of the kind, to the perfect satisfaction of the inhabitants; but he soon discovered that his previous engiueering experience, although it naturally aided him, did not suffice to enable him to take into immediate consideration all the numerous bewildering local circumstances and the domestic difficulties with which the subject was surrounded; and he must say, that he almost envied the self- confidence, whilst he was astonished at the daring of the Board of non-professional men, who had not hesitated to lay down definite rules, to meet all cases of this most indef- nite branch of professional practice. When he attempted to procure information from the published reporta and accepted data, he became still more confused, by the dis- crepancy of the various statements; 80 he resolved to examine personally and judge for himself, and the result was, the conviction that for certain localities, if pipe drains were sufficiently strong to resist fracture, and aufficiently large to avoid being choked up, they might be advantageously employed to form the counexions of houses, courts, and other small localities, with the main sewers, which should be constructed of brick, of such dimensions as to adinit of easy internal inspection and repair, and be of such form (except whera the flow of water was at all times considerable), that the radius of the curved bottom should be able to gather a small supply of water into a sectional area, affording the aame hydraulic mean depth as in a pipe drain of a diameter merely adapted to discharge the minimum flow. The removal of obetacles or accumulatious from the main sewers by manual labour was not more dangerous or noxious than the ordinary em- ployment of most working engineers, or of inen engaged in the execution of constructive works; indeed there were nuinerous callings rendered necessary by the present wants of society, which were much more injurious to health, and it ouly required proper attention to the ventilation of the sewers to provide against any accidents which were likely to occur. Besides, in comparing the sweepiug of chimneys by boys, aud the cleansing of sewers by inen, it must be remembered the former was compulsory, under a bad system, aud the latter was the voluntary act of free agents, and it Was a mere exhibition 45 false sentiment to put forward such an argument in favour of the introduction of pipe alnage, 18 The best practical arrangement for any machine was not invariably that which gave the most economical application of ita power, but frequently that which, with the due direction of ita force, combined the greatest facility for it erection, for its being kept in order, and for its rapid and etfective repair in case of accident, So with a system of drainage the small pipe-drains might be efficient, if circumstances never changed and accidents never occurred; but the reports to the Commissioners of Sewers showed in many instancea, that notwithstanding every care the most extra- ordinary articles found their way into the small conduits, and their entire failure ensued;19 besides, that unless a heavy pressure of water was used in conjunction with pipe drains, stoppages would occur, and this pressure system, like a great influx of storm water, for the conveyance of which pipe-drain3 were not adapted, caused such an accnmulatiou of back water as flooded the basements of the houses. Scarcely a day passed without there occurring complaints of flooding during rain, or stench during dry Weather; and it was observed that in the majority of cases, the complaints proceeded from places where the system of combined back drainage had been adopted. This was an erroneous system, and, if ever pipe-drains were to be effectively used, it would be found imperative to have a distinct drain from each house, opening into a sewer, of sufficient dimensions to allow a man to pass along to remove any accumulation and to Inake any necessary repairs. One of the suppoaed advantages of the pipe-drains most prominently put forward by their advocates, was the greater amount of velocity pronounced to be given to the flow of the contents of the pipes, by the cylindrical form and the sinoothness of the interior, This he contended was a fallacious view, originating, probably, from some experiments made when the pipes were running quite full, and under some amount of pressare; but it was when they were abont half full that the obacrvations should be made. Suppose, for instance, a pipe-drain 12 inches diameter, conveying ouly such a quaniity of water as would half fill it, or make the stream 6 inches deep; and compare with it an egg- shaped brick sewer whose bottom was formed to a radius of 6 inches, and whose sides widened gradually upwards to a sufficient height for admitting a man to paas along. Now he contended that, at similar inclinations, a stream of water also 6 inches deep, would tlow as freely iu tlie brick sewer a3 in the pipe-drain, aud that when the streain filled up the entire area of the pipe-drain, the same quantity of water would pass more frecly through the brick sewer on account of there being leas lateral friction, and there being a greater hydraulic mean depth. This was self-evident, aud proved that if a proper sectional form was adopted for the large sewers, a amall quantity of water was as effective in them: as in pipe-drains, with the additional advantage of providing for sudden falls of rain, for accidental stoppages, and for the contenta of the sewers bein pounded up. Suppose the case of the south aide of the Thames, where a part of the lan was below low-water mark, and conaequently where there was a stoppage by the tide, of the discharge from the sewers, for sixteen hours out of every twenty-four hours; if the dimensions of the sewers were reduced by rule to just the sectional area calculated for the discharge, and no provision was made for the accumulation during the period of in- activity, the contents of the pipe-drains inust either forced back up into the cellars and basements, or the pipe-draius must be burst. This would not occur under ordinary circumstances, with proper-sized sewers; and after careful consideration of the subject, 18 It is stated by Dr. Parent Duchatelet, in his ‘Hygiène Publique,’ that Les maladies, occasionées par le scjour dans les égouts, sont en petit nombre, une seule peut occasiouer la mort, c'est Ms ins les autres n'otfrent pas de danger, il est weme rare u'elles acquierent un haut degré de gravité; ce sont l'opthalinie et les rheutwatismes. n xXétonue qui les affections cutanées, que les ulcères aux jambes, ne soient pas comptes au nombre des maladies des égoutiers; nou-seulement ces homines n'y sont pas exposés, mais ils regardent l'eau. des Gguuts comme une remède etficace contre les laies, les ulceres et les éruptions chroniques," —Vide “ Notice Historique," sur A. J. B. Parcent Duchatelet. *Hygitue Publique,’ p. x. 8vo., Paris, 1839.—[C. M. 19 [n the ‘Report of the General Surveyor of works, uuder the Metropolitan Commis 7 "m. wm a E -4 d -y g — — A. Tw 7 o ^at oor) vov 49% — rere De D — T — Rm PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE ISTROYAL SURREY MA i F.H. TU ! T Google TR Jobbins. HK. n. 18 ROYAL SURREY MILITIA BUILDINGS, RICHMOND. Em ic» 20 ' 20 20 " E 19 - = = 8 7 18 LL " ro) M u Il 1 (0) g 17 6 0 pb o U KT Y AR D 2 T 20 20 || D 20 20 [|] MAMANA SNR S SCALE OF 10 5 „ 10 20 30 40 50 O FEET JRJabbirs Bau Google P 1 ——m SN THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL 77 accident happened. Between the seams it had to through & t at the side of the FLOATING CAISSON GATES. ed Thi pit, being only 1 feet diameter, to pass tog nal for the ventilation : 3 . required. No ventilating power was employed, and the whole amount of air travelling Sır — By an accidental mishap, your Journal of last J uly did through the workings must have been very small. When I inspected the workings it A ar did not exceed 1000 cubic feet per minute. not come into my hands till last week, consequently it 18 only Worsley Colliery.—This ec raion took place in the Sanderson pite, in an upbrow in now that I can request you to insert, in an early number, the 4 feet scam. The mine was not very fiery; but the upbrow be steep, —about one a trifling correction of Mr. Clegg’s 0 as to the in three anda half, —the air necessarily required to be kept close to the face. Brattic- è sr. ing was provided for that purpose, an source irom whence Brigadier General Sir Samuel Bentham of the face at the time. The man having been away at the shaft, returned with another derived his invention of a floating caisson gate. Mr. Clegg, in brattice board, and was Asia it to convey the air closer to the face, when a little fire- i that the Act of P i damp which had accumulate in hia absence fired at his candle, and he was burnt to his lecture, stated ct d arliament for the London death. On inspecting the place I found the ventilation pure, but there was great docks was not obtained till the year 1799; whereas it appears leakage through the principal stoppings on the level. Of 2835 cubic feet of air which in your Journal, that Sir S. Bentham's proposal to the Admiralty Las going in, the whole was lost except 441 cubic feet. of a caisson gate with valves, for Portsmouth dockyard, was * e n explosion. happened fh consequence of m eni andar submitted to their lordships in the year 1798. Tt is, therefore, lokar, aad for upwards * entering a part of the workings "hie evident that ‘Sir Samuel could not have derived his invention of __Stoneclough Colliery.—This explosion, the second this year, took place in the a floating caisson from & work that was not commenced for two fing Clough Pit, the 1 of a part of nad wo e Mey 1 rwards : ped : : ving communicated with an joining colliery me disorganised, tiredam years afte It 18 ho) that Mr. Clegg will 9 this had accumulated in consequence. This had continued for some weeks, and orders had notice, since he said in his lecture, that “perhaps he was not been given that no one was to enter the place; but it did not appear that adequate 1 1 ice? steps been taken to rectify the derangement b attention to stoppings and doors. doing the General justice. A collier, apparently anxious to fill an extra tram daring dinner hour, went in to fetch H olly Mount, H ampstead, M. S. BENTHAM. an empty one, and having a naked light with him, he was burnt to death. Feb. lst, 1855. Plitt Lane Colliery.—This explosion, by which one man lost his lite, appeared by the evidence to have taken place in consequence of some firedamp being suddenly dis- charged from the roof of the mine ona fall of roof taking place. : pede P din Colliery.—This exploeion, the second thin jum took plaoe in a drift : ew yards in advance O the air. A man was at work with an open y p, an COAL MINES OF LANC ASHIRE, CHESHIRE, AND s a a shot in the presence An 1 eae ded men yie PERSAS 15 T ALE a slight flash taking place at t e match. e fireman the p-top 8 NORTH W S. be on, 1 did not see it put Cd though he dicus ed there mr time; yu when 55 : eft the lamp was still open. e man rwards went out is supper, leaving à boy Reports of Joszpn DICKINSON, F. G. S., Inspector of Coal Mines, te Al tue coals, Shortly afterwards the man da wd, and placed his open lamp on to the Secretary of State, under the Act for the I nspection of Coal the floor near the face. He then took a pick, and drew down a amall piece of roof coal, — — 7 Mines, 13th and 14th Victoria, Cap. 100. which, falling close to the face, drove out a little gas which had accumulated, and a slight explosion took place at the open lamp. The man was slightly burnt, and being Report for half year ended December 31, 1852. in a delicate atate of health, he died in consequence. A few weeks prior to this acci- — : A ; : dent I had inspected this collie and specially directed attention to the want of Íy this district, which comprises Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales, the total discipline with to the use a safety lamps, two glaring cases of want of care in number of accidents attended with loss of life to persons employed in and about the : A collieries has amounted to 70, and the loss of life to 75. Compared with the returus this respect having come under my own observation. for the preceding six months this shows à decrease of 9 accidents and 79 deaths; and Pendlebury Colliery.— The cause ol this explosion Was not 80 clearly ascertained as compared with the corres nding six mouths in 1851, an increase of 12 accidents, but the preceding ones; but there i8 little doubt it was occasioned by a bo). oe of the a decrease of 11 deaths. The particulars of the principal accidents are as followa:— drawers, —walking into some gas which wan known to be lodging in the Tace of & level. ; i : i ; m : The place was a few yards in advance of the air, and was just on the xut of being Haydock Colliery .—This explosion took place in the Florida Mine workings, in the holed to a lower level for ventilation, A collier, the boy's E to host care he waa Rock Pit, in the top part of a dip, heading, or downbrow, which was in advance of the — jntrusted, was at work inside with a safety lamp driving down the cut-through from air, and was standing at the time. There beng water in the bottom of it, some hay, the face of the level. The boy was jr in to his work, and no steps having been taken &c., e been piled acroas near the top, to prevent the horses getting drowned, which to prevent his entering with à bic light, he walked forward, and fired the gas. The 1 ite recta 5 gas, Mum pu ee bep e behind the collier, who by this inattention left himself in a very precarious situation, escaped with 1085 eee ehich verat him to dea "ul crep ugh with à light, an explosion a slight burn, and succeeded in making his way through the afterdamp. The flame P : " : : ; apread out chiefly against the air, and the boy who was most exposed to it was burnt to Bradshaw House CoUiery.—The immediate cause of this explosion appears to have bath. Two men who were nearly out of its reach were dashed down by the wind and been the removing of the gauze from the top of the safety lamps; but the principal seriously injured; one of whom died in consequence. neglect appears to have been in carrying on the mine without the inost ordinary means 1t will be observed, that about three-fourths of these explosions took place in ant of ventilation. It would be useless to deacribe the arrangement which was substituted; places, in winning forwards new drifta where the openings were in course of being suffice it to say it was radically insufficient for the purpose intended. About six made, and the ventilation not brought close up to the face. Bratticing, which is the moat months before the accident I had received information of the dangerous atate of this efficient means of conveying in ait during this continually recurring emergency, having pit, and through Me. Wynne and myself the attention of the manager and proprietor been in the majority of cases omitted. Divesting the accidents, however, of their more was theu properly directed to the matter, which resulted in hia undertaking to carry reinote causes, and viewing them in narrower bounds, two ap assignable to persons out the necessary works to make it safe. The result, however, showed that the under- —— incautiously entering workings which were standing; two to the want of a fireman, one taking had not been acted upto, and the explosion ensued. to a defective safety lamp, one to attempting to test for gas with a candle; one partially Bredbury Blick Mine —This explosion appears attributable to the want of & fireman to the loss of air by leakage through stoppings, and partly to a want of care in re-enter- to examine and see the workings safe for the men and boys to enter. In the morning ing a winning drift; oue to the lax discipline of the pit, which allowed men to work of the accident a man named Bradshaw, who was stated to be an experienced collier, with the tops off their safety lampe; and one to a boy walking into & place with a on going into his place of work in advance of the air, took & safety lamp to examine for lighted candle where his master was at work with a safety lamp. Of the others, one firedam The place proved foul, aud he accordingly brought the lamp back and took place in a it where ventilation was wel] known to be entirely absent; one where returned in the dark to brush the gas ont in the usual way. When thus engaged a the ventilation had been disorganised by the workings communicating with an adjoin- young inan and a lad, each carryiug à naked light, followed him in, and meeting the ing colliery; and one by & sudden discharge of firedamp coming out of the roof on a fall firedawp which was being wafted out, an explosion took place, and they were all burnt. taking place. The collier was seriously injured, and after lingering for a few hours died in con+e- I have atated in a previous report that the popular theory which assigns seventy to quence. seventy-five per cent. the loss of life in prre to guis e by gem t ^ Little Lever Colliery.—This explosion also a rs ass ble to the want of a fire- borne out only in ixolated cases, such as some of the great explosions, an is too hig man. The scene of the accident was an e few yards in advance of for a general average. In the present explosions the whole of the deaths are traceable the air. Being a staguant place, it certainly ought to have been carefully examined 1O burns and violence, no life having been lost by afterdamp. l with a safety lamp in the mornings, and after intervals when the workinen had been Under the head of miscellaneous accidents are recorded two deaths by suffocation by out, before it Was entered with a naked light. This was, however, omitted, and the fire-damp, Which took place on the oth of Joly in the South Mostyn Colliery in Flint- deceased, a young man, walked in with hia lighted candle, and an explosion took place, shire. The case being peculiar, I have subjoined some of the detuils which I subinitted which burnt him to death. It appeared that the underlooker expected a man pamed at the inquest. Su tfocation by firedamp 18 an unusu occurrence, but from the circum- Taylor, who Was driving the level, to examine the place; and Taylor stated that he had stance of the ventilation of the workings where the men’s bodies were found being been in the habit of doing 30, and was paid for it some time before; but that for three extremely foul, and the edges of the. mixture highly explosive, as well as from the months prior to the accident his engagement had ceased, and he had not since examined following experiments which I made in the gas, I see no reason to doubt that 1t roved places unless specially requested by the other workmen to do so, the option of calling fatal in this instance. On entering the gas the pulse ran up, the head got giddy, and in his assistance being left to the workmen’s judgment. onder ine it we In 5 15 . 0 my Pe 3 frum : i Voss Enn iu i i M —Thi i shorter time it increase e agents from 0 ; und in a 3 8 ine 1 pope ep ence c T Too venio of he wine e dts been in the place for about half an. hour previously. Safety lamps were used in the imperfect footing. At ou int the airway à T d dL A : i " i ; ; Mh à of air only 665 cubic feet per minute. Tbe quantity of firedamp accumulancd was mine, and he had a sey a the gauze was dius pud. I almoat incredible, and yet 80 little attention Was paid to having satety lamps with the bulge in, leaving a space through which I afterwards ound no difficulty in passing pete net 28 me nue to the inch, that the fireman's laiup had only 17. flame. No ventilating power was employed in this instance. The shafta were 250 ortunately à detre is In ume., "€ ich i : f ; The loas of one life, by the irruption of mud from old workings, 13 one of those serious yards deep, which inset ber minute. aa PCS inspecting the pit, I found accidents which deserves apecial notice. A series of coal wama lying at shallow depths Bank Colliery.—This expl ion, lik th T had been worked off in olden times, and the old pit» filled up. The workings were of the workin am ew sum ir s nd ing The x place in ten ua part supposed not to have penetrated below a certain scan; but at one point, it proved that in th Y "found Y^ "ad . e fireman, on going rounds a pit had been sunk to the seam below, — probably for the purpose of proving It, but in the morning, “ov a fall of roof taken place overnight, and that firedamp had without any workings taking place in it. There was no record of any suc sinking, and in consequence accumulated in the face of the brow. He accordingly cautioned the when the lower scam caine to be worked operations were conducted without any know- men respecting the place, and directed them to cut an airway across from the opposite ledge of it. The various drifts had been won out without touching the old shaft, its drift to ventilate it. He did not, however, leave them any safety lamp for the purpose, yaition being in the centre of a pillar, When the accident took place, the pillars were which was an omission. About mid-day the man who was driving the alrway asked sing worked away, à collier was at work getting the identical pillar which inclosed the another man to begin at the opposite side (amongst the gas), and aint him. Accord- shaft, the fireman being with him at the time; à crackling noise took place, from whieh ingly the man went, and was entering the place with his candle as cautiously as he the fireman anticipated an outburst of gas, but whieh the collier thought proceeded could, and was examining with it for firedamp, when the gas ignited at it, and he was from the ordinary heaving of the strata, The fireman being alarmed ran away, and burnt, but not fatally, The flame, however, as usual in explosions, ipe out beyond was followed by the collier; when almost immediately afterwards a violent rush auc- the lodginent of gas, and a boy who was some distance down the drift was burnt to ceeded, and they were overtaken in the drift by & deluge of mud, which overwhelmed death. The air which ventilated the workings Was first carried round the five quarter and suffocated the collier, and fastened up the fireman, who was only rescued atter workings, a seam above, and then taken down to the trencherbone seam, where the several hours anxious suspense. The importance of an accident like this is not to be 18 — 78 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. measured by the smallness of the fatality which accompanies it. Scveral persons were at work in the pit when this barrier to the old workings broke away; and but for the accidental circumstance of the absence of water, and not from any degree of foresight, the sacrifice might have involved every person in the pit. Shaft accidents still render it necessary to direct attention to deficient shaft ments. In some collieries a marked improvement is taking place in this respect, whilst in others the arrangements remain too much as before. With 30 many hundred ropes running daily in the winding pits throughout my district, 1 have again the pleasure to report that nota single fatal accident has occurred throngh breakage of winding ropes, On the other hand, it is deplorable to find that lives continue to be lost by falls of stone from the sides of shafta. No person would leave his staircase with overhanging materials to endanger the life of the passer-by, and yet some shafts, where the thoroughfare is far greater, are left 51 5 Three lives, without including the one in the sinking pit, have been sacrificed from this cause during the half year. Surely the time has core when accidents from this cause should be considered incompatible with good management, and when, especially where strata are not level, it should be a general rule to brick or wall the shaft throughout. Rocks, as I stated in my first report which appear sound when first sunk through, frequently fall away on exposure, and occasion much damage. This (with the stoppage of work, and the increased cost of walling under such circumstances), s far to render the practice of an effectual walling when sinking the most economical in the long run. Of the accidents which have occurred from falls of roof, the whole of them, so far as I have ascertained, have originated in the danger peculiar to an underground occupa- tion, and not in any penurious supply of pit wood. Perhaps the principal alleviation of accidents of this 5 is to be looked for in instructing young and inexperienced miners how to protect themselves in their occupation: and in the appointment of experi- enced workmen, as in Northumberland, to the particular duty of setting and drawing the principal props, especially the latter. Plans of underground workings, though daily becoming more appreciated, have not yet in every instance received the attention they demand. In an outlying portion of this district, Over Darwen, I have recently found it neceasary to direct the attention of a large majority of the colliery owners to this important omission. The present Report comprises one accident, attended with loss of life, arising out of the want of proper lans and records; and the Bristol Field, in the case of the inundation at the Shortwood olliery, has also added a similar calamity to the list. In the latter case, when the district was under my care, I pointed out to the proprictors the want of plans sixteen mouths before the accident, and was assured they should he obtained forthwith; and the caution had also been afterwards repeated by Mr. Mackworth, on his appointment, and still the plans were neglected. The uncertainty which the want of plans, and no plans at all, entails, as in the irruption of mud, in my district, may sometimes deprive the manager of the power to conduct his mine with safety; but the evil certainly ought not to be perpetuated. Recently, when inspecting a colliery in this district, in answer to my inquiries as to old wastes, I was informed that a body of water was about to be tapped, and that a bore hole was kept several yards in advance. I suggested the necessity of side holes in addition, and expressed a wish to examine the present operations. On climbing for about 150 yan to the top of a brow in the seam inclining at an angle of about 40° where the boring ought to have been going on, a fertile source for a serious accident presented itself. The drift was being driven forward, but without any boring, and the man adinitted having neglected it for several yards, and this across a fault which of all places waa the most likely for the termination of the old workings. The proprietor who went into the workings with me, assured me that boring was paid for, and that he was as much surprised as inyaelf to find it neglected. It seems probable that as the place was difficult of access, and the regular underlooker was away on leave of absence, the assistant, who was left in charge, waa too lazy to see it done. With regard to the introduction of printed rules for the caution and gnidance of the workmen, which I have had so frequently to urge, I am happy to say that a visible improvement seems taking place in this respect, In several collieries in this district (including the several collieries of Messrs, Knowles, the daily output from which exceeds 2400 tona), printed codes have recently been introduced. In North Wales also, where there arc some very rough samples of mining, and where the comparative absence of accidents seems more attributable to the greater care with which the working men of that part regard their lives than to any superiority of provision for their safety, masters are bestirring themselves, and printed rules have recently been introduced both in English and Welsh. Connection of atmospheric pressure with explosions. — The effecta of atmospheric changes, and their relation to explosions of firedamp in coal mines, is a subject of interest, if not of importance. It is obvious that with a falling barometer some effect must be produced on ventilation; first, in the increased bulk which a given quantity of air occupies under diminished prrssure; and, secondly, in the increased quantity of firedamp which becomes liberated into the workings on the preasure which pent it up being withdrawn. * Suppose," says Brande, in his rules for the reduction of gascous volumes to mean pressure and temperature, we had measured 100 cubic inches of air at a barometrical pressure of 29 inches, and wished to know what would be its volume at 30 inches, we shall find by the rule of proportion that— Mean height. Observed height. Observed volume. Required volume. a0 : 29 Di 100 : 956, Or in regard to weight, suppose that with the barometer at 29 inches we had found 100 cubic inches of air to weigh 29 9 grains, and wished to know what the weight would be at standard pressure, we shall find by the rule of proportion that— Observed height. Mean height. Observed weight. Required weight. 29 : 30 ae 29°9 : 31." A fall of an inch in the barometer, therefore, in increasing the bulk occupied by a given quantity of air, makes a difference of between three and four per cent. in the value of the air circulating through the workings of a mine, supposing the velocity of the current to continue the same; and, in addition to this diminution in the diluent quality of the air, a freer discharge of firedamp simultaneously ensues from every pore of the strata; and if goaves or other accumuiations of firedamp exist in the mine, the firedamp which they contain becomes expended in the same ratio as atmospheric air, and between three and four per cent. of the entire accumulation is poured into the workings. Doubtless this must be attended with an increased amount of danger, and its effects have been often dwelt upon. Temperature, and its connection with explosions,—Temperature, which is similar in effecta and more wide in its changes than atmospheric pressure, has not generally received the same consideration in regard to its connection with the expansion of air and the liberation of firedamp. It is found that air dilutes 1-480 of the volume which it occupied at 32° for every degree of Fahr. seale; and the same law applies to all other aériforin bodies not in contact with any liquid. 1f, thore fore, it be required to know what volume 100 cubic inches of air at 70? would occupy at 60° we must bear in mind that it it not 1-480 part per degree of the observed volume at 70° which is to be deducted, but 1-480 part of the volume which 100 cubic inches at 70° would occupy at 32". Now 480 parta of the air become 481 parts at 33’, and increase one que or every additional degree, so that at 60° they have increased to 508 parta, and at 70° to 518 parts; and thus we have a proportion between the volumes at 60° and 70° by which we can determine the question, fur :— Volume at 70° Volume at 60° Cub. in. at 70° Cub. in. at 60° 480 + 38 : 480 + 28 ae 100 : 98:069. Or, on the other hand, if we wish to know the correct volume at 60* of 40 cubic inches of air observed at 36°— Volume at 35°. Volume at 60°, Cubic inches. Cubic inches. 180 ＋ 3 - 450 + 28 252 40 : 42:07. Again: The weight of 100 cubic inches of air being 31 grains at 60°, the weight o equal volume at 212? will be found as fullows ;— s f alp Volume at 212. Volume at 60?, Grains. Grains. 480 + 180 : 480 + 28 rs 81 : 23:89." A variation of temperature, therefore, if only 10°, from 60? to 70°, makes a diminution of nearly two per cent. in the virtual quantity of air transmitted through the workings supposing the velocity of the current to continue the samo. ariations of temperature, however, not unfrequently exceed 10°.. During the past year the daily variations have in some instances exceeded 20, and in one instance reached 26°. Wide changes like these create a diminution of about five per cent. in the effective property of similar quantities of air circulating through the workings, And if there happen to be PORE, goaves or others accumulations of firedamp, they also, by increased temperature, become expanded in like ratio with the atmospheric air and the surplus quantity of gas is thrown into the ventilation. And farther, with increased temperature, if the ventilating power is rarefaction, as by the common furnace, or if there be no ventilating power at all, a diminished velocity in the current may be looked for consequent upon atmospheric temperature approximating to that of the rarefied column in the upcast, and thua lessening the balance of power which gives motion to the whole. Temperature, therefore, as well as atmospheric pressure, appears to exercise an important influence on ventilation, which cannot fail to be felt in collierics where ventllation is atrained to its maximum; and as the combined influences of temperature and atmospheric pressure may simultaneously act against the ventilation there is consequently at these critical times a greater liability to exploaion. Careful attention to these changes, but chiefly to those of the barometer, has been occasionally urged as the panacea agaiust such calamities; and it has even been questioned whether the barometer is an instrument sufficiently delicate for such observations; and the aimpiesometer—which is much more complicated, and does not indicate any change until à mechanical operation be performed, and would require à man in constant attendance if changes are to be detected early—has been recommended in its stead. It is possible, however, in devoting too much attention to trifles to overlook the main pus Boisterous winds, which baffle the ventilation, are not unfrequently more portant than either the barometer or the thermometer; and ventilation, if it deserve the name, should at all times provide & sufficient, surplus of air to place the aafety of the mine beyond the reach of such constantly recurring changes. Badly aa some of the coal mines are ventilated, it ia only the very worst which have not a wide enough balance of air to carry them through such emergencies; and the management may be pronounced almost hopeless where the indications of the barometer and thermometer are not sufficiently minute. As it is, explosions at these times but slightly exceed the ordinary average, an increase being, perhaps, apparent with the rising temperature from spring to summer, Taking Manchester as a centre for this district, it appears that explosions have occurred under the most varied circumstances. Of the 30 fatal explosions which took place in this district during the year 1852—a year remarkable for the peculiarity of ita changes, ita numerous thunderstorins, ite extraordinary quantity of rain, its earthquake in South Wales in the spring, and its earthquake in North Wales and Lancashire in the autumn,—16 of the explosions occurred when the barometer was either rising or stationary, and 14 when it was falling; 20 of them took place when within the twenty-four hours the variations of the temperature either equalled or exceeded 10°, and only 10 when the daily variation was under 10°; 18 took place on fair and 12 on rainy days, although 201 days were fair and 165 rainy; 2 of them happened in January, 8 in March, 5 in April, 6 in May, 1 in June, 1in July, 2 in August, 4 in September, 1 in October, 3 in November, and 2 in December. The hygrometer or difference betwixt the wet and dry bulb of the therinometer was at almost every degree from 2 to 10. Greater diversity, in fact, could scarcely have been presented; and the result seems to show that the atmospherical observations are but of secondary cousideration, aa regards explosions, to the paramount importance of providing adequate ventilating power, and the necessity of maintaining spacious airways, without which ventilating power ia useless; good brick or stone and mortar stoppings for preventing leakage, good air-doors, and to having at least two doors where the arteries of ventilation are crossed—to the necessity of bratticing the air close up to the face of the workiuzs—and never to have a naked light near when props are being drawn or falls of roof are taking place, by which gas might be given otf; and to being careful never to leave places to stand without first cutting them through and ventilating them to the face; and, lastly, to the indispensable necessity of having competent managers, good firemen, a good code of printed rulea, and to strictly carrying out the discipline of the mine. With proper attention to these matters, and by instilling habits of carefulness into the workpcople, it is not too much to hope that the increase which is taking place in the output of coals may be met with a decrease in the proportion of casualties. In moat of the smaller collieries it seems of trifling iuiportance. what system of ventilating power is resorted to, so long aa some adequate power be provided. The steam jet has recently been recommended as being the cheapest and most efficacious power; but practical men, with but about two exceptions, are far from agreeing in that conclusion. Much attention has recently been directed to the subject; and it may not be out of place to give some description of the principal ventilating powers practised in this district and the results attendant upon their application. Water Jet.—Without stopping to detail the various applications of the water jet, which affords a steady and economical but small amount of power, I will commence with the mechanical arrangement of the fan, which is perhaps the most expensive and least efficacious power at present practised in this district. Hand fans worked by a boy or by one or two men have long been used for the ventilation of detached workings or sinking pits, Where the whole amount of power being small, and the application for a temporary purpose only, a trifling loss of power is not a material object. The extension, however, to the ventilation of a whole colliery brings them into comparison with other wers. A fan has been recently erected by Messrs, Eyton for the ventilation of the uth Mostyn Colliery in Flintshire. It has eight arms 3 feet in length, the diameter from tip to tip being 6 fect. It is fixed at the top of the upcast shaft, aud has to draw the air through about 2500 yards of aircourse. When working at 244 revolutions per minute, it produces a ventilation of 5170 cubic feet of air per minute, the waterguage being very low. With the air freely supplied to it, without having to pass through the workings in the mine, it exhausts 12,100 cubic feet of air per minute. It ia worked by a steam engine of 8-inch cylinder, with one spherical steam boiler 16 feet long by 34 feet diameter; steam about 401b. to the aquare inch. To keep the engine working at 68 strokes per minute, the average quantity of coals consumed in the boiler fire (as weighed over the machine’ is stated at 84 cwt. per 24 hours, which ‘at the rate of ven- tilation obtained, 5170 cubic feet per minute; gives only 1956 cubic feet of air per Ib. of coals. It may be stated, that the upcast pit, being a shallow one, does not present the most advantageous opportunity for substituting rarefaction. The duty yielded by the fan is, however, far from encouraging, and holds out little if any inducement for the extension of such applications. For exceptional casea like thia, Struvé’s air- pump, or the combined action of the furnace and the steam jet might probably be resorted to with more success, Struve's Air Pump.—Struvé'a air pump (as applied at the Westminster Colliery in Denbighshire) appears capable of affording a fair amount of ventilation. The machine to which I allude has been at work upwards of a year, and appears to give satiafaction to the proprietors. Its action upon the air for some distance frum the pump causes an —— E —— Inl ee, " THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 79 unsteady current, but this is proposed to be got rid of by the addition of another air er, which is intended to be worked im conjunction with the present one, one of cylinders to be alternately at full stroke when the other is the centre. The present cylinder is 17 feet diameter and 64 stroke. It makes t Steam -Jet.— Various applications of the steam et as a ventilator have been made in this district. One at the Orrell Colliery near T. E. Forster, which appears being surface. The * in active operation, Manali P yards from where the jets were surface. re were also some minor openings in ith one Cornish boiler, 20 feet and 3 feet tube, the steam could barely keep twelve of the jets w ata of 50 Ib. in the boiler, and 25 Ib. at the jets. ith two boilers, and steam at about 45 lb. twenty-two of the jeta could be worked. The ventilation obtained by this apparatus is stated at 46,143 cubic feet per minute. A furnace gave 46,262 cubicfeet. The jets and furnace combined gave 51,143 cubic feet. It may be proper to state, that these ground engine at 800 yards from the surface. The boiler is 40 feet long, and supplice steam to the engine at 40 Ib. pressure. With this power at work, I measured the air with the anemometer on the llth of January, and 58,200 cubic feet of air per minute the about 47,200 feet of which upcast when the measurements were taken being only 100°, and the downcast 40°, the 8 Barf nel ape jet took Bispham Billinge, Another ap steam jet at the Colliery near under the same management as the Orrell Colliery. The system a pears to have boen or use, carried on for some time; but the boiler is now reported unfit f farnace has been resorted to. Another application of the steam et took place in o out the Little Delf and Rashy Park pits at the Haydock Colliery near St. Helen's, cashire, where a very rapid discharge of firedamp was encountered. The jets were fitted at the top of the upcast, and the result is stated to have been so far successful as to allow the wor to be carried on until the discharge of gas had somewhat abated, and a furnace could ted. — have also been made in the Wardley Pits of the Worsley Colliery near r, belonging to the Bridgewater trust, and under the su tendence of Mr. Smith the manager, and Mr. Ridyard the colli agent. this instance ninety -eight jeta were applied in the upcast shaft, steam being supplied from a boiler afterwards lower down. The result not proving : were given up, aud the furnace substituted. It would be unnecessary to notice the various applications of steam, either or from the discharge pipe of underground es, which have tron opo EM Pi noplication of a jet app of aj which aoa down the downcast being cope ate a e acting through the confin which it was placed, w steadily resist and move the uh the opposite direction. Indeed, the exploration of the fire, in which I took part, was made, to some extent, under these circumstances, the direction of the current n upon the single jet exhausting . The current was y small but it was perceptible. Had the steam not been confined to a small hole, ita effects would have been trifling against so large a balance of temperature; and had both the shafts been thrown o the current would doubtless have been at once reversed, and probably more than fifty times the quantity of air have circulated in the opposite direction—the jet in this con- to act like power concentrated, as by the palley and the lever. And it would seem t parties judging by instances of kind, have attributed the jet, as compared with the furnace. It would however be quite imagine, that a small engine which could only lift a certain weight upa pit once in . more powerful than a on the first in this district; and garing had every facility afforded to me by Mr. Darlington for of experiments, and having also had : ordinary ventilating furnace 6 feet across the bars, also two d engine. The boilers are together with the furnace, are placed in the seam at the bottom of the upcast shafts. There are three shafts about 200 yards deep, two age, “eget tag the conjoint area of which is about 140 feet, and one upcast 71 area. air is coursed round the worki in three main splita of 6000, 6000, and 8000 yards in length. In addition to this ventilating power tho steam jet apparatus was added ptember 1852. It , first, of fourteen jets, each Finch diameter, striking into cylinders 6 feet long by 1 foot in diameter, and placed 15 inches in front of the jeta; and it was with this arrangement my first experi ments were made on the 2nd of ber 1852. The jeta have since been increased by the addition of foar ie each 6-16-inch diameter. experiments on January 13th, 1853, were made this latter arrangement. Ventilation of Cannel Pits, Ince Hall. lst Series of Experiments. Boiler Fires, Steam Jete, & Furnace. December 2, 1852. T ure yds. Temperature of Downcast. of the te Fresh Air to Boiler Fires. n A | eee ff es | ees | oe 1st. With 2 boiler fires, and steam blowing off at 50 lb. pressure; boilers each 40 feet long by 6 feet e diameter .. " = ..| 118° | 48° | 4 | 25,991 | 2,701 | 28,692 2nd. With 14 steam jets, each of Finch diameter, in addition to the boiler fires, and steam blow- ing off at 60 Ib. as in No. 1 .. | 106 | 48 | ly | 88,081 | 2,568 | 85,684 Increase with the 14 jets at work .. | .. aa 2 8,040 | — — 8rd. With a 6-feet furnace, and the boiler and steam blowing- off as in No. 1, but without the jets M .. | 191 45 2 | 45,114 |2,590 | 47,704 J ee een ee Increase by furnace .. si saah es " .. | 19,128 4th. With the furnace, 14 steam jeta, and the boiler fires, and steam blowing-off at 601b. — ..| 145 45 .. | 87,876 | 2,590 | 40,466 In these experiments, the united power of the furnace, steam jets, and boiler fires uced less effect than the furnace alone, the two powers seeming to baffle each other, led to & series of experimenta, by which it was ascertained that feeding the boiler fires with an abundant supply of fresh air, and with fresh air only, this anomaly could be obviated, and the powers of the jets and furnace worked harmoniously ; On the 13th of January 1853 some improvement having been made in the airways, and the number of jets increased to teen, our experiments were resumed with the following resulta : peast, cast — the Workings i 3 en on its, Ince d E CCC 3 i7, With Boller Fires and 18 Steam e 82 | B HAR $| s [3833 18th January 1853. 4 É F 17 43 11 2 5% 2 11 Ist. With boiler fires low, and no steam blowing-off, at 12h. a.m. (this measurement was taken by anemometers in the downcast shaft). All the others were taken in the workings, the several spire 27,108 2nd. With fires under the boilers, and the steam blowing- off at the valves at 66 lb., a 1 b. 80 m. pm. ES .. | 112 | 43| 69 | 41,041 Increase by 13? of tem ; and the steam blowing-off at 55 lv. zs .. | 15,888 8rd. With 18 jets, in addition to the boiler fires, and the steam blowing off at 601b., at 2h. 30m. m. ee ee ee oe oe nerens by the jets, 51b. higher pressure of steam, and 17° of in- creased temperature, compared with No. 2 experiment Sieh. cx 99 x 9,881 4th. Same as No. 8, but with less fresh air sent to boiler fires, at 3 p. m. ee 2 Ls 25 increase by the jeta and 14° of in- creased temperature as compared with No 2e iment .. ob^ ou i T 9,168 5th. Same as No. 4, but with still less fresh air supplied to boiler fires, at 8 h. 80 m. p.m. .. . . | 121 | 44] 77 | 41,188 5 the jets, &c., and 8° of in temperature, as com- pared with No. 2 experiment .. |] .. | ..] .. 9T 180 | 44 | 86 | 60,872 No. 5 experiment, at 8h. 80m. p.m., when the temperature of the upcast was 121°, the boiler fires were ulacked, and in a quarter of an hour the furnace had fallen to 110°, the tempe- 80 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. rature of the downcast i at 44° as before. The „ to act in addition to the boiler fres, . was 178°. e perature began to get very low, and at 6h. had declined to 174°, and at 5h. 80m. boiler fires then when the boiler with the exception of a shovelful of fire which was reserved on the charging plate for ting them, were entirely out, the temperature of the upcast had further declined to 160°. From that time the furnace rapidly rose to its full power, and at 6h. the temperature had increased to 180°, which was its maximum height. e furnace experimenta com- wenced at h. 15m. as follows: Furnace. January 13, 1853. Temperature of Downcast. Difference of Temperature between Up & Downcaat eet of e Cubic Feet of Fresh Air Total Cubic Feet of Air passed through Shafts. Temperature of Upcast. 6th. With one furnace, 6 feet across the bars, the boiler fires being out and allowing a large scale of fresh air, viz., 44,200 cubic feet, to pass through the boiler gates as a dumb at 5h. 15m. p.m. Increase by furnace with 76° of ad- ditional temperature as compared with No. 1 experiment vi Tth. With furnace as in No. 6, but with the air-doors open to allow the furnace also to draw fresh air, at 5h. 85m. p.m. .. x «a Increase with 62° additional tem- perature, as compared with No. 1 experiment.. es a T 8th. Same as No. 6, but with 15,600 feet of fresh air admi through boiler drifts at 6h. p.m.. Increase with 82° addi tem- perature, as compared with No. 1 experiment.. oe " ae 42°) 182° | 48,811 44,200 | 92,611 22,608 — — 12 | 118 | 40,466 14,768 — — 42 | 188 | 46,781 21,078 — — Not taken. 44,534 | 30,600 | 75,184 in the way the fus furnace is o rily worked, at 6h. 80m. p.m. . Increase with 81? additional tem- perature, as compared with No. 1 experiment.. z m s 180 | 48 | 187 | 51,466 — — 25,768 — — At Ch. 45m., p.m., the boiler fires were re-lighted, when the increase of temperature was soon sensibly felt at the top of the u and the thermometer, by which the temperature was being taken, burst; another one was substituted, and it also burst. One of the thermometers indicated up to 220°, and the other to 285°; the temperature of the upcast would therefore appear to have been above 235°, when the following ri sonata with the united powers of the furnace, boiler, fires and steam jete were en :— piji JE: s3 Ventilation of the Cannel Pits, Ince Hall Colliery. sla ; 5.4 2nd Series of Experiments —oontinuod. wo. s fa With Furnace, Boiler Fires, and Steam Jets. $ 3 P 25 January 13, 1853. 8.8 fi & 252 8 | gi 88R 8s |È llth. With furnace, 2 boiler fires, 18 steam jets, and the steam blowing-off at 601b. per square inch, at x m . m. 5 16 5 a "slighti . | 61,746 | 38,930 | 95,676 experiment a m., when a y ed amount of air was obtained. 12th. Same aa No. 11, but with less fresh air admi to the boiler fires, at Th. 46m. p.m. .. Vs 58,162 | 21,600 | 80,862 Abstract of Experiments at the Cannel Pits, January 13, 1858. Cub. Ft. per Min. Maximum effect produced with 1 furnace, 6 feet acroas the bars, as in No. 10 experiment,—total air through the workings .. 51,466 Maximum effect produced with 18 steam jets, 2 boiler fires, and the steam blowing off at 60 Ib., each boiler 40 feet | by 5 feet diameter, as in No. 3 experiment,—total air passed ugh the workings .. e ux 2 "R 85 $i us m Difference in favour of 1 6-feet furnace as com with 2 boiler fires, 18 steam jets, and steam blowing off at the valves at 60 Ib., the boilers each 40 feet long by 5 feet diameter. re es Maximum effect produced by the united powers of the furnace and 2 boiler fires, 18 steam jeta, and steam blowing-off at 60 Ib., total air passed through the workings ix i T is 61,746 The barometer at 8:0 a.m. was at 29:10 inches., and at 10°20 p.m. at 29:20 inches. Steam Jet and Furnace Ventilation at the Pemberton Pits, Ince Hall Colliery.—In these pits two seams of coal are worked with a pair the other at 187 yards from the surface. being the upcast, and the other the downcast. The of two boiler fires, placed in the lower or Pemberton 4 small 5 10 steam jets placed in the upper or Pemberton 5-feet f from j R : g ; 3 t ~ gE ATF [8 MEIHPIERERE: Pemberton Pits, Ince Hall Colliery. sd Ba 45 35 5 Ist Series of Experiments. z ps vf. 835 f Boiler Fires, Steam Jets, and Furnace ER b = 525 5 8 3 December 9, 1852. a t aa BERGE E EEE EAR lst. With 2 boiler fires, and the steam blowing off at 501b. ; aver- age of two experiments .. .. | 185° | 46°] 89? 80,480 Gnd. With 9 of the steam jets at work, in addition to the boiler fires, and the steam blowing-off at 60]b.; average of two experi- ments za 25 5s .. | 148 | 48 | 100 89,240 Increase by the 9 jets, and by an increase of 11? of temperature .. 8,760 8rd. With furnace (5 feet across the barai, in addition to boiler fires, and steam blowing-off, but without the jeta; average of two experiments 2 n .. | 190 | 44 | 146 | 17,625 87,785 Increase by the furnace .. se T. x m ate 4,245 7, 805 In these experiments a large scale of fresh air, which was not measured, was through the engine house in the 4-feet seam. The arrangements of the pit did not admit of more than about 12,000 cubic feet of air per minute being passed Wen the furnace. 2 2 2 + i 531 že 3 235 & a | 5 5 |e” 5S ; 8 B- i s3 ET t Pemberton Pits, Ince Hall Colliery. | ^ S | Eeg | PA 25 E 2nd Series of Experiments. e |% 8 2 Ey Et mes Boiler fires, Steam Jeta, and Furnace. E 5 355 e | za 2 20th January 1853. 8$ $5 8 [E E be E [ER EB BE | 25 |483 £ 383 Se | sz |3 & |e 1A < = Ist. With the 2 boiler fires low, an no steam blowing of è .. . . | 122° | 60°} 72° | 12,990 | 20,472 | 33,462 2nd. With good fires under boilers, and steam blowing-off at safety- valves at 50 lb. : T .. | 150 | 50 | 100 | 17,760 | 24,840 | 42,600 Increase by the steam blowing-off, and 28? of increased temperature. 4,770 4,868 9,188 8rd. With 10 steam jets, in addi- tion to the boiler and the steam blowing-off at 50 1b. ..| 151 | 49 | 102 | 21,015 | 33,400 | 44,415 Increase by the propulsive force of the steam, and 2" of increased temperature s 3,255 1,440 1,816 4th. With 10 jeta as in No. 3, but with air splits differently arranged .. x T ..| 160 | 49 | 111 | 22,800 |nottak'n| — Increase by the propulsive foroe of the jets, and 11° of increased temperature, as compared with- No. 2 £s T 8 és 5,040 |nottak'n| — 5th. With 10 jeta in Nos. 3 and 4, but with increased area for the air in the 4-feet to pass into the shaft T T ih ..| 152 | 48 | 104 | 21,960 | 24,840 | 46,800 Increase by the propulsive force of the jets, and 4? of increased temperature, as compared with No. 2 2 7 = Ps is 4,200 | equal 4,200 On the completion of the above experimenta, at 2h. 10m., p.m., the boiler fires were slacked, The steam had been got down, and the jets sto at 2h. 40m. At 2h. 60m. the furnace (which since the first series of experiments in mber had been increased to 5 ft. ö in. across the bars) was lighted. It shouid be stated also that in consequence of the proximity of the furnace to the shaft, in which were wooden guide-rods, it was found unsafe to drive the furnace hard. Only a small quantity of air was therefore passed through it. At 6 p.m. the following experiment was : THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 81 P. 2 qed] fa | dg Ee dial alte Pemberton Pits, Ince Hall Colliery. | P |A | gA| 3 zA [T5 2nd Series of Experiments, S 8. BR | BR | Mes Boiler fires, Steam Jeta, and Furnace. @ $ 8 8 FE E B 3 20th January, 1853. Y 3 5 Sj ¢ 5 8 TE 2 3 . 6th. With 53 feet furnace, small fire, the boiler fires being entirely As com with No. 2 experi- ment the difference between the temperatures of the upcast and the downcast is in each case 100?, and the ainount of air obtained almost identically the same 7th. With the furnace as in No. 6, but with less air passed over 148° | 48*| 100? | 17,670 | 24,960 | 42,680 148 | 41 | 102 | 17,010 | 24,360 | 41, 370 The barometer during these experimenta was at 29°20 at 8 a.m., and at 29°45 at 11 p.m. In reviewing these experiments at the Ince Hall Colliery, it will be observed that in the experimente at the Cannel pits a liberal supply of fresh air to the boiler fires had the effect of materially increasing the temperature of the upcast, and that the amount of air passed through the workings was greatest when the largest amount of fresh air was supplied to the boiler fires. With 36,000 cubic feet of fresh air per minute the difference of teinperature between the upcast and downcast waa 86°, and the amount of air passed through the workings 50,872 cubic feet per minute. With 28,400 feet of fresh air the difference of temperature was 53?, and the amount of air passed through the workings 50.794 feet. And with the still smaller amount of 15,200 feet of fresh air, the ditlerence of temperature was reduced to 77°, and the amount of air through the workings to 41,138 feet. It appears, therefore, that where there is sufficient shaft room, boiler fires in the mine may be fed with fresh air with advantage to the ventilation as well as to the draught of the fires. The difficulty of getting boiler fires to draw well when fed with return air from extensive workings, has been often experienced; the combustion in the boiler fires under such circumstances being much leas perfect than in the ordinary furnace—and in practice fresh air, or a mixture of it, has generally been resorted to. The rarefaction produced by underground boiler fires has also been found less perfect, as a ventilating power, than the rarefaction produced by a well constructed furnace, in which the combustion is apparently perfect. An abundant supply of fresh air to the boiler fires appears to counteract thia defect. The combustion almost imme- diately improves, and the dense clouds of black smoke cease to roll up the shaft. In these experiments at the Cannel Pita the greatest velocity attained in the upcast shaft with the furnace alone, and without allowing for expansion by rarefaction, was 1303 feet per minute. With the addition of the expansion due to an increase of temperature from 62? (at about which the air was measured: to 174°, the temperature in the upcast, the actual velocity attained waa 1590 feet per minute; or in other worda, 1590 cubic feet was passed per minute through each square foot of the upcast shaft, With the view of approximating to the amount of power due to the propulsion of the jets, it will be observed that throughout these Ince Hall experimenta, both with the furnace and boiler fires and steam, a relative increase of temperature attended increased amounts of air. In the largest increase sed through the workings on the application of the jets, viz., 9831 cubic feet per minute, as in the third experiment, second series, at the Canuel pita, the increased difference of temperature between the upcast and downcast was 179. But that some amount is due to propulsion is perhaps more apparent in a comparison of Nos. 2 and 6 with Nos. 8 and 5 in the second series of experiments at the Pemberton pits. In No. 2 the boiler fires, with steam blowing of at the valves at 50 lb. per square inch, not propulsively applied, gave 42,600 cubic feet of air per minute; aud No. 6 with a like difference of 1009 of temperature with the furnace, gave 42,030 cubic feet, being a ditference in the two experiments of only 30 cubic feet. Comparing these results, which, with the exception of the lighter gravity of the ateam, are due exclusively to temperature, with Nos. 3 and 5 experiments, wit steam applied through the jets—it will be seen that an increase of only 2° of additional temperature in the one case gave an increase of 1785 cubic feet per minute, and of 4° in the other gave an increase of 4179 cubic feet per minute, being an increase at the rate of 1000 cubic feet for 1? of temperature, which exceeds the ratio due to temperature alone, as compared with the other experiments, The effect of propulsion upon a smaller volume of air would of course be increased in proportion to the diminished amounts acted upon: it being borne in mind that the resistance increases according to the square of the velocity, that is, the drag is increased as the square of the amount of air. With regard tothe quantity of coals consumed with the steam jet and furnace sys- terns of ventilation, as practi-ed at Ince Hall Colliery, the quantity of coals used in the boiler fires at the Pemberton pits is stated at 4 tons 16 cwt. per 24 hours, which at the rate of 45,300 cubic feet of air por minute, as obtained by the jets and boiler fires, gives 6258 cubic feet of air per pound of coals, The furnace at the Pemberton pits is a new one, 5355 feet across the bars, and the quantity of coals which it consumes has not yet been accurately ascertained, It stands on the site of an old oue which was 5 feet across the bars, and is not quite twelve yards from the shaft ‘and the shaft having wooden guides in it, which are liable to catch fire, the farnace could not be safely driven hardi, the consumption of coals, therefore, will rubably be much the same in the new furnace as it was in the old one. This amount Ia stated at 2 tous per 24 boura; but allowing 10 cwt. extra as an ample margin for the slight iucrease in the size of the furnace, say 50 cwt. per 24 bours—this at the rate of 42,630 cubic feet of air per minute, as in No. 6 experiment) gives 10,962 cubic feet of air per lb. of coals, as the result of the furnace ventilation obtained under the same circumstances as 6263 cubic feet per Ib. of coals with the steam jeta. In the Canuel pits the quantity of coala used in the boiler fires is stated at 6 cwt. per hour, or 7 tons 4 cwt. per 24 hours, to keep the steam at 50 lb. pressure per square inch, which is the usual pressure. The second series of experimenta, which gave the best results, were taken with a pressure of 60 lb., to obtain which the consumption of coals would be increased in a proportion. As the increase was not ascertained, the balance may be thrown to the favour of the jets, and the coal estimated as for 60 Ib. pressure which gives 4542 cubic feet of air passed through the workings per Ib. of coals consume in the boiler fires. The furnace is stated to consume about 6 tons per 24 hours, which gives 5514 cubic feet of air per Ib. of coals. The united powers of the furnace, boiler fires, and steam jets gave 3007 cubic feet of air per lb. of coals. Economy of fuel, therefore, to say uothing of the wear and tear of boilers and steain apparatus, is clearly in favour of the furnace. The ventilation as practised at the Kirkless Hall Colliery, near Wigan, is at present one of the most successful instances of furnace ventilation in this district. The amounts of air obtained, though they certainly cannot be ranked with those of the larger quanti- ties obtained in some of the Northumberland and Durham collieries, are yet in this, and a few other instances in Lancashire, by no means behind those of the more northern counties, in proportion to the extent of workings to be ventilated; the area worked to a pair of shafts in Lancashire being much smaller than in Northumberland and Durham. The Arley and Yard coal wiuning at the Kirkless Hall Colliery, near Wigan (29th October 1852), consists of a pair of pits each 85 feet area, and 300 yards deep, to the Arley mine, passing through the Yard mine, which lies about 190 yards above. One of these shafts is the downcast for the Arley workings, and the other the upcast for the workings of both the Arley and Yard mine, there being a separate downcast for the Yard mine workings. The Arley mine is won out in drifts 6 yards wide, and about 4 feet high, with 10 yard pillars between, having the air co through whole of the workings which lie nearly level. The ventilation is divided into seven main splits, of an ave of about 2000 yards to each split, the total length of airway, exclusive of side splits, being 14,220 yards. The ventilating power consists of two small one 44 feet across the bars, placed in the Arley seam, and the other, 4 feet across the bars, placed in the Yard seam. The 8 with the exception of the levels for about 100 yards from the shafts, which are lighted with gas conveyed from the surface, are worked exclusively with safety lamps. The following measurements of air were taken with the anemometer, and I may add that the furnace fires were low at the time, and the pressure between the shafts, according to the water-gauge, only 8545 inch, a safe indication that the airways were spacious. Cubic Feet per minute. lst. With the winding apparatus stationary; air passed ‘through Arley mine workings .. ` 48,720 Ditto Yard ditto i e 10,426 Total cubic feet per minute .. T 59,145 There is one cage in each shaft; one ascends when the other descends. The velocity at which they travel is about 900 feet per minute, which is a little quicker than the velocity of the air either in the downcast or the upcast; consequently their passage through the shaft must either assist or retard the current, acco to the direction in which they are moving. When they are in motion, about one of the discharged steam from the winding engine on the surface is di into the upcast shaft. It is piped about 60 yards down, and there discharged in the direction of the air current witb the view of assisting the ventilation. : With the view of ascertaining the amount of obstruction offered by cages ascending and descending in this pair of pite, I made the following experimenta :— Cubic Feet per minute. 2nd. With the cage in the downcast ascending, and the cage in the upcast descending, contrary to the direction of the currents of air; air passed through Arley mine workings .. $5 s " 26,580 Ditto Yard mine workings ss 2s 6 9,045 Total cubic feet per minute is 85,625 3rd. With the cage in the downcast descending, and the cage in the u ascending, in the same direc- tion a8 the air; air passed through Arley mine workings .. i va x - 62,893 Ditto Yard mine working ay E $3 11,805 Total cubic feet per minute . 64,198 Average amount of air, with the cage running with and against the current in the shafts of ‘ 49,911 Being 9234 feet less than with the cages stationary, which shows how important it is. These experiments show the importance in cases of this description of having the cages as small as possible. If it be necessary to wind more than one tram at a time they may be advantageously placed one over the other, so as to offer as little resistance as possible to the ventilation. It seems worthy of consideration whether with velocities in the upcast so high as in the present instance, ventilation may not be retarded rather than assisted by a discharge of steam which haa been expanded by passing through the cylinder of the engine and then piped 60 yards down the shaft. The obstruction which it offers to the free working of the engine is also a consideration which should not be verlooked. NI. i The quantity of coals consumed by the furnaces at these pits is stated at 12 cwt. pe 24 hours in the Arley furnace, and 8 cwt. per 24 hours in the Yard coal furnace. s (at the rate of 59,145 cubic feet of air per minute, gives the unuaually large quantity of $8,021 cubic feet of air per lb. of coals. The airways being spacious and the pita deep a large amount is assignable to natural ventilation, the ventilating power of pits being increased as the square root of the depth of the shafts; the higher temperature of deep mines also assists. , l ithe pi inutely into the details of some of the other instances which I could ME ee tini be uaeful to state the amount of ventilation at à uote of the ventilation, it may stat Guikar of collieries in various parts of the district, many of the instances being samples as I found it when paying casual vista of inspection, without any accident having taken place to call me to the mine. It is almost needless to add, that some of them were cases which afforded opportunity fur suggestions as to their improvement. 22 SS $ zs 22 4/sF |á? =| ges 327 2i*:8|ó6758 Date. Name of Colliery. Ventilating Power. & 282 | Cee „ 5 7 58 5 2 2 E E.'s 2 S — 222 1852. RC July 12 | South Mostyn, Flintshire Furnace on aurface airway impassable .| — 665 — i . 24, 1853 ..| Large tan airway un- N 559 880 . — | 5,170 1,956 tyn New Pits, Flint- 8 ie ws S " | Temporary furnace ..| — | 5,580 — 29 | Coleshill, Flintshire Small furnace — 2,640 =Z 80 | Bath, Flintshire .. .. None. Airway im- passable el 44 — Aug. 4 | Norley Hall Lancaxhire..| 6-tvet furnace | — | 25,600 — ` 12 | Latlak, Lancashire Large furnace on sur- i face .. sa „| — | 17,500 — 14 ursuance of your Lordship's directions, I had the honour to be engaged, I may state that I visited the mines at Mons, Charleroi, and Liege, in Belgium; also those at Dresden, Bochum, Pon BD, and 1 tah in Germany; and those of Bt. Etienne, Rive-de-Gier, and enciennes, in France. The precautions there adopted for the security of life seem scarcely equal to those of the best managed mines in our own country. There is, however, great uniformity in the management of most of the continental mines, safety being moderately well looked to in a large majority of cases. With but one or two exceptions in particular districta, there seems no instance of arrangements so far below par as the worst samples of mining in this country. There are some details (as I have stated in my evidence fore the committee of the House of Commons now sitting on coal mines, Mr. Hutchins, chairman) which may, I think, be introduced with advan into some of our mines; but tangible amelioration is to be looked for chiefly in b up to the standard of modern improvement those mines where the arrangements are defective. I trust that the visit which has been paid by myself and colleague to the continental mines may be of use in spreading information as to the best means of One BURG or working mines. Foreign governments, as your Lordship is aware, are alive to the importance of such visits to this country, and some of my brother inspectors and myself have had oppor- tunities of furthering the views of their inspectors when on such missions. I am happy to acknowledge the friendly manner in which our visit was reciprocated by all parties connected with the countries which we visited. In my next report I hope to lay some statistics before your Lordship, comparing the continental mines with those of this country. Report for half year ended December 31, 1853. In this period the accidents attended with loss of life to persons in and about the collieries of this district have amounted to 76, and the number of lives lost to 101. The excess of killed above Weldent Sie chiefly from the great explosion in Bent Grange Colliery, by which 20 lives were lost. : As com i d with the corresponding months of last year, the return shows an increase of 6 accidents and 26 deaths. e increase being, in miscellaneous, 11 acci- dents and 10 deaths, and falls of roof, 3 accidents and 6 deaths. In explosions of firedamp there is a decrease of 4 accidents, but an increase of 14 deaths. In shaft accidents, a decrease of 4 accidents and 3 deaths. The demand for coals throughout the whole of the past year having been exceedingly brisk, every effort has been used to increase the output. This and the irregularity of working, consequent upon the unfortunate difference which has existed as to wages between oolliers and their employers, may to some extent account for the increase in the number of accidents. . With reference to the great accident at Bent Grange, I may remind your Lordship, that prior to the explosion I had directed the proprietor's attention to the defective state of the ventilation, which resulted in my placing him under notice as required by the Act. This aud the other matters Dese Da the explosion were carefully considered &t the coroner's inquest, and afterwards by the law officers of the crown, but it did not appear that the evidence adduced would warrant the institution of a criminal proceed- ing in the case. The verdict of the coroner's juries in other cases throughout the half year have been accidental death. . The collieries of this district are of various sizes. The smaller ones employ only a few hands, and the larger from a thousand up to fifteen nare. personi The output of coals per colliery varies from a few tons up to a third of a n tons per annum. The firm possessing the greatest interest in the coal trade of the district is that of Messrs. Andrew Knowles and Sons, the output of coal at whose collieries amounte to about 2400 tons per diem. i ! The number of working pits or shafts, exclusive of those used solely for air, is 879. Besides 60 additional winnings by levels, and inclined lanes called day eyes; making a total of 939 separate winnings whereby coal is now worked. The pits are of various depths, up to 520 yards. Shafts of greater depth are pruposed; but at present, 520 yards 18 the greatest depth of any working pit. Deeper coals have been worked by inclined planes from the bottom of shafts, and workings are now going on in this way at about 600 yards below the surface. 679 of the pite are in Lancashire, 50 in Cheshire, and 150 in North Wales. Their ave depth is 115 yards. Those of Lancashire being 118 yards; Cheshire, 123 yards; and North Wales, 97 yards; the united depths of the working pits being upwards of 57 miles. At these pits 849 steam-engines are at work pumping and winding, besides other 82 ! THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Aa SS £158 [$35 5 SS [a= i =| gas | 289 — EZ 3 8Y 8 Date. Name of Colliery. Ventilating Power. 89 2 gd Nf 3 2 2 58 S tu b| S7 8. gee 3|3i5 323 E 22 1852. Aug. 21 | Westminster, Denbigh ..|Struvé's air-pump .. | — 23,608 | 5,283 81 | ( Blackley Hurst, Lanc. : Seneley Green Pita ..|Furnace vu 8,652 7,418 Sept. 2 Little Delf Pits . . |Small furnace — | 4,763 | 10,206 9 | Bredbury Black Mine, Cheshire... ee ..| Underground boiler.| — | 4,266 | 2,576 17 | Ince Hall Cannel Pits, Lancashire m .. | Two ditto and 6-fect furnace... ..| 2 | 85,829 2,809 Dec. 2 Ditto .| Ditto, airways im- proved a . 2 | 47,704 — Ditto . | Two boilers and jeta . los 85,584 — 1853. Jan. 18 Ditto -| 6-feet furnace only, airway further im- proved M ..] — | 51,466 5,514 m Ditto - .| Two boilers and jets.| — | 50,872 4,542 » Ditto .| Ditto and furnace ..| — | 61,746 | 3,007 1862. Oct. 8 | Stoneclough, Lancashire, Paddock Pit ..| Fire-grate .. — | 8,600 | 18,000 9 | Stoneclough, Lancashire, Starkie Pit 80 Two ditto — | 18,360 | 18,218 » | Clifton, Lancashire, Ma- norPit .. $ . Furnace — | 18,900 | 12,150 12 | Glodwicke, Lancashire, 250 yards deep .. .| None .. — | 6,360 — 20 | Bank, Lancashire (A. Gib bons' 2-feet air pit) .| None .. - 1,000 — » | New Watergate (2 wood ipea, 2 feet area) .| None .. J- 560 — 23 | Worsley, Sanderson's Pita| Furnace Vs ..| — | 2,885 6,156 29 | Kirkless Hall, Arley Pits | Two small furnaces.. $ 69,145 | 38,021 Nov. 7 | Haigh, Lancash., Bridge z Pits 25 - Temporary furnace..| — | 24,835 | 17,880 1853. April 3 Ditto .. "m ..| Large furnace — | 60,000 — 12 | Winstanley, Lancashire, 4-feet pit "T . .| Small furnace — | 5,400 | 17,357 21 | Broadfield (through wood pipe 14 feet area) Into eae chimney with the discharged steam : — 850 — Dec. 9 | Ince Hall, Pemberton Pita] Two boilers and steam ets .. ss — | 89,240 — 3. Ditto 5-feet furnace — | 37,785 — 1853. Jan. 20 Ditto .. .| Two boilers and steam jets .. we ..| — | 46,800 6,268 m Ditto .. -| 54 feet furnace — ..| — | 42,630 | 10,282 » | Orrell, Wigan . | Furnace and 1 boiler fire .. - ..] — | 47,200 — In concluding these observations on the ventilation of this district, I may observe that the utility of the steam jet or of any mechanical ventilating power ought not to be measured exclusively by its economy. Exceptional cases occur where a sacrifice of power is secondary to the main object to be attained. In newly tap seam, when for a time the rapid discharge of fire-damp prevents a furnace being safely lighted; or when the upcaat shaft is under repairs, or is too shallow for steady action, or when large accumulations of gas have to be disl escapages contended with : in these, and such like cases, mechanical ap attended with an increase of cost may be resorted to with success. In ordinary circum- stances, where economical and powerful ventilation is daa ie eo far as my own expe- riments show, the furnace system appears to stand unriy. : to be relied n odged, or sudden pliances although Report for half year ended June 30, 1853. In this period in my district, the accidents attended with loss of life to persons employed in or about the collieries have amounted to 75, and the loss of life to 136. This includes 58 lives lost by the great explosion in the Arley Pits at the Ince Hall Coal pared with the corresponding months of last year, the present return shows a decrease of 4 accidents and 18 eaths; there being a decrease of deaths under ee head, excepting falls of roofs, which shows an increase of 9 ths. The decrease is, in explosions 5 accidents and 6 deaths; in shaft accidents 9 accidents and 16 deaths; and in miscellaneous accidents an increase and Cannel Works, Wigan. As com accidents and 10 dea of 1 accident, but a decrease of 6 deatha. Having previously reported to your Lordship on the t explosion which took place ro, Wigan, I need not recapitu- late the circumstances under which that disastrous accident took place. Suffice it to say, that though the rules frained for carrying on the mine were excellent, yet, unfortu- nately, discipline appeared to have been lax, and important rules broken with impunity. The opening clause of the rules, as in prophecy, get forth that ‘‘almost every accident can be tr either to the want of proper discipline in the mine, or to negligence on the part of the officers or workmen. Good and efficient rules may be established on the works; but unless they are practically carried out into the working details of the in the Arley pita at the Ince Hall Coa! and Cannel Wo mine, they are only as 80 many dead letters." In three inquests which have been held during the half pap charges of manslaughter e last Liverpool assizes, when the bills were iguored; the other has yet to be heard. It is in the case of the ex losion in the Gidlow and Swinley colliery, where it peor a collier named Blackburn have been returned. Two of these were disposed of at t the gas at a shot which he had fired without he was instructed to do. Two persons died in consequence of the received; and as the deaths took place in different coroner's districts were held. In one a verdict of ‘‘ manslaughter” was returned, *' accidental death," with an animadversion upon the management. With regard to the mission of inspection to the continental mines in which, in D se ping a very flery ighted examining the place for firedamp, as burns which they te inquests and in the other engines used for surface arrangements. Water-wheels, water-balances, hydraulic- engines, horse-gins and runs, are also employed in a few instances. t most of the pits flat hemp ropes are used for winding materials. Wire ropes are also used, and are becoming cominon, especially in the eep pits, to which they are culiarly applicable on account of their lightness, Three-link flat chains are common fa N orth Wa es; also a few single-link chains; but it is only in two raa oeg cases, that I am aware of, where the latter are used for the ascent and descent men, Most of the shafts are fitted with guides, either of wood, wire-rope, iron rods, or chains; and in nearly all the modern winnings cages are used. At about ten of the pits, endless chains are used for winding in the shafts. The deepest pit worked in this way is 220 yards, which seems too deep for the system. For depths not exceeding 120 th appear to work satisfactorily, but even for shallow depths they are not considered safe for men to go up or down by; and on the whole the number of pite worked this way does not seem to increase. Having obtained from a large majority of the colliery proprietors a return of their respective operations during the year 1852, I am enabled to furnish the following mud a and to state, with a very close approximation to accuracy, that in this istrict the output of coals during that year reached nearly ten million tona: viz. :— Output of coals in Lancashire in 1852 .. V» ws 92 8, 255,000 Ditto in Cheshire T V. sk - s 715,000 Ditto in North Wales .. bs ahs ex gx 953,000 Total produce of the district in 1852 .. 9,928,000 With the exception of less than a million tons, the whole of thia output appears to have been consumed in tho district; and importations also were made from South Wales, Yorkshire, &c. The exports from Liverpool for the year are stated at 105,952 tons coastwise, and 277,645 tons foreign. Shipments were also made from North Wal 5 &c. About 50, 000 tons also were sent from Lancashire by rail to London an the south. The number of persons employed in and about the collieries in 1852 amounted to 38, 800; of whom 31,950 were employed underground, and 6850 on the surface; via. Above ground. Below ground. UA npored: 0,900 In Lancashire P os ; 5,370 25,530 * In Cheshire sd bs A 660 2,140 2 100 In North Wales .. js Ve 920 4,280 8, 200 6, 8 50 81,950 38,800 The average get of coals per person employed varies of course oe to circum- stances, such as the facilities for working, the extent to which machinery and horses are applied in ame, the distance of the workings from the shaft, the capabilities of the workmen, &c. The average get of the district for the year was 810 tons per permon underground; the numbers ng for Lancashire and Cheshire 324 tons, and Norta Wales 222. In Lancashire and Cheshire an ordinary collier in a four-feet seam works about 4 tons per day. Each collier has an assistant called a drawer, who trams the coals to the horse-road or the shaft, This reduces the get per person to 2 tons per day. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 83 Sinkers, poney- drivers, roadmen, firemen, hookers-on, furnace-men, engineers, brakes- men at inclines and other dead-work men, door-boys, and underlookers, together with the holiday of one day per fortnight usually conceded to underground workmen, complete the reduction of the get per person to about the average stated The seams at present worked vary in thickness from 11 inches to about 10 feet; the greater proportion being between 8 feet and 7 feet. The dip of the beds varies from nearly level to an angle of 45?, and sometimes more. Workings are in some cases carried on at the distance of 1000 yards to the dip of the shaft, the produce bei drawn up by engines placed either on the surface or in the mines; some of the mechani veis iie for this purpose, and for the transit of coal down the steep inclines, are rceedingly ingenious and well worthy of imitation. The method of working is long-work and pillar and stall. Long-work is common in North Wales, and is adopted in a few instances in Lancashire and Cheshire. The pillar and stall work of North Wales is known as '* wicket work." "The wickets or stall« vary in width up to 24 yards, and the pillars to 15 yards. The pillar and stall work has various modifications. The common system is termed ‘‘straight ends and walls." The straight ends are drifts from 44 feet to 6 feet wide, and the walls or pillars about 10 yards wide, varying according to circumstances. The process, when the system is properly carried out, is to drive first a pair ef levels to the boundary, aud there commence the straight ends for the pillar work, commencing to work the pillars at the boundary, and working backwards towards the shaft, leaving the goaf behind. In this way each foot of the seam yields fully 1000 tons of large and mixed coals per statute acre. The systein of working in thia way from the extremities prevents waste by crushes or squeezes, aud also simplifies the ventilation. Completing the levels before the eud and pilit work is commenced, has the effect of draining the seam of the greater part of itg amp when the workings are in the simplest form, and when almost any quantity of air can be directed to the most fiery pointy. Indeed, some of the most fiery seams are th unworkable with safcty by pillar and stall work, unless thus first drained of their firedamp. The ends alluded to are sometimes driven from 3 to 8 yards wide; and occasionally they are worked simultaneously with the levels. The latter practice, however, almost invariably leads to a sacrifice of pillars; and it is worthy of remark that during the past year the great exploaions of fredatip in the Ince Hall Coal and Cannel works and Bent Grange collieries both took place in mines worked upon this plan. The ventilating powers used in the district are of great variety, comprising furnaces iu the pit and on the surface, chimneys connected with engine and other fires on the surface, boiler fires in the pits, steam jets and discharged steam froin surface and under- ground engines, waterfalls and water jets, air pumps, and faus worked by hand and steam engines, whilst in a large number of instances, especially in cold weather, venti- lation is carried on without artiricial power. The ateepness of the seams in many of the minea of this district, especially of Lanca- shire aud Cheshire, and the extent to which underground machinery is necessarily applied, render the working of the mines more than usually dangerous. "Tbe return of culliery accidents for the years 1851-2-3, shows an average of 145 accidents, attended with the loss of 2154 lives per annum. This, at the rate of 88,000 persons employed, as ascertained for the intermediate year 1852, gives an average annual loss of 543555 lives per 1000 persons employed, A sacrifice which cannot be considered otherwise thaa exceedingly alarning. In the Belgium coal mines, which iu point of danger as regards steepness and fire- damp, more closely resemble those of thia district than other parts of Great Britain, the losa of life per 1000 employed does not appear to be 80 great. In the coal and other miues of Belgium, during the five years ending 1849, the number of persons employed averaged 51,352, and the lives lost 1445 per annum. This number comprises persons employed at zinc, iron ore, and auch. ike mines, where accidents seldom occur. At the coal mines, whore the accidents took place, 46,000 raons were employed, which shows an average annual loas of 34'55; per thousand. In the years 1851 and 1852, when accidents were more rife, the per-centage amounted to 4&5 per thousand; being in both cases less than the per-centaze of this district. In comparing the colliery accidents of this district with those of Belgium, it is however important to know, that in proportion to the quantity of coala raised, a much larger number of person; are employed at the Belgian coal mines; and that of those employed, a larger proportion of them are on the surface, and out of danger. One great point of difference being, that in Lancashire and Cheshire machinery is exten- sively used underground for drawing the produce, whilst such work is carried on in the Belgian collieries chiefly by male and female labour. In comparing the per-centage of accidenta, therefore, it seems proper to look not only at the risk per head, but also at the amount of work perforined; and in this respect it is satisfactory to know, that the collicries of this district present a favourable comparison, the average annual get or uantity of coal raised per peraon employed in this district being nearly double that of leinm. The getting therefore, andjcunveying away of a double proportion of coal is doubtless attended with greater risk. The output of coals in Belgium during the five years ending 1849, alluded to, averaged 5,055,196 English tons per annum, and the deaths from accidents 144% per aunum—the average was consequently 1 life lost for every 34,911 tons raised; and in the years 1851 and 1852, when the deaths from acci- dent« averaged 1944 per annum, the average was at the increased rate of about 1 life for every 31,000 tons. In the Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales district, the number of lives lost during the three years 1551, 1852, and 1853, averaged 2158, and the output of coals (ascertained for the intermediate year 1852) 9,923,000 tons per annum; the per-centage of deaths by accidents was consequently at the rate of 1 life per 45,010 tons of coal raised. A comparison with Belgium in point of work done is, therefore, much in favour of this district. The loss of life to persons employed in and about the whole of the collieries of Great Britain, as ascertained for 1851 and 1852, averaged 985 per annum. The total output of coals is not correctly kuown, but it may be stated at about 54,000,000 tons, viz. :— Million Tons. Northumberiand, Durham, and Cumberland .. T Y T 11 Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales e £s $a "Y 10 Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Worcestershire. . - ch T 8 Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Warwickshire, Liecestershire, and Notting- : hara NN is ET a i m vi T: T South Wales. Monmouthshire, Gloucestershire, and Somerset- ahire Vx 2» Ae v4 T hi i - T 10 Scotland 14 Total quantity of coals raised per annum. vs T 54 The average loss of life, therefore, at thia estimate, for the whole of Great Britain, is 1 life per 54,822 tons of coal, In previous years the mortality was probably greater; many improvementa as to the health and safety of the miner having been introduced into collieries by the passing of the Act for the Inspection of Coal Mines, in 1850. Our leading collicries, fo far as I cau judge, are at present in advance of continental coal mines. A large proportion, however, have many evident defects which admit of being removed; and doubtless some proportion of the very appalling list of casualties may be claased aa preventible accidents, which it is to be hoped may shortly be dealt with accordingly. JOSEPH DICKINSON. ALLUVIAL FORMATIONS AND LOCAL CHANGES OF THE SOUTH COAST OF ENGLAND.* By Joun BALDRY Repay, M. Inst. C.E. First Section.—From the River Thames to Beachy Head. THE passage of shingle along the coast of England, due, as is generally believed, to the action of waves alone, takes on the south coast, a course from west to east, and on the east coast, from north to south; during certain winds, the shingle is heaped up coincident with their direction, and repeated withdrawals and renewals (the latter being the most frequent) cause a leeward movement of the material, in a series of triangles, of which the shore is the base, as has been shown by Colonel Sir W. Reid! and Mr. Palmer;? this leeward progression is due, on the south coast, to the prevailing winds, and on the east coast to its position. These results have been attributed, by some writers, to the tides and currents; and it is worthy of notice, that supposing the currents to be a sufficient cause for these phenomena, the same results would be produced from the particular configuration of Great Britain, and the course of the tidal wave. Should any natural or artificial projection intercept this motion, an accumulation, which will increase, or be held in check, according to the state of the winds, takes place up to a certain point, or until the angle formed is filled up; when the shingle will pass round, most probably across the entrance of a harbour, if in deep water, and again travel in the prevailing direction: numerous examples occur, which, it is thought, corroborate this view. "The groynes along the south coast afford, also, to a certain extent, corroborative evidence, for when they are not carried far enough inland, the shingle passes round the back of them, and when they are not sufficiently projected seawards, it travels round their extremities; but by far the most common action is, unless the groyne is of great height, or short length. for the shingle, after accumulating on the weather side, to the level of the top of the groyne, to pass over it and travel to leeward, which, like the progressive motion round a fixed point, is one of degree, and not easily estimated. It is difficult to fix any limit by which shingle would be prevented, under certain circumstances of position and shelter, from passing over an obstruction; this is particularly apparent in the case of the Chesil Bank, where, upon a clay formation, the shingle has attained the extraordinary height of 30 feet above high-water mark of spring tides, the largest pebbles being generally to leeward and at the summit. On the south side of the mouth of the Thames, great changes have taken place, more especially along the north shores of the Isle of Sheppy, as has been shown by Sir Charles Lyell? and other authors. The chalk promontory of the Isle of Thanet“ must have yielded a constant supply of shingle for many years, though, when the number of veins of flint in these clitfs is considered, perhaps to no very great extent. Around the island there is comparatively little shingle, the foreshore being invariably composed of a fine sand, bounded near the low-water mark by clay; at Ramsgate, the sand has increased seaward to a considerable extent. Smeaton® described the shingle as travelling from the eastward, and it is curious that along these shores, very little shingle is seen; and if that produced by the Isle of Thanet, after being carried into deep water, as it undoubtedly must be, is driven past Ramsgate, to the westward, it is probably thrown ashore in the neighbourhood of Deal, and joining the western supply, again travels eastward— an instance among other examples hereafter to be referred to, of this material travelling, under certain circumstances, at limited depth below low water. In heavy weather, local appearances in this neighbourhood seem to show, that tlie shingle is either washed up froin a considerable depth, or else passes round in deep water. During the winter of 1847-8, a small collection of beach, which was generally supposed, from the appearance of the flints, and other causes, to have come from the west- ward, was formed upon the sands, near high-water mark, immediately to the eastward of Ramsgate Harbour. At Kingsgate, black flints, rounded by the action of the water, and bearing the appearance of being supphed from the neighbourhood, are collected in several places, by the north- east winds, and may possibly be brought up from a considerable depth, though not so great as to be out of the influence of the waves. Immediately to the west of Ramsgate, along Pegwell Bay and Sand- wich Flats, to Shingle end, there are no traces of shingle, on the immediate line of the shore. The indentation of Pegwell Bay has promoted deposit for many years, and the clay cliffs forming its margin have suffered great waste. Sandwich Flats have experienced a corre- sponding increase, from the deposit of this material, aided by matter brought down by the River Stour, whose course is almost as tortuous through the flats as it is through the marsh lands.“ The western side of Pegwell Bay has formed a trap, during a long * Excerpt Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,’ Vol XI. Semion 1851-52. Edited by CiüiagtLEs Manny, Esq., M. Inst. C.E., Secretary. a Vide Royal Engineer Corps. Papers, vol ii, p. 129. 2 Vide Phil. Trans, Royal Society, 1824. 8 Vide Lyell’s Principles of Geology, 1340. 4 Vide Batteley'a Richborough and Reculvers; 1774; Kilburne's Survey of Kent, 1657; Lewis's Isle of Thauct, 1736; Boys’ ditto, 1794. 5 Vide Smeaton'a Reports, vol. iib, p. 82, 1312; Hasted's Historical and Topo- graphical Survey of Kent, 1797; Fuller’a Worthies of England; Goodwin Sands, 1607. 6 Vide Boys’ History of Sandwich, 1792. 14˙ 84 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. period, for the collection and retention of shingle; the spit termed *'Shingle End,” which is the north-east termination of the general western belt, hae gradually increased to the northward; for from maps of the time of Elizabeth, Sandown Castle appears to have been situated at its extremity, and took its name from the sand hillocks, which preceded the accumulation of shingle on the shore. The low shore, from Sandown Castle to Deal, and thence to Walmer, is bounded by extensive ‘‘fulls” of beach, and the cliffs to the westward, by Kingsdown, St. Margaret's, and the South Foreland, to Dover, have at the foot a shingle beach, which has been much increased, in the neighbourhood of Kingsdown, during the last half-century. t is supposed by antiquarian authorities, that Dover Harbour was formerly an estuary of the ocean, which flowed up a valley between the chalk hills. This opinion was formed from the descriptions of the spot by Cesar and Antoninus,’ and from remains which have been found in different excavations. Leland,* Camden,“ and Somner!? refer to these authorities and to the practical evidences for such deductions. From such evidence it appears, that at an early period there was no shingle at all at Dover, as might have been supposed, and which there is historical evidence to prove was the case; its gradual advance from the westward eventually blocked up the entrance, and penning up the water, an uncertain channel was formed at low water; piers and jetties were afterwards erected, to preserve a permanent outlet, and groynes were constructed on each side, to retain the shingle, and to render that a permanent barrier which had hitherto been of a fluctuating character. Dover was thus, in its primary elements, similar to Yarmouth, Shoreham, and other harbours formed by the penning-up of land and tidal waters by a mole of shingle; but at Dover, the natural features of the harbour are now, to a great extent, concealed by works of art. The plans contained in the Cottonian collection, at the British Museum, referring to the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, throw much light upon this interesting subject, and clearly show the numerous works that were executed, at those periods, for the purpose of protecting the entrance from the travelling shingle. Captain Perry, !' the well-known engineer, who visited Dover in 1718, and made an elaborate report upon the harbour, referred to the manner in which it was choked up with shingle by the westerly winds, and proposed low-water groynes, or jetties, and an extension of the west pier, to cure the evil. One remarkable passage in the report refers to the effects produced by falls of cliffs to the westward, which arrested the beach so long, that the requisite supply for the protection of the Dover works was wanting, and these obstructions were actually blown up by the inhabitants, in order that the beach might travel on as heretofore. In 1769, Smeaton?! ? proposed an extension of the west pier, to arrest the beach; but at the same time gave, as his opinion, that no extension of the pier would totally prevent the shingle from travelling round into the entrance. In 1782, Nickalls proposed, that the pier-heads should be extended for a distance of 200 feet, by which, he expected, the pebbles would be driven into deep water; though as this was uncertain, he recommended that sluices should also be provided. In 1802, Messrs. Rennie and Ralph Walker recommended an extension of the piers; and the further they were protruded, the less beach, they anticipated, would lodge at the entrance. It would appear, from the report of those eminent engineers, that they were of opinion, that shingle was acted upon by the currents as well as by the waves of the ocean.'3 In 1812, Mr. Ralph Walker reported alone, and recommended an extension of the south pier to low-water mark, which he considered would tend to carry the beach past the entrance. The mouth of the harbour appears, subsequently, to have so constantly suffered from the accumulation of shingle, particularly in the winter of 1833-4, that Mr. Telford was consulted by the Duke of Wellington. The works planned, and partly executed by that engineer, and sub- sequently amplified and extended by Mr. James Walker, are well known. 5 The additional sluicing power thus obtained held the bar in check. From the extension of the works at Folkstone, the erection of groynes in front of the railway works, and the falls of the cliff to the westward, the same result has occurred that was complained of prior to the report ot Captain Perry; the beach being so arrested to the westward, that the requisite supply to make good the amount of loss caused by the travelling of shingle to the eastward, is wanting, and the harbour works and lower town are deprived of their natural barrier. The same effect was experienced upon the completion of Cheeseman's Head, a pier to the westward of the harbour; and that work was partially pulled down, in consequence of remonstrances from the owners of property in the bay, ? Vide Burton's Commentary on Antoninus, 1658. 8 Vide Leland's Itinerary, 1539. 9 Vide Camden’s Great Britain, 1651. 10 Vide Somner’s Roman Ports and Forte, 1599—1668, published 1693. 11 Vide Perry's Daggenham Beach, &c., 1721. 12 Vide Smeaton’s Reporta, vol. iii., pp. 140-41, 1812. 1 3 Vide Lyon's History of the Town and Port of Dover, &c., 1813; Mantell’s Cinque Porta Meetings, 1811; Worthington on Dover Harbour, 1838. 14 Vide Jeake’s Cinque Ports, 1678, edition of 1728; Darell's Dover Castle, 1786; Lyon’s History of the Town and Port of Dover, &c., 1813; Manteli's Cinque Ports Meetings, 1811; Worthington on Dover Harbour, 1838. 1 5 Vide Telford's Worke, 1838. the frontage of which is now partially defended by a sea-wall. It is impossible, from the various artificial works to the west of Dover, to arrive at any conclusion as to the effect of a deep-water pier upon the travelling of shingle; and the tenor of the eminent opinions hitherto given, as well as the conclusions to be drawn from the evidence before the Harbours of Refuge Commission, respecting Dover Bay, appear to lead to this result, that after a certain accumulation has taken place, the shingle will pass in deep water. The first, or land kant of the Breakwater, now erecting to the west- ward of the harbour, and which projects 540 feet beyond low-water mark, or 670 feet beyond the high-water mark, on the Railway Wharf, will hereafter elucidate this subject; at present the shingle has apparently been arrested to the westward from other causes. The erection of groynes to the westward of Dover has insured a large collection of beach; but eastward of Folkstone, from the extension of the harbour works there, & corresponding deficiency has occurred. The artificial works of Folkstone Harbour must for a time have arrested the beach; but being of small projection, the shingle soon travelled round, and it was no uncommon sight, seventeen or eighteen years since, to see the fishermen excavating a channel at low water, through the beach, as without such a means of egress their boats were blockaded within the harbour. A hornwork or groyne, which has recently been considerably extended, was originally projected from the south-east extremity of the pier, and no doubt, for a time, protected the entrance. The effect of this further extension is a vast accumulation of shingle along the southern and western frontage of the harbour, and in front of the railway build- ings, affording an admirable example of the action of a work of this description; for the mass of shingle, which now fronts the harbour works, and is level with the top of the pier, gradually decreases in breadth, and falls slightly to the westward, until it becomes of the average width at the foot of the cliffs, or it may perhaps be more properly said to change its direction. e beach has assumed a more south-easterly direction as the groyne has been extended, lying in two distinct ‘‘fulls,” with two intermediate ridges: the effect upon the eastern side of the harbour has been a complete removal of the shingle, which only reappears again at Cock Point and Ledge, to the east of the harbour, and the west of Eastware Bay. At Sandgate, the groynes on either side of the circular stone tower erected by Henry VIII., retain a large full of pebbles, forming a project- ing point beyond the general line of the beach, which does not appear to have been much changed of late years; for Fussell, +° in his description of this tower in 1817, says the sea washed the base of it, which it does now in high tides; he also says, that the outworks of the battery were reduced, on account of the encroachments of the sea; showing that since the time of Henry VIII., the beach has been lessened. Here, as else- where, the largest pebbles are thrown up to the top of the ‘‘full,” about 8 feet above high- water mark of spring tides. Mr. Palmer, in his Paper on Beaches, has fully explained this action. At Shorncliff Battery, to the west of Sandgate, a large accumulation has been produced by the groynes erected by the Government for its protection; but the coast to the eastward has suffered, for the usual supply being cut off, the highway bordering upon the coast was entirely destroyed, rendering necessary the construction of esplanade walls; when however, the shingle had accumulated at the groynes, so as to overtop them, and to pass again to the eastward, this work became buried in shingle, in which state it has remained up to the present time. The sluice outlet to the Royal Military Canal is also completely buried in shingle; and the beach west of this, in many places covers the saltings between the shore and the channel, which latter is thus threatened with a similar fate to Hythe Haven, in the bed of the channel of which, the east end of the Royal Military Canal is most probably formed. ? Leland, Camden, Lambarde,'9 Somner, Burton, Stukeley,!9 Camp- bell, 20 Boys,?* Reynolds,“? and Hasted, may be referred to as bearing testimony to the former importance of the ports of Hythe, Romney, and Lympne. The Saxon chronicles, A. D. 893, quoted by Camden, Lambarde, and other antiquarians, show that the Danish fleet, of two hundred and fifty ships, came up the river Limne to Appledore, and as high as the Weald, or four miles from the mouth. Lambarde also refers to the decay of the ports on this coast. The plans of Romney, Walland, Denge, and Guildford Marshes, preserved in the Cottonian Collection, throw considerable light upon the changes in this locality, showing that in Elizabeth's time, there was an inlet of the sea at Hythe, with two arms, one in a north-east and the other in a north-west direction, and a considerable accumulation of shingle to the westward of this haven, gradually diminishing to windward. The shore in the neighbourhood of Hythe tends naturally to promote the collection and deposit of shingle, forming, as it does, a deep bight in the 16 Vide Fusaell'a Coast of Kent, 1817. 17 Mr. Eliot's Paper On the Dymchurch Wall,’ published in the Min. Pro. Inst. C.E.. vol. vi., p. 466, gives a detailed account of this division of the coast. 1 8 Vide Lambarde's Topographical Dictionary, 1570. 19 Vide Stukeley's ‘Itinerarium Curiosum, 1724. 20 Vide Campbell: Political Survey of Great Britain, 1774. 21 Vide Boys' History of Sandwich, 1792. 22 Vide Reynolds’ Itinerary of Antoninus, 1799. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL. 85 east side of the bay, between Dungeness and Folkstone; the high ground his Report of 1845, shows the vast amount of deposit, by a comparison or cliff north of the canal, between Sandgate and Hythe, assuming the of former with recent soun ings. form of rounded and gently-declining downs. When standing upon the The changes in this remarkable formation have been so extraordinary, hills above Hythe Church and looking westward, it is easy to imagine that that the various vicissitudes it has undergone require careful considera- a haven here, or at West Hythe, must have been gradually blocked up by — tion.?^ The parallel «fulls" of beach between Romney and Lydd, the deposit from the ocean, as the whole area between the sea and the before described, which may be traced from Winchelsea on the west, to uo with the exception of a small belt of salting next Hythe on the east, both from their rene and from the records the latter, exhibits parallel series of curves, running in & south-west existing respecting the maritime origin of these places, seem formerly to direction, near West Hythe, over à waved surface of sand, shingle, and have constituted the sea-coast, and supposing this to have been the case, scant vegetation. Opposite Moncrief Fort, the surface to the sea-shore, at one period, no such point as Dungeness could have existed. The a distance of about two miles, is composed of pebbles, in undulating rectangular full“ running from the banks on the west side of Lydd, to- waves, displaying the periodical accession to the coast, very similar to wards the point, may have been created by an accumulation of shingle the annular rings in timber; east and west of this, patchings of saltings travelling from the westward, and held in check by the outfall of the aigh the shingle had overrun the marsh land, which, however, isnot contained by this spit and the coast to the westward, would become the case; but the beach is ually brought into cultivation by a coarse gradually filled with shingle, a silty deposit would take place on the east description of grass first making its appearance, then furze or gorse, broom side, consequent on the ual loss of the harbour of Romney (whose - and moss (the resort of birds and sheep), together with seeds, &c. brought ruin was probably complete when its waters became diverted towarda by wild fowl, and thus the gurface becomes gradually clothed, bare beach Rye), and thus form the nucleus of Dungeness, which would in time be and cultivated fields being intermixed: this is particularly the case at increased in length by the parallel ridges of shingle, periodically added Hythe, where cultivation has been extended almost to the margin of the to and travelling round it; eventually another action would be evolved; sea, but still bounded on each side by arid beach. for this projection, instead of offering a fair line for the shingle to travel The various local deposits below Lympne and West Hythe, clearly upon, would form bays, so that the waves from the westward would indicate the outlet of the ancient haven. The accumulation between meet, with direct opposition in the bight of the bay, causing a decrease in Hythe and Dungeness progressed up to à certain period, when, by the this particular portion of the shore, and the shingle thus removed to the continued extension of, and increased accumulation at Dungeness, the eastward, would assist in the elongation of the point and its increase to natural supply from the westward was arrested, and the result has been the south-east. a diminution of Hythe Beach; the portion removed and carried to the In forty or fifty years, the decrease on the western side of the point west of Folkstone not having been latterly replaced by a corresponding has been from 50 to 80 yards in breadth, or about 4 feet a year, and gupply from the westward. about thirty years ago two forts were destroyed by the encroachments of 5 addition to the diminution of Hythe Beach, the shingle has almost the sea. entirely disappeared from the frontage ok Romney Marsh, which formerly For half a mile north of the lighthouse, patches of vegetation occur, i of beach, and is now entirely composed of gorze, or furze, fern, broom, an masses of wild sage, and dependent upon an artificial work for its protection. in some places, patches of moss, whilst towards Romney the shingle is A considerable decrease of land has taken place westward of the comparatively bare; but around the lighthouse and towards the sea, the defences to Romney Marsh; the haven of Romney Hoy becoming point of most recent formation, a light coarse thin grass grows; the ually silted up. The two spits on the east side, which, in 1847, last-formed ‘‘fulls,” however, next the sea, are, from their recent date, covered two hundred yards in width, were formed in twelve years by east entirely bare of vegetation. (See fig. 1.) winds, and by the constant drawing away of sand and shingle from the eastward, in front of the warren, the material being carried by the indraught into Romney Hoy, and afterwards banked up into a permanent “full,” by a return of winds from the westward: these el ‘‘fulls” tail round from the eastward into the Hoy, in regular curves, tending northward. On Romney sand, which is bounded on the east by Little Stone End, and on the west by Great Stone End (from whence to Dungeness is one continued bank of shingle,) there is not a single pebble to be found, nor is there any indication of shingle having travelled over its surface; from which fact it is commonly inferred, that the shingle does not pass Over it from the westward. The extraordinary changes, at least the more recent ones, at Dungeness and other points, may certainly be sufficiently accounted for by neighbouring local vicissitudes of an op ite and counterbalancing tendency; but still it is possible to conceive, that shingle might pass over this level tract of sand in heavy weather, without leaving any perceptible trace of its progress. A wall has recently been erected on the east side of Romney haven or “hoy,” to defend the low land from high tides. On the west side of Romney the outlet of the ancient port, formed by the outfall of the River Rother, and the various bends, points, and reaches, are still apparent, the old channel being lower than the surround- ing marsh, with walls or banks on each side. Between New Romney and Lydd, high sandy and beach knolls are met with, assuming to the westward the shape of three parallel ridges in shore, of the same form as ‘fylls.” Another bank, at right angles to — š these, runs from the west end of Lydd, towards the body of beach; and Fro. 1. on the west side of the point, eastward of this ridge, a superior descrip- The inner ridges of shingle are nearly parallel to the coast on the west, tion of marsh land (Denge Marsh) is met with, probably formed by a curving round at the point and running nearly at right angles, on the deposit silting u eastward of this spit of shingle. east side, towards Romney. The best idea of this formation may be ydd, formerly a port, is now completely surrounded by shingle, obtained by viewing it from the summit of the lighthouse tower, where constituting that remarkable spit of land called Dungeness, which has for the successive and periodical layers of shingle, parallel, continuous, and many attracted e attention. Lambarde** refers its denomina- unbroken, may be traced for miles, marked distinctly by the wild tion to the Saxon « Neshe," and Latin ‘‘Nasus” a ‘‘Nebbe,” or nose herbage which seeks the hollows between 4efulls,“ tending to the north- of projecting land; Somner terms it «Stone End —“ Lapis appositus in wert towards the point, then curving round in à bold sweep to the south- ultimo terre.” Collins?“ describes it, and Dr. Batteley, as quoted by east, and bending round in a counter or concave curve towards Romney. Harris, 25 considered the Lapis Tituli of Nennius was here. Of late years, from the eating away of the shore on the western side, The Harbour Commission of 1840, reported against it as a site fora the more recent formations commence near the lighthouse, following with harbour, on account of the continued increase of the spit, as 4 parallel margin round the eastern side towards Romney, and termi- indicated by the necessity for altering the position of the lightbouse, nating at Great Stone End, which assists to some extent, as before which at its re-erection in 1792 was 100 y from the sea, and at the stated, in gradually closing up Romney Hoy. Each successive layer of iod of the last survey was 218 yards distant, ahowing an increase of shingle commences rather to the eastward of its predecessor : the rojec- 118 yards in forty-seven years. The original lighthouse, was, at the tion of Lighthouse Point (fig. 2), which has a bold convex out ine, is erection of its successor in 1792, 640 yards from the shore. The Commis- constantly travelling to the south-east; west of this, and immediately eion of 1844 also reported on it, referring to its excellent anchorage, and the south of the lighthouse, the outline of the beach is straight, or slightly danger of interfering with nature in such a spot. Captain Washington, in concave, joining a convex outline westward. — ATI E a a E Seven or eight hundred vessels may sometimes be seen in this bay, and n 23 Vide Lambarde's * Perambulation of Kent,’ 1570. 24 Vide Collins’ Coasting Guide, 1689—1693. 26 Vide Dugdale’s *Imbanking and Draining,’ 1652; Seginond's Topographica! 25 Vide Harris’ History of Kent, 1719. History of Kent, 1782; Clarke’s Tour—South of England, 1793. : p &6 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. zu in the east bay, lying within two or three miles of Lighthouse oint. < — Er Ea * = er- - — ! "VOS. - -— em - -` BRICKHOUSE PT — v m C——X— — — — CC —LICHT^HOUSE POINT er on — 4 ten aa —— — = Fig. 2. The sea-margin was in 1847, about two hundred yards outside of tho lighthouse, the point being formed of six ‘‘fulls” or ridges. Beyond the Tower, to the westward of the point, the beach is flat; at the point, and round to the eastward, the upper part of the outside ‘‘full” lies at an angle of about 2 to 1; but this becomes flatter after heavy gales; the surface of the point is about 7 feet above high water: but the presence of seaweed indicates that the spray is occasionally thrown over it. At Dungeness, as elsewhere, the largest pebbles may be observed to the eastward; those at Lighthouse Point exceeding in size those to the west- ward, and increasing in size towards Great Stone End, from which circumstance the name is no doubt derived. The average increase of the Ness of late years would not appear to have been regular, as from observations taken during the last two years it has increased to a very great extent: sometimes thero must have been an increase and sometimes a diminution; but it is impossible to com with any degree of accuracy their relative extent, as their bearing from any fixed point has never apparently been taken. Numerous old maps of this locality, of which the most trustworthy have been selected as examples, afford an opportunity for drawing some general conclusions respecting the more recent changes connected with this curious formation. These authorities are— 1°. An extract from the Cottonian Collection, No. 25, of Augustus I., vol. 1, of the period of Elizabeth: it is more to be relied on than some examples in this collection, being taken from a chart to a large scale of Romney, Walland, Marsley, Denge and Guildford Marshes, and the Ness being laid down more minutely than in more general plans. 2°. A very accurate map of Romney and Walland Marshes, published by Cole in 1617. 9^. The Ordnance survey of 1794. 4°. The Admiralty chart of 1844, which appears to be a transcript of a chart by Græme Spence, published by the Admiralty in 1809, with a 2s of the shore line, and fresh soundings to show the shallowing around. These examples prove conclusively that the average progress sea ward, over certain terms of years, producing a determinate aggregate elonga- tion in a south-casterly direction, has been much greater than has been generally assumed, though this progress has not been regular, and during certain periods the Ness has even been stationary. During the reign of Elizabeth, the distance from Lydd Church to the extremity of the point was three miles; in 1617 this distance was threo miles and one-eighth, which gives an annual progression of about 5 yards; in 1689, according to Collins, this distance was three miles and one quarter, which gives an absolute seaward projection of 3 yards per annum during a period of seventy-two years; in 1794 the distance was three miles and three quarters, giving an average annual increase of 81 yards, over a term of one hundred and five years, or setting aside the authority of Collins as doubtful, the average annual rate of increase from 1617 to 1794 will be 6} yards. In 1809 the distance, according to Greme Spence, was three miles and three quarters, which yields no annual increase from 1794. In 1844, the distance was three iniles and seven-eighths, which gives an annual increase of 6] yards from 1809, or from 1794 an annual increase of nearly 44 yards. Again, taking the absolute increase from 1689 to 1814, the average is 7 yards per annum, aud throwing aside Collins as doubtful, the average from 1617 (Cole) is nearly 6 yards per annum. These results show, that the average annual increase during two centuries has at least amounted to nearly 6 yards, and suppose all the authorities quoted above to be correct, this increase has fluctuated, reaching over certain periods to 8 yards per annum. The supposition that the extremity of the Ness now progresses east- ward is confirmed by an examination of the ‘‘fulls” of shingle composing the extreme point, showing their addition eastward and their wasting away westward. Observations on the coast towards Rye are also confirmatory of this. The parallelism of the cases east and west of Romney Sands, at the same time that the spits of shingle are tailing round in opposite and contrary directions, is curious, and it is only by careful surveys and repeated observations on every portion of the neighbouring coasta, that a satisfac- tory explanation of the exact causes producing their formation can be hoped for. From an examination of Langley Point, and other formations on this coast, which are very similar to the one now under consideration, the belief is induced that all the attendant circumstances connected with these extensions have not heretofore been sufficiently taken into account; but whatever opinion may be formed as to the original source of these immense supplies of shingle, there is sufficient evidence to prove that the coasts are constantly undergoing great and remarkable changes, and it is in reference to the intimate connection subsisting between such natural and varying agents and the stability of harbours that this description of the south coast has been attempted. The map by Cole in 1617 and also that of the reign of Elizabeth, show a pool marked as the ‘‘Old Haven,” situated between Holme Stone and a parallel full“ to the southward: here, as at Rye, alternate strips of beach and of alluvial land are found, which have no doubt been formed by bars of shingle, and by parallel deposits taking place under them. Towards Rye Bay the beach is much flatter in its slope, and of lees extent than at the point, there being sand for half a mile in width from low water of spring tides; and during the last twenty years the sands have increased, and the full“ of beach has decreased, as evidenced by the extent of the fishermen’s kettlenet poles. In walking towards Rye, patches of natural (diluvial) soil (peat), which are said to have made their appearance within the last forty years, and which from their nature may be supposed to wear quickly away, may be seen rising above the sandy foreshore, plainly denoting the recent receasion of the shore line; west of the Preventive Station, called the Boundary Station, which is close to the county boundary, the clay makes its appearance above the sand of the foreshore, and the end of a sea-wall may be seen projecting through the shingle. verting to the original cause of the formation of Dungeness Point, it has been assumed with some apparent plausibility, that the meeting of the tides at this point has influenced its origin. This theory, at least as regards Dungeness, is open to several serious objections; first, a forma- tion of this description is very little influenced by the tides, although the base might have been so formed, and similar shingle spits are found tailing round and across the footfalla of tidal rivers of great velocity; secondly, a similar formation, projecting from a small indentation in the coast, is found at Langley Point, where there is no such assumed meeting of the tides, and the origin of which may be traced to the former existence of a tidal harbour to the leeward of it; causes affecting also, no doubt, the formation of Dungeness. Captain Anderson, in a paper read before the Royal Society, ““ gives it as his opinion that the tides meet at the Kentish Knock, the Goodwin Sands dividing the flood-stream, one course of which is up the Queen's Channel, and the other along the Dutch coast; the ebb-stream flowing through the King's Channel, and along the Flemish coast on the opposite side; that the meeting of the tides is in a diagonal line from the Kentish Knock to the entrance of the Sleeve, and that the Long Sand probably resulted from this meeting. Major Rennell?2* whose beautiful and elaborate works and charts illustrative of his particular theory respecting oceanic currents are so well known, agrees to a considerable extent with the views entertained by Captain Anderson. In one portion of his work he refers to the Straits of Dover as being too narrow to allow a level to be maintained; and in another part, in speaking of the general set, or current, from the Straits of Dover, at the back of the Goodwin, along the coast of Flanders, he attributes the loss ofvessels at the back of the Goodwin to an acceleration of this current during south-west gales. Playfair,?9 in his illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth, thus refers to the meeting of the tides, and the results thereby produced: The formation of the banks on the coast of Holland, and even of the Dogger bank itself, has been ascribed to the meeting of the tides, by which a state of tranquility is produced in the waters, and of consequence a more copious deposition of their mud.” The results recently published by Captain Beechey, and to which the Author had access subsequently to writing this paper, appear to indicate the neighbourhood of Dungeness as the junction. *9 It is unnecessary to enter into the cause of the decrease of the entrance to Rye Harbour, which in the time of Elizabeth was a considerable estuary. ? The absence of shingle on the east side of Rye Harbour and in the bay, of which many similar instances might be adduced, is curious, and 27 Vide Phil. Trans., 1819, p. 217. 2 Vide Rennell on Currents West of Scilly, 1815, and Atlantic Currents, 1832. 29 Vide Playfair: Huttonian Theory of the Earth, 1802. ao Vide Captain Beechey's Observations on Tidal Streams, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1848 and 1851. 31 Vide Meryon on Rye Harbour; Weale’s Quarterly Papers, vol. iv. Pt. 7, No. 2, 1845. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL it is inferred that the shingle must across the bay, at such a depth as not to be noticed, otherwise it is impossible to conceive how Dunge- ness has been kept up. The vast increase of beach to the westward may be assumed to have been produced entirely by the leeward motion. Winchelsea Castle, now in ruins, and one mile and a quarter from the sea, and the old town, which are stated by Leland,?? Holinshed, ** and others, to have been destroyed by the sea in 1250, were once adjacent toit. The whole of this area is composed of shingle, with the exception of the ** Nook" creek, or Greedy Gut, whose origin is perhaps attributable to a cessation in the supply of shingle, probably caused either by falls of the cliff, or by the pier at Hastings, which was destroyed in the reign of Elizabeth, and the removal of which would restore the circulation of shingle, permitting it subsequently to form in front of the sands collected during its retention to the westward. The formation of this ‘‘Nook” is sometimes attributed to the new harbour to the westward, and to its waters being diverted to the eastward by the shingle. The ‘‘fulls” decrease in width towards Fairlight, following the indentations of the cliff, which falls much towards Hastings, where a considerable inlet existed in 1576, according to the map of land, by Lawrence Nowell, Deau of Lichfield. Lambarde calls it a Haven Towne;" Camden?* says, that in Athelstan's time, it possessed a mint, and was the chief port. In 1792 a stade, formed by the remains of the pier destroyed in Elizabeth's reign, and the piles and masses of stone could be seen at low water; in Horsfield'a*5 Sussex, there is an account of the fruitless efforts made for its reconstruction in 1595, and in 1597 another pier, which had been erected in 1596, was destroyed. Since that time various proposals have been made for constructing a harbour at this spot. The accumulation of beach here has been increased by groynes, which have retained the shingle, travelling from the westward, resulting partly from the falls of the cliff at Beachy Head, and partly from the degradation of Langley Point, a source of supply that does not ap to have been generally noticed. ** The breaks in the line of beach at Hastings and St. Leonards, caused by walls and groynes, must be prejudicial, as a natural sea margin always assumes a curved and easy-flowing line, except at the outlet of some river, and the much-quoted benefit of groynes, as a general measure of defence, appears to be, in this instance, doubtful, although they may be useful to a frontage of limited extent. The examples of these structures along this coast, are as variable in direction as those recommended in 1849, when some persons pro an obtuse angle to mo or an acute one to leeward, and others exactly the reverse. ig. 3. Fig. 3. They appear to cut a large bay, with gentle curves, offering but little resistance to the wave, into a multitude of lesser bays, by which a number of new antagonistic forces are brought into play; the upper full,“ if large, frequently overtops the groynes, and travels on quite irrespective of them. An esplanade wall, without groynes, seems to produce the best result. The recession or degradation of the shore line, westward of St. Leonards, as far as Pevensey Bay, where there formerly existed a haven, now entirely blocked up by shingle, has been very great (amounting, in some places, to as much as 7 feet per annum), and several Martello towers have in consequence been removed by the Ordnance, and others will have eventually to be abandoned: the groynes along the shore being of little use, from the beach having retreated inward beyond their influence, and passing on irrespective of them. The lee side of Langley Point, where it joins the main shore line, has increased during the last, 32 Vide Leland's Itinerary, 1539. aa Vide Holinshed's Chronicles, 1577. 3 4 Vide Camden's Britannia, by Gough, 1551—1628. 35 Vide Horsfield's History of Sussex, 1835. 36 Vide Hastings Guide, 1794. 87 oentury, from the degradation westward, somewhat similar to that at Dungeness. The sea, no doubt, 5 flowed up to the hills at Pevensey, over what is now marsh land; and Collins shows a considerable inlet here, without any indication of such a spit as Langley Point. The plan by Dummer?’ in 1698, denotes the then condition of the haven, with the site of the ancient outlet westward, showing how the motion east- ward had gradually stopped up the harbour, as at Hythe and elsewhere. Camden?? refers to the castle being two miles distant from the sea, and to the want of evidence as to when the ocean forsook it, as he says there is no mention of ships when Rufus, in 1087, besi the castle for six weeks against Odo Bishop of Bayeux, and Robert Earl of Moreton. Jeakes, Gough, Horsfield, and other writers, refer to the former importance of this port. — ſ—Ä— a ose yee - diee 2 cA * aW Fic. 6. The similarity between Langley Point and Dungeness is remark- able. The old ‘‘fulls” of this formation run north eat and south-west, parallel to the high land of Bourne; the modern ‘‘fulls” tailing round them, and forming the margin of the Point. The large area of old parallel ‘‘fulls” between Pevensey and Eastbourne, clothed by a scanty vegetation, the existence of pools of water, the wasting away of the west of the Point, the local accumulation on the eastern side, the shallowing of the bays, and the eating away of the coast beyond the Point, to the eastward, are all circumstances similar in their nature to those at Dungeness. The shingle also, as at Dungeness, may be observed to increase in size at No. 60 Tower, the eastern termination of the Point; the largest pebbles being observed on the top of the full,“ the beach being steeper and the outline hollow opposite the fort, between Towers No. 67 and 68 (Fig. 4.) The modern ‘‘fulls” of shingle, about six in number at the Point, and to the eastward, decrease in number westward, and run parallel to the outline of the bays; but the older formations, behind the Martello towers, have an angular direction to the modern formations, and run in a more northerly and southerly direction. (Fig. 5.) The beach has decreased since the erection of the towers from No. 69 west- ward, the number of modern ‘‘fulls” gradually diminishing to one “full” in front of Tower No. 72, which abuts against the ancient full.“ These “‘fulls,” have been eaten away by the sea, and carried eastward, thus adding to the number in that direction. The remains of boundary walls of a fort (which was washed down about fifty or sixty years since), similar to that at the Point, situated between Towers No. 69 and 70, plainly show this decrease (which has amounted to nearly 2 ft. 6 in. per annum), sal 1808 there was a breadth of 50 feet of beach in front of the outer wall. The footings of the three last towers in Eastbourne Bay, Nos. 70, 71, and 72, are particularly those of No. 72, which is almost isolated, and has been V aot d protected by a groyne; and within the 3 e stability VV en- When the Martello towers were erected in 1808, those numbered 70, 71, and 72, measuring from their centres, were respectively 177, 184, and 143 feet from high-water mark of spring tides; which shows, that there must have been an average yearly decrease of the shore of about 4 feet. At Langley Point there is a strong confirmation of the chalk cliffs being ge a ee zer capo ee ee i A ; Vide Dummer, &., Report on Harbours, South-West Coast, MSS., Slo. Collect. 3 à Vide Camden's Great Britain, 1586. 88 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. the source of supply of a great portion of the shingle, for it may be observed that a large poe: of the pebbles on the west side of the point have not, as in the case further east, lost their chalky covering or their natural form; chalk pebbles are also found in large quantities; this may be observed in other places, where the source of supply 1s near at hand; whilst after travelling a greater distance these chalk nodules become pulverised. The Sea Houses,” east of Southbourne, are much exposed; the grand redoubt on the east-side of this place, and on the west side of Eastbourne Bay, is threatened with destruction; the ‘‘full” of beach is close to the fosse, the upper portion of its walls next the sea are completely exposed; still every precaution appears to have been taken to save this doomed structure; groynes having been erected across the area of beach in front of it, and the upper part, where the earth has been exposed, is covered with stakes; the sea, by wearing away the shore on each side of it, has formed the ground immediately around this fort into a description of cape, or jutting point, the shingle forcing its way inland on each side of it. The most effectual way to protect this redoubt would be by constructing a pitched stone slope around the base of it. Pevenscy Bay, formed by the projection of Langley Point, as also Eastbourne Bay, on the west side of it, covered from the westward by Beachy Head, have both attracted attention, as sites for the formation of a harbour of refuge. A breakwater was recommended in Eastbourne Bay, by the Commission of 1840, it being one of the three sites selected. The Commission of 1844 recommended a site on the western side of Beachy Head. Respecting the formation of Langley Point, it may be observed, that the extraordinary vicissitudes of increase and decrease it has undergone, like those that have affected Dungeness, do not appear to have met with the attention they deserve, more particularly when the neighbouring bays are reported on as sites for the formation of national harbours of refuge. From reference to old authors, it appears evident that at an early period this formation did not exist, but that the sea flowed over what ia now marsh land, and washed the base of the hills on which Pevensey Castle stands. There does not appear to be any record of the commencement of the accumulation of this spit; but in all probability its origin, like that of Dungeness, was the travelling of shingle from the westward, producing a bar, or spit of shingle, to the westward or windward of a tidal harbour (Pevensey), whose outlet alternated from west to east; sediment being promoted to leeward (east) of this spit, a nucleus would be formed for increased accumulation. Such might have been the condition of this spit in its infancy; and the pools of water formed in the centre of it, as at Dungeness, appear to a certain extent to corroborate this view; the shingle constantly travelling from the westward, would gradually tail coinpletely round to the eastward, and perhaps, as may be seen in many other instances, such as Dover, Yarmouth, &c., would eventually pen up or landlock the upland waters; the accumulated drainage waters, seeking to discharge themselves, would force a passage through that portion of the beach offering the least section of resistance, which would be to the castward; the point also still increasing in that direction, the outlet of Pevensey Haven would thus continue to progress to leeward. This view is borne out by the survey and plans of 1698, at about which period the landowners appear to have taken steps to render the drainage permanent, without reference to the capabilities of the waters as a haven, and the stream ultimately became a sewer, with a sluice through the shingle. The plan by Lawrence Nowell, Dean of Lichfield, A.D. 1576, does not show any such projection as Langley Point: but it may be observed, that neither is the projection of Beachy Head clearly defined; it is therefore doubtful whether this map can be relied on in the present inquiry; but the plan by Collins, in which Beachy Head is clearly defined, and the haven of Pevensey to the eastward of it, with a considerable entrance and two arms, or branches, contains no notice of such a projection as Langley Point. Connected with the absence of this point in old maps, it may also be stated that Camden omits any mention of it. The extent of the point is clearly laid down in a well-engraved map, from an actual survey of the county of Sussex, with admeasurements of the sea-coast, &c., by Richard Budgen, A. D. 1724. It is also clearly defined in a beautifully-executed MS. map in the possession of the Honourable Board of Ordnance, by Desmaretz and Foucquet, in about 1736; being a survey of the coast of Sussex and Kent from Chichester to Rye, and from Rye to Ramsgate, together with enlarged surveys of the various harbours and forts. Desmaretz’ map is considered at the Ordnance ag a very accurate authority. The topographical survey of Sussex, by Yeakall, or Jeakell, and Gardner, in 1778, which is a well- executed map, to a scale of two inches to the mile, approximates closely to the above authorities. From these data the increase of the point up to a certain period is clearly shown, when it extended one mile and a quarter into the sea in a south-easterly direction. Supposing there to have been no such accumulation when Nowell's plan was made in 1575, the result would be, over a space of two centuries, of an average annual seaward progression at the extreme point of 10:59 yards. Supposing the deposit to have commenced subsequent to the time of Collins, the rate of increase would be more than double the above. The results are however very doubtful as measurements. This accumulation having obtained a certain progression seaward, andthe western supply being cut off by old Brighton Beach failing to furnish it, or other causes, elements of a destructive character would then come into play, and in this respect results similar to those at Dungeness but much more extensive in their nature, are perceived. From the Admiralty Survey of 1844, it appears that the projection of the point was then seven-eighths of a mile from the road leading to the ** Sea Houses” at Bourne; in 1724 this distance was one mile and three- eighths; in 1736, according to Desmaretz, it was one mile and a-half; in 1778, according to Yeakell and Gardner, it was one mile and a quarter. Taking these dates, the following results are obtained :—From 1724 to the present time an annual average recession of 7°33 yards; from 1736, 10 yards; and from 1778, 10 yards. This is by comparing the high- water lines; if the low-water marks are taken, a greater result will be obtained, as the slope of the point was formerly much flatter. The waste of this point during more than a century must have formed no inconsiderable source of supply for formations to the eastward, and the alluvial matter therein contained must have assisted in the shoaling of the bays. It will be observed, that as the point has been eaten away, and the beach been driven round to the eastward, the slope has been rendered steeper; this decrease has given the point an ap t north-east progression. A small amount of accumulation has 9 place on the east side, filling up the hollow there. It will be seen that the eastern end of the break water proposed in 1840, in four fathoms water, at low-water spring tides, touches the low-water line of 1736. It is necessary here to observe, as a remarkable coincidence, that from Dungeness to Langley Point, there is (except at the mouths of harbours) an uninterrupted belt of shingle. During the last century there has been an elongation of the eastern point at Dungeness, which appears to have eaten up the superabundance of the supply from the westward, over the same period. ‘There is a corresponding diminution of the western point (Langley) which appears by its decrease to have afforded the requisite eastern supply. The intermediate belt, though subject to fluctuations, does not appear, on the aggregate, to have altered much as to quantity generally; but on the whole to have been driven more landward. This coincidence is curious, and coupled with other circumstances, leads to the conclusion, that upon a certain line of coast the decrease at one spot is balanced by a corresponding increase at another locality. Another curious feature respecting Langley Point is, that the period of the commencement of its accumulation appears to coincide very closely with the destruction of the ancient fortified town of Brighton, built upon the beach below the cliff, where is now situated the chain pier; this would afford the requisite western supply of shingle. It is worthy of notice, that no such assumption as the meeting of the tides can be broached in reference to this spit, but that the two formations of Langley and Dungeness have been produced under cover, as it were, or more properly speaking, to leeward of Beachy Head, in reference to the prevailing south-westerly winds and the flood tide; a particular eady or rotary motion of which, might have been entailed by the configuration of the channel, and a sandy, or silty deposit formed, as the basis of these shingle-spits; that both have had tidal harbours to leeward of them; that while the western spit was on the increase the eastern one was stationary; but that whilst the western formation was on the decline, that on the eastern side increased in an almost corresponding ratio. Second Section. From Beachy Head to Portland. The degradation of the cliffs at Bourne is very great, notwithstanding the artificial defences. Under Beachy Head, the small belt of shingle at times entirelv disappears, local falls of this cliff occasionally arresting the beach; and an instance of the durability of chalk, when drained, is afforded by a remarkable pinnacle,“ called the ‘‘Charleys,” which has stood for more than a century; formerly there were three of these pinnacles. (Fig 6). The Hiver Cuckmere which has, at present, an uncertain outlet through the shingle between the heads of Beachy and Seaford, must have suffered great change, for Camden describes it as being a very con- siderable harbour, and Collins as a ‘‘ Bar Haven," with 6 feet at low water, and from 13 feet to 14 feet at high water. The full“ of beach travelling across this bay, more extensive than is to be seen either on the east or the west, almost closed up the outfall of the river, which with difficulty preserves a shifting and uncertain outlet to the eastward, under the clitfs, a large portion of the penned-up waters escaping, by filtration, through the beach, which at the back spreads over the saltings. A spit exteuds from the main ''full," round the west and south sides of the Channel, which is thus projected seaward in a south-easterly course, undermining the cliffs in that direction; and a remarkable horn is formel at the back of the commencement of this spit, apparently by the eddies caused by the reflux of the penned-up waters; the main channel can be easily crossed at low water, as it is then divided into several small streams. 39 This pinnacle has since fallen, 1853. —Sec. Inst. C. E. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 89 The high downs at Seaford Head are 360 feet above the sea, desoend- ing rapidly to the Vale, wherein Seaford is situated; the position of which is very similar to Cuckmere, and it was formerly the outlet of Newhaven Harbour.“ A lofty and extensive full, of beach bounds this flat recession in the coast, behind which, on the east side, the last Martello tower, No. 74, and a fort and battery, are situated. Fie. 6. The government Report of 1698 attributes the decayed condition of Newhaven, to the collection of beach and ‘‘inning out” of the tidal waters. (A plan was exhibited showing the ancient outlet, near the present entrance, blocked up by shingle, and the effluent waters driven eastward towards Seaford, encumbered by shoals, and in its conditions very similar to Shoreham at an early period; the works that had been ineffectually constructed, to direct the waters, were also shown). There is also a curious plan of the harbour, in ‘Yarranton’s England by Sea and Land; and in 1778, Messrs. Yeakell and Gardner published a map in which the entrance was again drawn to the westward. There are a number of groynes along the bay, between the harbour and Seaford Road, but they are very ineffectual in arresting the beach. In the summer of 1850, a great explosion was undertaken at Seaford, to stop the constant wasting away of the oliff; this however could only be of temporary benefit, and 8 art of the debris has been already carried away by the sea. West of the harbour, under Barrow Head, a long groyne has been erected, which has created a moderate ''full^ Mantell*? gives a section of this cliff, showing the tertiary strata above the chalk, of which Lyell says, the existence may eager a matter of historical record, from the constant degradation of e cliff. Towards Rottingdean every step brings to light some indication of the constant decay going on, now fissures and rents near the edge of these high cliffs, and now old tracks of the Preventive men intersecting them, new tracks being formed further back; on the east side of Kemp Town, the cliff has fallen much, as shown by the repeated diversions of the road. Numerous groynes have been erected to arrest this decay, and an immense projection of shingle, formed by the groynes, juts out below this place, com- pletely altering the natural shore line. The cliff in front of Brighton is rendered more permanent by a wall of concrete, and by groynes at the foot. Westward of the Chain Pier, where the cliff dies away, and where the esplanade forms a projecting point, several large groynes hold a considerable quantity of shingle in check, the difference in the level of the windward and the leeward sides at times exceeding 10 feet. There are two general ‘‘fulls” along the whole frontage, which, when uninterrupted by groynes, preserve a good line; towards Shoreham there is a large accumulation, bounding the bay, and forming the southern barrier to the harbour. In the Cottonian Collection there is a very curious map of Brighton and the surrounding country, represent- ing the descent of the French under Admiral Claude d’Armebaut, dated July 1545 which shows that Brighton then extended much more to the southward. Camden says, that it was strongly fortified in Elizabeth's time, but that the works were undermined by the sea, and in the Addition to Camden by Gough in 1806, the town is referred to as being ‘now greatly reduced by the encroachments of the sea.” In Lee’s Ancient and Modern History of Lewes and Brighthelmstone, 4? it is stated, that many houses were destroyed in a storm on the 27th Novem- ber 1703; and another dreadful storm occurred on the 12th August 1705, which ‘‘oompleted the destruction of all the lower buildings which had escaped the fury of former inundations.“ Further in 1713, he saye—‘‘ The sea, which had destroyed everything below the cliff, now encroached with alarming rapidity on the cliff itself, fragments of which daily crumbled into the sapping tide. It was therefore found absolutely 40 Vide Fortune on Newhaven, 1825; Mantell’s Geol of Sussex, 1827; Ditto South-East of England, 1833; Ditto Wonders of Geology, 1899. 41 Vide Yarrauton's England's Improvements by Sea and Land, 1677. 49 Vide Mantell’s G of Sussex, 1822-27. 43 Vide Lee's Lewes and Brighton, a.p. 1795 necessary for the protection of the rest of the town, to erect groins before it." He describes the construction and effect of these ‘‘groins,” and appears to think that the term is of Saxon origin, signifying an accumulation of sand or beach. Mantell likewise dwells at length on the destruction of the town; and Lyell** in mentioning the great decrease of the coast of Sussex, con- siders the sea at Brighton to have resumed its ancient position, and that the old town was situated upon a beach, which had been abandoned for ages by the sea. The fluctuating character of Shoreham Harbour prior to the erection of Mr. Chapman s piers was well known. Oamden refers to the destruc- tion of a great part of the lower town by the sea, also to the decadence of the port from the accumulation of sand and shingle, and says that vessels in former ages could come up to Bramber under sail. The shifting character of the outlet is deacribed by Collins, Lambarde, Gough, &c., and the government Report of 1698, before alluded to, describes its uncertain nature.“ “ The plan accompanying this Report shows what a wretched condition this port must have been in at that period, and how much it has subse- quently been improved; the fluctuating character of the outlet is also evident, from the then existing entrance pointing directly south, and a previous one, called the ‘‘ Late Outlet,” pointing south-west. The various surveys of this locality published at different periods, show the variations in the entrance and the encroachment of the sea on the shore, notwithstanding the local accumulation of shingle; similar effects have already been noticed to the eastward, and will also be observed to the westward. Horsfield refers to the former importance of Shoreham, to the landing of King John there, and to the fitting out of two fleets amounting Ls die to seven hundred and six vessels in 1346, during the reign of ward III.: at that time it was called upon to furnish the navy with as many vessels as Plymouth, and more than were demanded from Newcastle, Bristol, or London; that in the following century, its success, which for three centuries after the Conquest appears to have been unin- terrupted, received a check; and in 1432 a petition to Parliament from the burgesses, craving a reduction of assessment, stated that—''For- asmuch as by the encroachment of the sea and other causes, which have reduced the number of inhabitants to thirty-six, they are unable to pay their assessment of twelve-shillings,” &c.** estward of Shoreham the coast has been considerably abraded, ially near to Lancing, involving the erection of a sea- wall to protect the high-road which received some damage in 1837: the removal of the Pre- ventive Station furtber inland, and the serrated low clay shore thence to Worthing, with ‘‘fulls” driven close up against it, are also indicative of this waste. The numerous groynes along the frontage of Worthing attest how severely the waste has been felt there; many of these may be seen ruined and buried by the great increase in the sandy foreshore, and to the westward a large projecting bank of shingle has been formed by the modern groynes. The sea gains much on the low coast thence to Littlehampton, where there is but little shingle. The Harbour Reporte of 1698, the works of Martin, *? and other sources of information, show the great that have taken place in the river Arun, from alluvial deposits and ''inning" of lands. The tortuous outlet of this river, the manner in which the shingle tailed across it, and the way in which it was encumbered by shoals before the introduction of piers, is well shown upon the plan by Dummer, which accompanies the Report of 1698. The ruins of a portion of Cuttleworth church, then situated at the edge of the cliff, show very clearly the condition of the shore at that time. The state of this haven is still very inferior, as the outlet is dry at low water. The sea gains rapidly on each side of the harbour notwithstanding the ynes running out along the frontage of the town; not many years since large fields existed on the west side of Littlehampton, where now there are fulls of beach. The destruction of Middleton church, not- withstanding groynes and defences, the existence of fields in front of the Preventive Slation east of Bognor, now nearly surrounded by water and rotected by groynes, and the state of the groynes and shore along the ntage of Bognor, are all evidence of this wasting away of the shore of which Middleton Ledge and Bognor Rocks were no doubt formerly the boundaries. Mantell refers to the latter, to the Barn Rocks between Selsey and Bognor, the Houndgate and Street Rocks on the west, and Mixon on the south of Selsey, as the only records of the sandstone strata forming the sea-coast line. The manner in which the shingle has deserted the groynes along this coast, shows plainly the gradual encroachment of the sea; west of Bognor the ‘‘fulls” of beach become very irregular; the shore is much under- mined as far as Pagham Harbour where fields existed in the memory of persons now living, over which the waters of the entrance at, present run. Mantell refers to the great encroachments on this coast, as evidenced by historical records; Horsfield says that Pagham Harbour 44 Vide Lyell’s Geology, A.D. 1840. 45 Vide Gough's British To hy, 1780; Additions to Camden, 1806; Y 8 , County of Sussex, 1808; Division of Agriculture. allaway's History of the Western County of Sussex, 1816. 46 Vide Chapman's Report on Shoreham Harbour, 1815-1822, and 1823; Vazie, ditto, 1816; Clegram's Directions to ditto, 1823. 41 Vide Martin's Geological Memoir (West Sussex), 1828. 15 90 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL was caused by a sudden irruption of the sea in the beginning of the 14th — at which time according to the None Roll (1345], 2700 acres were devastated. Of late years the harbour has been much silted up, and in consequence of the variable nature of the channel only small vessels ever attempt to enter. On the east the land is low, and on the west there are high ‘‘fulls” of shingle, similar in appearance to those at Dungeness and ley Point caused by the indraught and by winds from the eastward; these ‘‘fulls” terminate in a spit, enclosing the harbour entrance on the west and south, then tailing round in bold curves in a northerly direction at nearly right angles to the general line of beach, and gradually advancing eastward, the land in that direction decreasing in a corresponding ratio; the extent to which this movement is going on may be gathered from the fact that eleven or twelve years ago the entrance was 200 yards to the westward. The removal of the Bishop’s see from Selsea to Chichester proves that the great wasting away of this part of the coast commenced at an early period, and the anchorage of the ‘‘Park” is supposed originally to have formed that portion of the Bishop’s domain from whence it derives its name. According to Captain Whites® in his Sailing Directions, a gravel bottom here ‘‘ thinly covers a strong clay,” showing that either the velocity of the tide through the western channels has swept ean over the clay to the eastward, in a depth of water of from 3 to 5 fathoms at low water, or that it has been drawn away from the shore by the waves produced by particular winds, the result in either case being similar to what has been observed in several places to the eastward; and in this particular instance being N due to the tidal currents between Selsea Bill and the Mixon. That the bank off Selsea Bill called the ‘‘ Boulders,” is composed of shingle, may be plainly seen at low water in fine weather; but this does not prove whether the shingle travels near the shore or whether the formation is alluvial or diluvial, as the oldest surveys have it laid down. At Chichester Harbour there is a similar action to that at Pagham, the shore to the eastward suffering loss, and to the westward a spit of sand and shingle being formed, which tails inwards and diverts the outfall, which digs a channel for itself through the clay, in which logs of timber are frequently found. The shore westward to ton Harbour, the entrance to which is surrounded by sandbanks, is of much the same character. Along the shore of Portsea Island there is a belt of shingle, which has Nerea: de decreased near the Castle. The entrance to Portsmouth Harbour, which has preserved its charac- ter for several centuries, is an exceedingly instructive example, phos | a deep entrance channel between two natural spits, forming a bell-shap inlet, through a shingle shore. The numerous artificial works in this locality have been erected principally as shore defences, and the channel has been effectually covered from south-west winds, so injurious to other harbours along this coast to the eastward by the Isle of Wight. The position of Portsmouth Harbour does not admit of any comparisons being drawn between it and other harbours on the south coast, for the conditions of this harbour are so nicely balanced, and the shingle so limited in amount, that though affording ample protection to the shore of the outlet, it is not in such quantities as to allow of its being carried away. The formation of Kicker Point, an elongation of shingle to windward of a tidal harbour, is very similar, though on a smaller scale, to those at Dungeness and Langley, and it has arisen doubtless from nearly similar causes; but the result has been modified in this instance by the greater power of the backwater. Near the entrance of the harbour, the point has tailed round so as to form a tidal basin, and the natural result of any extension of this point will be the ultimate enclosure of a pool of water, or mere. Such broads or meres exist, in many places, in connection with similar spits, but in some instances the are produced entirely by landwater. The entrance to Portsmou Harbour under such a view was, no doubt, in former ages much wider. The form and depth of the harbour itself, however, according to old surveys as far back as the reign of Henry VIII., do not appear to have varied much, and it may be cited as a remarkable instance of a deep tidal harbour through such a fluctuating medium as shingle, The principal points relating to the entrance to Southampton water, which | pese analogous features to those before described, are the state of Calshot Point on the west, which according to Leland's descrip- tion does not ap to be much altered, the Brambles on the east, and the Thorn bank in the centre. The spit on the east called the Brambles, has been produced, apparently by an eddy, caused by the confluence of the Southampton water and the sea, on the north side. The spit called Calshot Point, on which Calshot Castle, built by Henry VIII. with its accompanying dwelling-houses, &c., and a stone glacis to defend the point, are situated, consists of a bank of shingle one mile in length, tailing out like other similar formations, on the west side of the entrance, and terminating in a natural horn, which forms a tidal estuary called Ower's Lake. The outfalls of Beaulieu and the rivers westward present precisely 3 ee ef only = a modified scale. Between Beaulieu, ymington, *9 urst, there is a very e marine deposit of fine pebbles, as evidenced by the ditches, eni rs Ko., a talibus 48 Vide White's Sailing Directions for the T Chaunel, 1846, 49 Vide Warner's Tour round Lymington, 17 which has been established here for at least three centuries, the reser- voirs covering the low shore and, where abandoned, forming coarse saltings. The low-water channel of Lymington winds over a large area of silty deposit formed under the lee of Hurst Point, which stands out from the coast as a natural groyne; so effectually arresting the progress of shingle from the westward, that it only makes its appearance again, in any quantity, to the eastward of Lymington Creek.59 ; Hurst Point, running out in a north-west and south-east direction, is a straight, natural mole of shingle two miles in length, composed of rounded chalk flints on an argillaceous base, terminating in a nearly aa fit pa submarine cliff, 200 feet in height; it has afforded shelter and acted as a breakwater to the different small tidal harbours between it and Southampton, but has materially affected their capacity as to depth, by producing a large silty deposit. Warner, in his topographical remarks on the south-west coast of pi pri A refers to fact. Camden and others describe the castle built at the extremity of Hurst Point by Henry VIIL, to the singularity of the position of which Webster refers in Englefield's Isle of Wight.5? Lyell also particularly describes this si barrier, the materials of which, he thinks, have been supplied from the waste of Hordwell and the neighbouring cliffs to the westward, and he further refers to a great alteration of its position in the storm of November 1824. (Fig. 7.) The author, however, — Fig. 7. believes, from an examination of ancient maps in the Cottonian and Burleigh Collection, and many of subsequent dates, in all of which its peculiar hornlike termination, due apparently to the indraught to the north-east, is shown, that this spit has preserved its general outline for many centuries, though it may have been subject to local variations. Within half a mile of the lighthouses, the beach curves more to the eastward, and from one irregular ** full, forks off into three or four steps, or gradations resembling the ‘‘fulls” of other similar formations, and denoting the modern variations and additions at the extremity, locally termed the ‘‘ Point of the Deep,” which is one quarter of a mile in length, and nearly at right angles to the main mole of shingle. Two smaller rectangular spits tail out in a similar manner, and would appear to denote the projection of the point in former ages, or they may have been caused by the receding of the waves within the main beach. Across the entrance to the Solent there is a bank of shingle, stretch- ing from the ledge, called the Bridge, off the Needles, to near the extremity of Hurst Point.“ Many of the characteristics of Hurst Point are also peculiar to the Chesil Bank, Calshot Point, and other similar formations; such as a low flat shore to leeward (eastward), and a highly-inclined beach seaward, with a tendency to curve round to the northward and eastward, and eventually to enclose a tidal mere or est The elevation and size of the pebbles increase towards the extremity of the point, and in places, 50 Vide Warner's Collections for a History of Hampshire, 1789-94. 51 Vide Warner’s Collectiona for a History of Hampshire, 1789. 52 Vide Webster on Geology of Isle of Wight; Englefield's Isle of Wight, 1816. 53 Vide Warner's History of the Isle of Wight, 1796. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. on the sea slope, an intermixture of coarse sand and shingle, which has become solid and homogeneous by age, crops out through the modern beach. The cliffs westward of Hurst Point rise gradually in height, and are composed of clay below, and sand and gravel above, much serrated and water-worn, with frequent slips in the upper strata, which form a small undercliff below, and in the neighbourhood of Hordle huge masses of fallen cliff alternate with hollow chines. It appears, from local evidence, that previous to June 1849, 8 yards in width of the cliff at Barton had been gradually washed away, in the same number of years, and during the e eighteen months of that period the ratio had been increasing; similar observations would apply to the whole frontage of Christchurch Bay, from Hurst to the mouth of the Avon. The shingle, immediately to the west of Hurst, as is universally the case to the wind ward of these spits, becomes smaller, and not greater in quantity than might be supplied by the cliff itself. Further west, there is generally a clean shore of sand between high and low water, but with particular winds shingle accumulates, until it is swept away again by another wind. The shingle along this shore is more angular and solid in bed than that on the coasts of Kent and Sussex, and where the sea has cut into the beach the appearance is very similar to that of the cliff above. The effects of this waste are indicated by the artificial protection of rough piling and stones, along the low shore east of Christchurch Harbour. The outfall of the rivers Avon and Stour, which is more north and south than it was eight years since, forming Christchurch Harbour, is landlocked by Hengistbury Head, and the east and west spits of shingle forming the mouth, so that at high-water it becomes a large tidal estuary, the bar at the entrance being nearly dry at low ebbs, and never having more than 7 feet of water over it. The remains of Lord Clarendon's old stone pier, locally christened the Long Rocks,” built in the reign of Charles II., and described by Yarranton, may be seen at low-water, and though, being partially buried in sand, only about 200 yards in length are visible, it in reality extends half a mile beyond low- water, running out across the foreshore, in a south-east direction. The state of the harbour in 1698, with its choked outlet, and the piers at that time constructing, in continuation of the works commenced by Lord Clarendon, are well shown in the plan by Dummer. In 1837 Mr. James Walker proposed an outlet near the same spot. The spit of sand which forms the south boundary of Christchurch Harbour has a curved shingle belt upon it, mixed with coarse sand on the sea-side, marking the range of the tide, and above, on the inner side, wind-driven white sand ‘‘dunes;” which becoming more regular in form towards the point, average a height of 20 feet to 30 feet, compose the main body of this natural barrier, and in a recess, north of the head, the shingle resumes three distinct ''fulls." Hengistbury, or Christchurch Head, formed by the outcrop of the tertiary strata, is very subject to slips, and this tendency is increased by the quarrying of ironstone, which occurs in broken seams, 3 feet to 4 feet in thickness at the base of the cliff.“ On the west side of the head, off which there is deep water, there is a considerable ''full" of large, round, water-worn pebbles, once more used in the neighbourhood for paving; the foreshore consists of sand, with ridges of pebbles, the larger and upper one formed of two ‘‘fulls,” lying against the base of the head, and marking the range of springs; and the lower, or smaller one, a ‘‘full,” marking that of neaps. At one period there was a larger quantity of shingle under Hengistbury Head, when little sand was to be seen; this diminution is partly to be attributed to the excavating of ironstone from the shore around the head, which commenced six years back. About a mile west of the station, on the top of Hengistbury Head, and opposite to Wick, the cliff gradually dips down until the upper stratum of gravel meets the shore, and a small cliff is formed of ‘‘dunes,” or hillocks of sand, cast up by the sea, attaining, in some cases, an elevation of 60 feet, and forming & breastwork to the pasture lands of Christchurch Vale. Further on, the cliffs, against which the sand drifts, increase in height, and towards Bournemouth they attain con- siderable altitude, their summits being crowned by a wild range of sand- drifted ‘‘dunes,” about a furlong in width, constantly varying in form, and giving an original character to the coast. The '*dunes," although rendered, for a time, apparently permanent, by the growth of vegetation, appear to recede, and to gain upon the neighbouring fir plantations, as the cliff below is wasted by falls arising from the land drainage. At Boxcombe, east of Bournemouth, the cliff attains an altitude of about 200 feet; and here the crowning sand hillocks, covered with patches of heath, terminate. The Chine, at this place, exhibits the great power of water, the gravel and yellow sand being worn into rocky-shaped masses, the white sand below assuming the most fantastic shapes, and the clay at the base taking a rocky outline. East of the Preventive Station, situated on the west side of the Chine, called Bateman’s road, about one mile east of Poole Harbour, the 5 4 'The degradation ofthe cliffs at Harwich, from a similar cause to that at Christ- . church, and the advance of Landguard Point, on the opposite side of the harbour, which has, for the last fifty years, been at the rate of twelve yards per annum, are graphically described in a t by Captain Washington, R.N., in the Appeudix to the Seend Report of the Tidal Harbour Commission, 1845, p. 208. TT e — — 91 frontage of cliff is only 30 feet in width, where, within the memory of persons living, there was a space of about 200 feet. A fall, which occurred about four years back, now forms the undercliff. Poole and Wareham Harbours,^5 formed by a large, land- locked, tidal estuary, are enclosed seaward by two natural moles or sandy spits, jutting out from the high land on each side, the cliff on the north-east side sloping suddenly down to the spit, which is evidently of marine origin, and 55 in width towards its extremity, which consists of white dri sand, with three large hillocks of considerable elevation (the highest called High Horse Manger), covered with rough tufts of gorse and heath. The sands on the western side of the harbour are blown across to the eastern side; a point lying off the entrance on the western side, is called Drift Point, and the bar is called the Hook. The Basin of Poole was no doubt at one period a main or direct inlet from the ocean. The plans by Dummer in 1698, Mackenzie in 1786, and as corrected by Lieut. Sparke in 1829, exhibit its relative conditions, and a new survey has recently been made of the harbour by the Ad- miralty. Whitworth also surveyed and reported on this harbour in 1787, and Mr. Rendel in 1827, and again in 1831. The great width of the entrance of this harbour, and the protection afforded by the high land to the westward, present very considerable advantages in addition to the double tide, which is also peculiar in a modified degree to Christchurch. On the west side of the entrance a shoal runs into the harbour towards Brownsea Island, at right angles to South Haven Point. A level sandy foreshore, 450 yards in breadth, dipping suddenly to the sea, extends southward beyond the line of ‘‘ dunes." Around the curve of the bay, in which there are a few rocks, the cliffs are generally low, sloping, and grass-grown, intersected by several chines or valleys leading up to Studland; large boulders form a beach on the sandy shore, marking the tide range. On the south side of the bay the cliffs become lofty, Studland Down rising to the great elevation of 430 fect, and cropping out in a chalky promontory, called promis- cuously Foreland, Handfast Point, and Old Harry Head, at the base of which the flint boulders are probably larger than on any other part of the coast. To the north of this head there is a large accumulation of beach mixed with chalk, forming a sold concreted mass, overgrown with vegetation. During east winds the sand below is sometimes washed away, and exposes a larger quantity of shingle than is usually apparent. The chalk cliffs increase to the westward, and the flints in them are much larger in size than those of Kent and Sussex. The downs of Handfast Point slope suddenly and crop out into lofty cliffs seawards, which are cut up into various small indentations or bays, in which there are local ‘‘fulls” of shingle; off this point there is a sin- gular cluster of isolated chalk peaks, somewhat similar to the Needles, called Old Harry and his Wife. The south-west side of this promontory descends suddenly to Swanage Bay, succeeded westward by the tertiary clay and sand cliffs, as in the other -bays eastward, a finely-curved shingle beach, with a large per centage of chalk pebbles, showing how local is the supply forming the sea-margin to this beautiful bay. The cliffs gradually decline towards Swanage, with numerous slips and intervening chines, where the shingle stops and is succeeded by a sandy shore; inducing the supposition that this local beach derives its supply from Handfast. Point, the bay being entirely protected from the southward and westward by Peverel Point, a rocky promontory, which forms the southern boundary of Swanage Bay. The top of this point is rounded and grass-grown, the stone cropping out on the shore; and two large ledges of rock running out into the sea ip a south-easterly direction, creating a race, which appears to extend a mile out, and small overfalls of tide near the shore. The iron-bound and bold shore of Durleston Bay is formed by the recession between Peverel Point and Durleston Head, a black frowning promontory which rises gradually out of the sea in deep water, capped with downs above: at the base there are large broken detached masses of oolitic rock mixed with boulders. Tilly Wym Quarry, which supplied the stone for Old London Bridge, but has not been worked for the last fifty or sixty years, is situated at this point. Thence to St. Albans Head, the race of which is caused apparently by the outset from the bay, combined with the rocky and broken ground, there are precipitous stone cliffs, wrth rapidly-ascending downs, rising to the height of many hundred feet. An undercliff runs round Chapman's Pool, ita bold shore being strewed with detached masses of stone and small patches of shingle formed of Purbeck boulders. The promontory, called Hounds’ Stout, or Round Stout, or Snout, forming the west boundary of Chapman’s Pool, rises to the height of 500 feet or 600 feet, with a rough undercliff below, and the shore strewed with fragments of stone. The shore bordering the two next points, which are of little elevation, has small indentations or bays free from rocks, with clean margins of fine pebbles and sand. The cliffs west of Encombe are formed of hard indurated blue clay, locally called wark,” dipping eastward, and underlying the Purbeck stone. Those at Kim- meridge rise to a height of 150 feet or 200 feet, presenting alternately scams of stone and clay, which dip eastward and crop out on the fore- ) ⁰⁰⁰y eee ree ĩ ME 55 Vide Cocker's Survey of Dorsetshire, 1732. 15* 92 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. shore in extensive reefs, called Kimmeridge Ledge, running out into long projecting points covered with sea-weed, and forming steps of irregularly disintegrated slabs, which are eventually split up by the wind, weather, and sea into detached masses, and worn into pebbles and boulders. Westward the clitts increase in height, and the chalk again making its appearance, silicious pebbles are found on the shore. The eastern boundary of War Cove, which is the western end of the Purbeck strata, is formed by a singular mass of stone of a conical shape, called Warbarrow Tout, having rugged, precipitous, and nearly per- pendicular sides, the south-western extremity terminating in lofty sharp rocks. East of this the rapid dip of the Purbeck strata and the outcrop, seaward, in a series of rugged headlands, are beautifully displayed. The beach along War Cove is of small, rounded silicious pebbles, mixed with Purbeck boulders and ironstone from the tertiary cliffs above, in four regular and well-defined ‘‘fulls,” the largest pebbles being on the top. and the smallest to the westward, as has been observed elsewhere. On the west side of the bay this beach is bounded, near high-water mark, by immense blocks of chalk fallen from the high cliffs above, which at their eastern outcrop are rugged and nearly perpendicular; the continuation of the beach is of rounded flint and chalk nodules. The stratification of the west headland of this bay is very curious. The flint veins, which next the sea are nearly perpendicular, gradually take the curve of the valley, showing that the chalk was originally deposited in this form. Large detached masses of 10 tons to 30 tone in weight lie at the base of this cliff, and in the summer of 1849 a still larger mass fell. ulworth shore, further west, is strewed with huge masses of fallen chalk, but there is little shingle, except in the deep indentations and water-worn caves in the base of the cliff, into which it is driven at high- water. Mewps Bay, the next in succession, is formed by a chalk reef, called Black Kock, running a considerable distance into the sea, in which the strata is vertical, and terminates in sharp needle-like points. The shore of this bay is formed by a fine shingle beach, and with smooth chalky reefs on the foreshore below. Mewps Point is formed of highly- inclined Purbeck strata, corresponding with the east point of Warbarrow Bay, with a large area of reefs below, just covered at high-water, and several curious isolated pinnacles. The outcrop of the cliff westward forms Eastover Point, the eastern headland of that remarkable indentation, Lulworth Cove. The stratifica- tion of the Western Point is highly inclined, dipping north; and on each side of the narrow entrance the rocks crop out in sharp shelving reefs. The beach round the cove is coarsest at the top or the north side. A large slip in the chalk cliff, at the centre of the bay, took place about 1847; and west of this, in 1849, there was an immense full, composed of chalk pebbles. The chalk cliffs westward are very varied in outline, now forming small bays, and now headlands, cropping out seaward, with a small beach of sand, flints, and chalk pebbles. The intervening tertiary cliffa are succeeded by the oolitic promontory Durdle Door Point, and by Batt's Head of chalk, intersecting the beach ‘‘fulls,” and dividing them into two distinct bays. ; Westward are irregular chalk cliffs and undulating downs, with three deep bottoms, terminated by a bluff jutting promontory, from 500 feet to 700 feet in height, locally christened ‘‘White Nose,” which arrests the beach, and forms it into a local bay. The chalk cliff, with an undercliff and beach below, then rapidly descends, succeeded by a low tertiary cliff, called the Burning Cliff, against which silicious pebbles in parallel ‘‘fulls,” are arrested and held in check by the projection of Long Nose. At Osmington there is a tolerable collection of beach, formed by the leeward accumulation from Weymouth Bay, which is intersected at Ratcliff, or Redcliff Head. The degradation of the shore line, on the north-east side of Weymouth Bay, has been very great. The coast road was (it is said) in George the Third's time, and long afterwards, situated at the now low-water mark, when the troops used to encamp in a field to the north-east, now covered with sea-beach; there was also & green, outside the Ice-house, at Melcombe- Regis, when that structure was built. In front of the low marsh, east of Melcombe- Regis, where the beach does not appear to be protected by the Isle of Portland, it travels landward, and gains upon the shore, as is shown by the diversion of the Dorchester road, for the protection of which a high retaining wall has been erected. The shingle fulls“ gradually decrease in extent westward, in front of the walls of the town esplanade, and up to the north pier of the harbour mouth. A comparison of the maps of Weymouth Bay and Portland, in the Cottonian Collection, with those by Collins, in 1682-9, and by Lilly in 1715, and others of more recent date, shows that in Elizabeth's time, there was a large accumulation called the Shelf, jutting out in a tri- angular form, on the north side of the harbour outlet; that in Collins's time the sea had eaten into the north portion of this beach; and that the neck of land called the Narrow, connecting the north side of Melcombe Regis with the main, had much diminished in width; all which appearances are still more fully developed in modern plans. The Mixon, a low tertiary point, with a flat sandy shore, and a little beach marking high water, runs out from the“ Nose," the headland east of Weymouth, and forms the base of the south pier of that harbour. The cliffs in the neighbourhood of the old castle built by Henry VIII. appear to have fallen much; and west of the reefs running out from this point there ia a sandy bay, with two small undulating cliffs of tertiary strata and grass-grown slopes, and hillocks of drifted sand towards the Fleet, the ridge on the east side of the entrance to which (now crossed by a timber bridge on the site of the old ferry) is traversed by the road to Portland. This inner ridge has a beach of flint pebbles, Portland stone, &c., beyond high-water mark, and a long, flat, sandy foreshore: it forms the neck of land at the end of the Fleet, extending to Portland Roads. The extraordinary mole of shingle, called Chesil Bank, has attracted the attention of topographical writers from an early period. Gough considered that its name was derived from a Saxon word, meaning gravel, and calls it ‘‘a prodigious heap of pebbles thrown up by the sea, begining at Chesilton, in Portland, and reaching beyond Swyre, sixteen miles and three-quarters.” He further says, A strong north-east wind cleaves it asunder, and sweeps away all the stones, leaving only the base of black clay. A south-west wind throws up the pebbles again, and binds the whole as firmly as before. At Chesilton the beach is very high, and the stones of the size of an egg, or bigger, diminishing to that of a pea at Swyre." "ut who minutely describes its position, applied the word chesi, as a generic term to all shingle banks; and he also explains the dispersive effecta of south-east winds, and the accumulative results produced by north-west winds, which he says, ‘‘Socor, strengith and augmentith it.” Camden and Hutchins5* likewise refer to this fact, and the latter to the Saxon origin of the word ‘‘chesil,” calling the bank also ''steepstone." Shaw, “ in his Tour to the West of England, made in 1788, gives the following graphic description of the bank: To contemplate this wonderful wall, washed up by the sea, you should ride or walk along its summit, where you will see more fully the extent and security of this immoveable bulwark, whose materials are mostly equal in size to a walnut, at the water side, gradually diminishing to common gravel, and though uncemented, are capable of resisting the most outrageous storms, and of preserving the adjacent country from a destructive inundation." Suoceeding authors appear almost to borrow the language of their predecessors. Norie ascribes the dispersion to south-east winds, and the accumulation to those from the south- west. Lyell refers to the elevation of the **fundamental rocks" forming the base, and states that the origin of the bank may have been a shoal or reef, arresting the progress of shingle from the westward: and many of these authors speculate upon the probability that Portland was formerly an island, subsequently connected to the mainland by the increase of this beach. Perhaps the most extraordinary feature in this formation is the top “full,” which is about 15 feet above the lower ones, and forms a huge wall seaward, exceeding anything of the kind, both as regards bulk and height, to be seen along this coast. The land slope is flat, and the beach forms a gentle curve at the island, which it joins at Chesilton, running along its shore for a short distance, and very soon lost to the southward; to the north-west, for a long distance, it takes a straight course. There is here a strong confirmation of what haa been elsewhere observed, that the largest pebbles travel furthest to leeward, and also attain the greatest altitude. In 1715 the height, according to Lilly, 59 was 30 feet; now the average height at the eastern end is from 30 feet to 40 feet above high-water of spring-tides, the crest graduallv lowering to the westward, and the stones decreasing in size, the proportion of silicious pebbles increasing. A quarter of a century ago, Fleet was inundated by the ocean from a breach in the protecting mole, when the church was washed down, and many houses in Chesilton, built on the east end of the beach, destroyed. The land-locked tidal lake, called the Fleet, enclosed between the Chesil bank and the mainland, is another peculiar feature of this locality. The undulating hills to the north-east increase in height to the westward, until they join the chalk downs which crop out to the eastward of Weymouth, at Long Nose. The Fleet terminates opposite the valley from Abbotsbury, down which there runs a small mill-stream, at the junction of the chalk and tertiary formations. Opposite St. Catherine’s, a conical hill on which there is a singular chapel, the beach is of much the same height and section as at Fleet, though the pebbles are generally finer, descending rapidly to the west- ward, and tailing out in spits at the back of the bank, overrunning the land past Lord llchester's Castle, which is on the slope of the hill, after which the ground rises gradually until it becomes nearly level with the crest of the beach. Between the Castle and Abbotsbury Station the great beach ccases, the bight terminating in a projection of low tertiary cliffs, which intercept the top *'full;" the lower *'fulls" continue of an average height, as at Deal and elsewhere, the pebbles being of 79 varicty of material, smaller in size, and evidently the product of the c westward. Two or three miles west of Abbotsbury the beach ‘‘fulls” are thrown up into very sharp slopes, which, from the fineness of the material, become very solid; the beach still continuing to decrease in 56 Vide Hutchin's Dorset, 1774. 57 Vide Shaw’s Tour, &c., 1749. uu 58 Vide Reports on South-West Dockyards, MSS., by Col. Christian Lily, H. M. Ingenier, 1715, ru —— — — — — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL. tercepted by the cliffs at Burton, and v formed into a moderate full " on each side of sig e Harbour. e extraordinary elevation attained by the Chesil Bank, i measure to its peculiar position, shows that a usual must be made for the accumulation of such water-driven material; in the generality of cases these banks seldom attain a greater altitude than from 6 to 10 feet above high- water. The general result appears to be that with north-west winds the beach accumulates, with those from the south-west it decreases In quantity, and with south-south-west winds, right on, the slope is increased by the drawing down of the material. Here the dispersive forces are arres and held in check by the island of Portland, so that the former action 5 e entire line of coast from the Thames to Portland exhibits such extraordinary local changes, frequently of a counterbalancing character, that the bare enumeration of the most prominent features cannot fail to excite the interest of civil a eee and the chief object of the paper ing to induce discussion at the vim and more minute local inves- tigation by others, it is hoped that it wi draw forth valuable opinions and communications On à question which has so important an influence on many engineering works. GENERAL RAFERENCES. . " . . 1573-1586 1579-1644 . 1650 Bede: Stow’s Summarye Speed : History of Great Britain . s i à $ Dummer : Voyage in the Mediterranean MS., Slo. . Dummer : Reports on Dockyards, MSS., Slo Dampier’s V í 3 : : à 1708 Memoirs for the Curious (Sheppy Fossils). ^ : 1109 Batteley by T : Antiquitates Rutupinæ ; ; š 1711 Ray : Causes an Effects of Deluge ; : à : , . 1721 Desaguliers: Rising of Water in Coast Wells; Phil. Trans., vol. xxxiii 1724 Lewis's Faversham. ; ; g " . $ F . 1727 Ward on Beacons : Archæologia, vol. 1. 1749 Anson’s Tides in the Thames, Ditto " P F i . 1756 Martin's Natural History of land " " $ : . 1169 Rennell on Current West of Scilly " $ " 1193 Kirwan's Geological Ea 5 g 1799 Gibson's Commentary on Antoninus 1800 s Monasticon . i A à á 1819 Cuvier's Theory of the Earth: Appendices by Jameson . 1827 Emy: Du Mouvement des Ondes . è " s " : 1831 Philipe Guide to Geolegy - ; . ; s . 1885 De la . How to Observe Geology — . : ‘ ‘ 1836 Government Commission : Report on Harbours S. E. Coast 1840 House of Commons’ Committee: Report on Shipwrecks 1843 Government ou on : Report on Harbours of Refuge HH 1 to itto . . i 1645-6 Government Commission : Harbours of Refuge, Dover 184T Symonds' and Douglas Dissent to ditto à : 1847 Mr. Redman, in answer to questions, explained, that the authorities he had consulted for the present atate of the outline of the coast were the Admiralty charte and the Ordnance and other modern maps of ac- knowledged accuracy, and as far as was practicable he had verified the topograp ^ having walked over and carefully examined the whole length of coast tution. he had spared no expense or trouble in obtaining access to the earliest maps and works of the best topographical writers, as the subject was of vast impo i cially in reference to the construction of harbours and coast-works o defence; and he gubmitted it was most, desirable that such natural agencies as had been described, and the instances of the compensating effects of alternating loss and gain, should be correctly understood. REVIEWS. Mathematical Essays, doctrinal and critical, upon the Differentia Calculus, being in vindication of the Newtonian Law By Joun Hues WHARRIE WAUGH, A.M. Edinburgh : Johnstone and Hunter. 1854. 8vo. pp. 148 Mock of the language usually pd in demonstrating the fundamental propositions of the Differential Calculus appears to us unn ily abstruse. We believe that if the doctrines of that science be clearly conceived and aptly expressed, they may be conveyed in language perfectly free from metaphysical subtleties. That science, properly understood, is as much a subject of mere common-sense a3 the simplest rules of arithmetic. Yet, the Differential Calculus is too often spoken of aa if it involved some abstruse mystery, and this mysticism is f uently mischievous; for we are convinced that it deters man ly intelligent minds from studying & most important branch of knowledge, and has prevented many who have actually entered upon the study from clearly understanding its import. Quantities subject to arithmetical 93 5 and yet infinitely zmall— values of quantities which ey approach, yet never reach—straight lines, ultimately coales- cing with curves—these are the ideas vaguely presen to many a student of the Calculus, who is thence induced to suppose that the subject involves metaphysical difficulties, or is a mere arti- ficial creation of the brain. have debated, and sometimes disputed, the results of the Differen- tial Calculus on metaphysical metaphysical basis of that science is, as we believe, erroneous, and the adaptation to it of metaphysical expreesions at least un- necessary. Mr. Waugh, in his present work, advocates this view in words, but not, as it appears to us, in effect. We by no means deny that he has written much that is instructive or suggestive, but his views appear to us obscured by the metaphysical subtleties of which he deprecates the influence, The leading idea of his work may be perceived from the following brief quotation, referring to the relation between a function (v), its limit (a), and an evanescent quantity f (x°) :— «Here there is no fallacia euppositionis or ghifting of the hypothesis; æ is not frat one thing and then another, but all through this and 5 investigation, one and the same, viz, a quantity less anything finite, in virtue of which relation it is that we indifferently assert the truth of the two equivalent propositions, * 2 4 z =a tfe The equivalence here expressed constitutes Mr. Waugh’s fundamental Bes don and from it we dissent in toto. The truth of it is e to depend upon z' being “a quantity less than anything finite." But what does the wo finite mean here? If F( r“) bea quantity of the same kind as a, the two d n must be inconsistent; for this we take to be an axiom 80 ly fixed in the human reason, that all the philosophers in the world could not displace it—that if two quantities of the same kind be added, the result is a greater the whole is greater than its will not be denied that the symbol + means here the same thing as in ordinary al le, a 4- /(z') and f(z’) + a are absolutely and for every purpose whatever i know that in algebra the o ration of addition is applied only to quantities of the same kind. The addition of so many eet to 80 many ons is as completely nonsensi question of distance from the first of April to Westminster-bridge. Mr. Waugh does not appear to us to dispose or attempt to dispose of these difficulties. He gives, indeed, a long explanation of what he conceives infinitely small quantities to be, but the vagueness of his language renders it impossible to ascertain his meaning with precision. Take, for instance, sentence: “The addition or subtraction of such subordinate parts can avail nothing tow an estimate in which they have no assigned or recogni place; their relation to the integer goes for nothing, and they are treated as nothing accordingly.” If it were said here plainly, “the relation to the integer ts nothing,” we should at once be able to pronounce the proposition false; but when we are told that the relation goes for nothing, we are simply left in ignorance of the meaning of the words, and even in doubt whether they have meaning. The explanation of the nature of infinitely small quantities thus proceeds: “(84.) By the presumed continuance of this process of diminu- tion, all conceivable finite quantity comes ultimately to be ex- hausted; still. the process oceeds; extend from the regions of the finite to those of the infinite; and the residue, now far beneath millionths and hundredths of millionths, and all the objects of sense, continues still to embrace magnitudes—ma itudes whose relations remain as definite and determinable, an withal as amenable to the self-same modes of arithmetical estimate, as all that have preceded them. (85) The finite scale, accordingly, has ended, and that ot infinitesimals has begun—a scale whose elements are so incon- ceivably small that they bear no assignable relation to anything that is finite. That the nature of this relation may be more precisely apprehended, we have recourse to the same principle which we have all along endeavoured to carry out. 94 Adopting, therefore, as our unit of comparison, the smallest finite quantity that it is possible to conceive, all the itudes of the present order are held to be infinitely smaller; and as, in the former scales, the units of comparison could only be recomposed by a certain determinate number or value of their subordinate parts, so now the unit of comparison—viz., the smallest conceivable finite quantity—can only be reconstituted by a certain deter- minate number or value of its subordinate parts; that number or value being alike determined in all the cases by the prescribed conditions and extent of the subordinate divisions.” The finite scale has ended, and that of the infinitesimal has begun ! When, and where? Was the change from the one to the other gradual or sudden? Are there quantities in a transitional stage between the finite and the infinitesimal—quantites not altogether finite and yet not quite infinitesimal? or is the change immediate? Our author (we believe), decides in favour of the latter view, that there is one fixed precise limit between the finite and infinitesimal. The limit is “the smallest conceivable finite quantity.” Quantities greater than that are supposed to be finite, quantities less than that infinitesimal. But to the limit so fixed there appears to us an absolutely fatal objection—that it depends not on the nature of the quantities, but the power of conception respecting them. It is to be remembered, that it is the object of our author to show the existence of peculiar quantities, the addition of which ordinary quantities produces no increase. Surely these peculiar quantities must have peculiar properties intrinsically: but here their peculiarity is made to depend on something extrinsic,—the power of mental conception respecting them. There is another objection to the suggested limit to the range of finite quantities; namely, that it assumes a limit to the power of mental conception of magnitudes. The very expression, smallest. conceivable finite quantity,” assumes that there is a quantity than which the mind cannot recognise any smaller. But this is not a correct assumption. The ideas of magnitude and parts are inseparable, and if anything be recognised by the mind as possess- ing magnitude, it is also recognised as being divisible into smaller parts. We have stated, thus explicitly, our objections to Mr. Waugh's views, not merely on their own account, but from a conviction that the use of similar language is a frequent obstacle to the study of the Differential Calculus. Before we admit the existence of infinitely small quantities, which defy ordinary notions of arithmetic and geometry, and yet are connected with ordinary quantities by ordinary symbols of operation, we must be informed exactly what these extraordinary quantities are. This information nowhere exists, unless it can be discovered in the depths of that sea of words which the student of the doctrine of infinites is compelled to attempt to fathom. If, on the contrary, we assume the doctrine of limits as the basis of the Differential Calculus, and clearly apprehend what is meant by a “limit,” all metaphysical doubts respecting the science cease to exist. Let us recur to the equations above cited from this point of view. The correct statement respecting them is, we apprehend, the following :— r-—a x = limit ofa + f (^. Here the limit of f(x’) is not a small quantity, but absolute zero, —no quantity whatever. The expression, “limit of,” means, not a particular value of f(x) but the result of a certain operation performed on f(x). This distinction is an important one, and effectually gets rid of all the difficulty, or rather absurdity, of assigning to quantities values to which they are said to tend but never attain. When we say, for instance, that the limit of sin z : x is 1, we do not intend that the ratio sin x: x has ever the value 1, but that there is clear evidence that as x is taken smaller and smaller, the ratio tends to approach that value more closely than any other, and we choose arbitrarily to call the value so approached the “limit of” that ratio. Hence it follows, that it is much more correct to say that “the limit of sin æ : x is 1," than that “sin &: # = 1 in the limit.” A common objection to this system of limits is, that the values assigned to them are obtained for the most part indirectly and interentially; that is, the limits of functions are usually not observed values of the functions, but values to which it is indirectly ascertained that under assigned circumstances they tend. But this objection to indirect evidence might be applied to the most certain results of other sciences. No one, for instance, has actually observed the position of the north pole, yet for almost all purposes of geography and astronomy, we reason as certainly and THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. easily about the position of the north pole as if it were in Fleet- street. To take another illustration: in surveying and astronomy, the position of inaccessible points is frequently determined by triangulation—that is, it is calculated where two convergent lines would meet if produced; these convergent lines being the direc- tions of the axes of the telescopes at the two ends of the base of observation. It would not be deemed a very sapient objection to this method of calculation, to say that the directions of the axes of the telescopes are not really so produced; it is considered enough to determine where they tend to meet. Before quitting the consideration of Mr. Waugh's work, we may notice his objection to the association of the idea of velocity with the doctrines of the Calculus. He says: “Excepting as a purely conventional mode of illustrating the generation of continuous quantity, the principles of motion, it is humbly conceived, have precisely as much or as little to do with the doctrine of fluxions as they have with the doctrine of logarithms, or with the theory of the moral sentiments" It appears to us, however, that the idea of motion or rate of variation was . associated by Newton with his notions of fluxions and fluenta, more intimately than as a mere illustration. We conceive, also, that a perfectly logical system of fluxions may be established, of which the fundamental principle is “rate of variation.” We will give our reasons for this conclusion, for the idea in question appears to us by far the most convenient basis of the Calculus. or every science of quantity two kinds of materials are necessary—definitions and axioms; neither alone being sufficient. We might almost say, that the quantities defined are the bricks, and axioms the mortar by which they are connected together and constructed into an edifice. Thus, in the Calculus, if we define a differential coefficient as a “rate of variation,” we must establish a connection between it and ordinary algebraical magnitudes by means of an axiom or axioms. Take this for one of the required axioms—that a continuous function, which, after having a certain value, varies, and then returns to the same value, cannot be always increasing nor always decreasing intermediately. There must be a stage or stages where the rate of variation of the function changes from increase to decrease, or vice versd— that is, where the rate is zero. Now, x being the only variable, the quantity hif) -fatl -alfat — f| has the same value when & = 0 as when & = h. It might be briefly and easily shown from axioms respecting “rate,” that the rate of the above expression is hf (a a) — | fa e Hence x has some value (0 h) between O and hk for which the last expression is zero, or i a — fa f'(a+6h) = fer This is the germ of Taylors theorem in its most comprehensive form, and it is difficult to imagine a more simple basis for the Differential Calculus. Very few words would suffice to show from the last expression, the identity of a differential coefficient, defined as a rate of increase, and defined as the limit of a ratio. Office Hydraulic "Tables, for the use of Engineers engaged in Water- works; giving the Discharges and Dimensions of River Channels and Pipes. By Jonn NEVILLk, C.E., M. R. I. A., County Sur- veyor of Louth. London: J. Weale. 1855. THESE tables will be found of great use to engineers engaged in practice. The first and second are constructed on new principles; first, that of arranging all the equivalent river channels into ditferent sets, and placing them in one table; secondly, that of giving the discharges, according to various surface inclinations, from one set only, which answers for all the others; and thirdly, on the theorem that a rectangular river channel has exactly the same discharging power as a trapezoidal one of the same area and depth, with side slopes of one and one-third to one, and never differs there- in from other trapezoidal channels, even in extreme cases, more than about five per cent., which is less than the differences between various formule for calculating the discharges directly. The peculiarity of the table of equivalents is, that the channels therein given may be taken in any measures whatever, feet, yards, fathoms, metres, &c.,—nnd that, though the discharges, in the second table, are only given for feet measures, simple multi- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. pliers or divisors are given for finding the discharges when the dimensions are taken in any others. The third table, which is also new in the arrangement, gives the velocity and discharge from pipes: when any two of the four quantities, the diameter, the discharge, the velocity, and the fall or head, are given, the other two can be determined from in- 5 A peculiarity is observable in this table, and which e author has first pointed out: it is, that the discharge in cubic feet per minute from a 6-inch cylindrical pipe is equal, practically, to the velocity in inches per second. — ͤ T.. — GAS-LIGHTING AND ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION. By Lady M. S. BENTHAM. A FRIEND, who resided many years in France, has observed that the lighting of street lamps is better managed in that country than in London, for here the lamplighter has to carry a ladder from lamp-post to lamp-post, then to mount the ladder to light each lamp, and then descend again. But in France the business is more expeditiously effected; the lamplighter is there furnished with a light attached to the end of a long pole, he inserts it successively into the bottom of the lamps as he comes to them, lights the gas, and is quickly away to the next lamp. Thus the labour is saved of carrying about a dirty ladder, and of mounting it at every lamp-post. The same friend has suggested a novel mode of illuminatin apartments with gas, whereby to avoid its noisome amell, and al danger of conflagration. It is to place the light on the outside of windows instead of within the room itself, thus imitating as far as ible, the ordinary manner of giving daylight to a chamber. y shops in the metropolis are now lighted from without, the gaslight being thrown by reflectors upon the goods within the shop. A mode simile to that now proposed, was suggested some years ago as a means of safely S dun the reading rooms at the British useum, so that evening lectures of its precious contents might be permitted without danger of fire. e new mode proposed of lighting apartments would re- quire outside shutters, which might themselves be reflectors of the gas-light. But outside shutters as usually hung are objectionable in our climate, because during the opening or shutting of them the whole room is exposed to wind or rain: however, by a simple mechanical contrivance, they might be opened or closed from within; or the shutters might be made to slide down against the outside wall, they being more or less decorated so as to be ornamental rather than unsightly. Last year the Society of Arts nominated a Committee on Industrial Pathology; that committee’s first report is given in the ‘Journal of the Society of Arta! of 12th January; it is on Trades which affect the Eyes," and is highly valuable to the public generally, and indicates many points that should be considered in regard to the arrangement of artificial lights. The report clearly shows that the rays from artificial illuminators differs essentially from the light of day, that consisting of a great proportion of blue rays, whereas artificial light contains a great proportion of red and yellow rays, both of which are injurious to the sight. To obviate this evil, the report suggests the transmission of artificial light through light-blue or azure-blue medi: but whether the medium be a coloured liquid, or whether a solid, as tinted glass, it is evident that a portion of the light must be lost; it might, there- fore, be well worth trial whether reflectors themselves might be coloured so as to reflect blue rays without much diminishing the intensity of the light. Another mischief to the sight, of ordinary occurrence, is that of placing the light below the eyes, whereby they are exposed to its 5 intensity, instead of its being choot upon the work to done; and it is observed in the report that in daylight the eyes are protected from its immediate influence by the eyebrows and eyelashes. This particular could be easily attended to in the proposed mode of lighting by gas, for the burners could as well be placed above the head as below it; or the burners themselves might admit of being raised or lowered according to the part of the room it might be desirable to illuminate: so also the reflectors could by an easy mechanism, be made to throw light at pleasure upon any work in hand; and that whether at the same spot or at different tables. 5 illumination, smoke and dirt would be avoided, whilst the heat produced might be utilised. A window, instead 95 of chilling an apartment, would warm it, and the heat from the combustion of the gas could be introduced in the room iteelf, or into any other one, by means of suitable tubes of metal or other speedy conductors of heat. In ordi sitting-rooms, and when economy would not forbid, the window might be adorned with curtains tastefully arranged, so as to conceal the burners, yet not obstruct the light from them or the reflectors. For illuminating halls for the reception of numerous assemblages of persons, gas-lights would be otherwise ed; for instance, as in the House of Commons, in the centre of the chamber, and high above the head, In such cases the light would be transmitted through a fixed frame of glass, thus cutting off smoke, the vapours of combustion, and all the evils usually attendant on artificial light; even that of the difference between it and the light of day, for the glass might be tinted a pale blue. Suitable means would of course be introduced for the admission of fresh air sufficient for the combustion of the gas, and for the exit of that deteriorated by the gas. ARCH.ZOLOGICAL CLUB. THE endless quarrels which the archeological bodies, as now constituted, seem to be liable, have determined a few of the more active archzeologists to form an Archeological Club, to consist of a limited number of literary men and artiste, to meet without any form once a month, dine together in a modest way at five shillings per head, collect together na matter concerning archeology, and from time to time publish a volume, not at regular intervals, but when the matter is sufficient, and then at the risk of the publisher. — ÁüKfÁ——— SMOKELESS FURNACES. Mr. R. H. Bow, C.E., recently read a paper on the above sub- ject, at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. After stating the conditions under which smoke is produced in a furnace, as com- monly constructed and and the-necessity for a very high temperature, combined with an abundant supply or oxygen, in order to effect the combustion of the smoke, he described three general arrangements under which could be classified nearly all the furnaces that have been brought forward as smokeless; and maintained that the more practicable of these owed their success more to the regular manner in which the fuel was supplied than to any peculiar properties of the arrangements; and that in order to effect the regular feeding of the furnace somewhat complicated machinery was required, or an amount of attention was necessary on the of the furnace-men that could seldom be counted upon. . Bow stated that his invention does away with this necessity for great regularity in the supply of the coal. In his furnace the draught is reversed, that is, the flame, air, &c., pro- ceed downwards through and from the fire; and it is therefore proposed to call it the “ Down-draught Furnace.” The principle of its action was stated to be very simple. The smoke, liberated from the superincumbent coal, is, by means of the suction of the chimney, carried, along with a due admixture of air, down through the brightly burning fuel which forms the lower stratuin of the fire, and thus becomes intensely heated and completely burnt. Contrary to what might have been expected, the com- bustion is very rapid: in some experiments, made in 1852, with a grate of five-ei the of a square foot in area, the combustion was at the rate of 30 Ib. of coal per square foot of grate per hour; the height of the chimney being nearly 35 feet. This result is probably due to the self-clearin g power of the furnace, and the comparatively dense state of the air when it mingles with the fuel. The combustion readily spread upwards to the fresh coal from the action of the strong radiant heat. The author stated that a common iron grating cannot be employed in this ; as it would rapidly me oxidised or burnt; and the follow- ing are some of the methods that may be adopted for overcoming this difficulty:—1st, The fuel may be burnt in a V or L shaped cavity; 2nd, A perforated or open-work structure of fire-proof clay or stone may be employed to support the fire; and 3rd, Tubes containing water, either communicating with a boiler, or other- wise supplied, may be substituted for the fire-bars. — — 96 DOCK AND RAILWAY EXTENSION IN LIVERPOOL. The Liverpool Albion says, that the dock improvements and extensions at the south end are being vigorously prosecuted, and that, judging from the progress which has been already made, there appears every probability that the works will be completed ere summer has made its appearance. These improvements comprise the enlarging of Salthouse Dock to the extent of about one-third, giving upwards of an acre’s additional water-space; the construction, on each side of the dock, of commodious sheds, with lines of railway communicating between them and the edge of the dock-quay, to enable vessels to load expeditiously at the ship’s side; the formation of a small basin and the extensive Wapping Dock, with double entrances, affording a communication, through both, with the Salthouse Dock, at the north end of the new basin, and the Queen’s Dock at the south end of Wapping Dock; the construction of a stack of warehouses on the west side of Wapping Dock; the enlarging and deepening of the Queen's Graving Docks, so as to receive ships of larger burthen; and the alinost entire rebuilding of the Queen's Basin. The Salthouse Dock is in a forward state; the gates connecting the Wapping Dock with the basin have been fixed; the walls of the Wapping Dock and basin are built; the further deepening and removal of the earth from the beds now being the chief steps towards their completion; and the Queen's Basin and the Gravin Docks are being rapidly proceeded with. The new dock an basin will give an additional water-space of about six and a-half acres, Which, with the increased area of the Salthouse Dock, make a total increase of dock accommodation at the south end of about eight acres. These advantages, no doubt t ones in themselves, when the crowded state of the docks 1s considered, are still further increased by the facilities to be given for loading and discharging goods, — not the least important, as presenting a new feature, and one much required, being the sheds at the Salt- house Dock, for the exclusive reception of export goods, and the lines of railway to the dock-quays to facilitate the operation of loading. Of equal importance to the trade of the port will be the stack of warehouses at the Wapping Dock, of precisely the same construction as those at the Albert and Stanley Docks. The new buildings have reached their first story, and will probably be completed about midsummer. At the north end of the docks, the ap ce of the 9 between Walter-street, on the north side of the Stanley Doc warehouses, and Boundary- street, has entirely changed. The whole of the large plot of land bounded north and south by Boundary-street a Walter-street, and by Regent-road and Great Howard-street, east and west, has been enclosed, and the noisome abominations, the green-mantled pools of stagnant water, and the miserable wooden huts of the Lrish encroachers, that tive months ago usurped the ground, have given place to the most commodious, and what, in all probability, will become the most important, railway goods depot in the world. The yard encloses an area of twenty-four acres, and is intersected by rails connected with the Sandhills branch of the Lancashire and Yorkshire and East Lancashire Railways. This branch line passes over the town streets by means of massive iron bridges, of an average height of twenty-two feet from the level of the ground, placed respectively at Sandhills-lane, Homer-street, Errington-street, Grundv-street, Boundary-street, Great Homer-street, and Black- stock-street, thoroughfares now in existence, with the exception of Homer-street, Errington-street, and Grundy-street, which are to be formed, on land belonging to Mr. John Shaw Leigh, between Sandhills-lane and Boundary-street. The bridges cross the streets at considerable angle, necessitating the use of gigantic girders, of an average length of 100 feet, and about thirty tons each in weight. In the goods yard two classes of railways are being formed, one on the low-level principle, for the conveyance of general merchan- dise to aud from the dock quays, with which direct communica- tion will be obtained; and the other, on the high-level principle to communicate with the east end of the Wellington and Bram- ley-Moor Docks, and to be used for the coal export trade. This is one of the most important features of these extensive works. With the inexhaustible coal-fields in the immediate neighbourhood of the port, there is reason to believe that, with proper facilities, Liverpool might hold the first position as a port for the exportation of coal, as she already does in various other branches of trade. Entering the goods-yard by one of the two gateways in Great THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Howard-street, the first object which attracts the eye is a large cotton-shed, covering an area of about 8000 yards. The roof is of similar construction to those in the dockyards, being closely boarded and covered with Welsh slates. It is open on the east side, facing Regent-street, and is supported on massive cast-iron columns, supplied by the proprietors of the St. Rollix Foundry, Glasgow, and by Messrs. Galloway, of Manchester, from whom the iron-work for the bridges has also been obtained. In front of the shed, and running the whole length of 570 feet from Walter-street (by the side of the Albert Dock warehouses) to Blackstock-street, and there forming a junction with the incline from the branch line, are eleven sets of rails, at right angles with which, at convenient distances from each other, are five bays or lines of railway sunk to a sufficient depth to bring the bodies of the trucks ona level with the ground, the whole affording facilities for loading a hundred wagons simultaneously. There are seventy-two turn- tables already in working order, and the paving in that portion of the yard has been completed. From the south end of the shed direct access will be obtained with the Nelson Dock Quay by means of four lines of rails, which will enable the company to load or discharge general merchandise at the ship's sides. ere the rails cross Water-street, Boundary-street, and Blackstock- street on the level, the public safety will be secured by simul- taneous acting gates, which, by the application of subterranean machinery, will be opened or closed at each crossing at the same time. A convenient cattle-stage, 350 by 55 feet, is being erected, and considerable space, we should imagine, will also be allotted asa coal depot. The area between the cotton-shed and the boundary- wall in Great Howard-street, is to be used as a cart-stand. This will be a great boon to the public, as well as to the carters, inas- much as it will tend to relieve the almost impassible thoroughfare in the neighbourhood. Hitherto the railway goods-yards have been of too limited a nature to allow for a cart-stand, and the consequence has been a considerable inconvenience to the ublic. $ Besides these extensive additions to their estate, the Lancashire and Yorkshire and East Lancashire companies have purchased five acres of land at the Sandhills, between the canal and the Bootle-lane-station, from the Earl of Derby and Mr. John Shaw Leigh, on which they are about to lay five miles of rails as sidings for goods’ accommodation, and for the erection of a large engine- shed, which will cover an area of 3000 yards; as well as another acre between the canal and Sandhills-lane, for the formation of additional sidings. ; We have stated that the goods-yard will be larger, and may become more important, than any similar entrepôt in the world. This may be received with incredulity; but when it is known that it covers a larger extent of ground than all the other goods- stations in Liverpool put together, and that it combines facilities which have never before been furnished at this, or, we believe, at any other port, the assertion will not be considered extra nt. The works, though thus speedily prosecuted, would have been completed ere this, had there not been some difficulty in obtaining the iron-work. As it is however, the result is sufficiently remarkable to astonish any one who has not been in the locali since the foundation-stone of the new branch was laid at Sand- hills-lane, by Mr. Stuart, the vice-chairman of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, on the 14th of July last, the contractors having achieved about double the amount of work they then undertook. The effect of these increased facilities on the trade of the port, though we have not the temerity to estimate the increase, cannot fail to be immense. They certainly reflect the greatest credit on the prescience and enterprise of the com- panies, as well as upon the skill of Mr. Meek, the principal engineer, who projected them. The contractors are Messrs. Thom- son and Co.; and the works are being executed under the super- intendence of Mr. Pennie, the company’s resident engineer. They will be ready for opening about the beginning of April next. Before leaving the subject of these increased facilities to the trade of the port, we may observe, that preparations appear to be making for the construction of a new lock and graving-dock, north of Huskisson Dock. They will have gates of 100 feet wide; will be 500 feet in the chamber, and will form the passage to the projected new north docks. — o o — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Jan. 23.—JaMzs Simpson, Esq., President, in the Chair. The paper read was ‘‘On the Construction of the Sea Embankments across the Estuaries Kent and Leven, in Morecambe Bay, for the Ulver- stone and Lancaster Railway.” By JAMES BRUNLEES, M. Inst. C.E. The early projects of the late George Stephenson and J. Hague for embanking and reclaiming Morecambe Bay were first noticed; other railway and embanking works originally projected by J. R. McClean were also alluded to; those which formed the subject of the paper, and were now being executed by the author for a company, though very dif- ferent in direction and in system to the two first designs, were nearly identical with those of McClean, and all had for object to carry a line of railway across part of the bay, and by its means eventually to reclaim large tracts of land for agricultural purposes. The lines to be connected were the Furness and West Coast Railways with Lancaster and the South. The principal works were on the estuaries of the Kent and the Leven, with the view of fixing the hitherto unstable fresh-water channels of those streams, so as to facilitate the eventual reclaiming of a con- siderable portion of the bay. The works were commenced in May 1853, and in spite of great diffi- culties had made considerable progress. The embankments were formed of the calcareous sands as hearting, covered on the sea slopes by a layer of e vals clay puddle, upon which was deposited a depth of 18 inches of small quarry-rubbish, locally termed ‘‘quarry-rid,” and then faced with pitching composed of limestones 15 inches deep, varying from 8 to 16 inches in width; the slopes thus formed stood well at 14 to 1, and 2 to 1, and after a time, when the material became consolidated, no water could pass through the embankments. The height varied con- siderably, being in some portions as much as 15 ft. 6 in. above high- water of ordinary spring tides, and 4 ft. 3 in. above the highest tide ever remembered on that part of the coast. In consequence of the high price of labour, carts with two wheels were substituted for wheelbarrows in forming the embankments, taking care to carry on only such lengths as could be raised to a safe height, . puddled and pitched between spring tides, the open end of each length ing laid to a flat inclination, up which the material for topping off could be carted, that end being protected during spring tides by clay and stones; about ten or eleven lineal yards could thus be formed per day, or at the rate of a mile in six months from one face. Details were also given of the construction of the low stone weirs, formed for the purpose of preventing the bracking or shifting of the channel of the streams, under which as much as 60,000 tons of sand had been moved in the course of one tide. Although it was not probable that the force exerted by the waters in Morecambe Bay would ever equal that of the waves in the German ocean, which had been shown by the experimental Marine Dynamometer of Mr. David Stevenson to be equal to 14 ton per square foot, the author assumed that as a standard, and constructed the embankments to withstand double that force; at the same time he adopted regular slopes of 14 to 1, and of 2 to 1, in preference to the concave form, as he bad in various localities seen prejudicial effects arise from the use of that section; as the waves were forced up the flat part of the slope with great velocity, then accumulating on the more abrupt part they curled over, and in the recoil fell with such force on the pitching as to loosen the stones and allow them to be drawn out by the undertow, or retreat of the wave. Numerous experiments were tried for determining the force required to draw bricks out of slopes 4 feet high, built at various angles. The following were the average results:— Weight in lba. required to Height of Slope Ratio of Slope. extract the centre brick. in feet. r ies TOD: oeaiei 4 MON MC JJ 4 „ em 444A ö 4 pen i AH 8 4 a3 The weight was applied direct to the brick by a chain passing over a pulley, and increased gradually. The viaducts over the river channels were intended to be built of timber, founded upon Mitchell's screw piles; each structure consisting of fifty spans of 30 feet each, with a drawbridge at the channel with an opening of 36 feet span, a model of which was exhibited.— One of these viaducts (that near Ulverstone) was explained and illustrated in our last Number, p. 33. Jan. 30.—A communication was read from the Society of Arts, inti- mating tbat their Seventh Annual Exhibition of Inventions would shortly be opened, and asking the co-operation of the members of the Institution in procuring specimens, models, and drawings of novel combinations, recent improvements in machinery, or new articles of manufacture. Translations were read of letters received from M. Eugene Flachat, on the part of the Society of Civil Engineers of Paris, and M. Molinos, a member of that body, offerng facilities to the members of the Insti- tution of Civil Engineers of London during the occurrence of the Universal Exhibition in Paris, in May next. It had been decided that 97 special and detailed deecriptions of the articles exhibited and the results arrived at by members of various committees should be published. These reports would be read and discussed at the meetings of the Society, and the members of the Institution were invited collectively and indi- vidually to attend and take part in the discussions, and to avail them- selves of the facilities offered by the kindred Society in Paris. The Paper read was A Description of the Iron Roof in one span, over the Joint Railway Station, New Street, Birmingham." By J. fa The inconvenience to the traffic arising from the columns supporting a series of small roofs, had long been felt, and the first step was the substitution of two parallel roofs over the up and down lines, as in most of the continental stations; when however the traffic increased to such an extraordinary extent as it had done, especially in some great terminal stations, or where a number of lines converged, further facilities became imperative, and single roofs covering the station in one span were adopted, that over the Lime Street Station of Liverpool, of 153 fcet span, constructed by Mr. Turner, of Dublin, being an early and fine specimen.“ In the New Street Station at Birmingham, upon a comparatively limited extent of ground, situated between the extremities of two tunnels, there was concentrated the traffic of five lines of railway, therefore it was essential to avoid any impediment to free circulation, and it was decided to cover the space by one roof of 840 feet long by 212 feet at its widest part, which was at one end, and by judicious management the various of each truss were reduced in such proportion, that the tapering of the whole structure could scarcely be perceived. The roof consisted of thirty-six curved wrought iron principals, placed at intervals of 24 feet, and the height of the chord-line was fixed at 33 feet from the level of the rails to the springing of the principals, which were attached to the pilasters forming part of the front of the hotel, whilst the other ends rested on iron columns 2 feet diameter, and varying from 30 to 35 feet in height, these latter weighed about 5} tons each; they rested on concrete bases, but were not bolted down, and they carried on their upper extremities & frame of wrought-iron rollers, to facilitate the motion of the outer foot of i a truss, the inner foot being firmly fixed on a stone bed in the wall. The average weight of each principal was 25 tons; they were built of wrought-iron plates, 15 inches deep by 1 inch thick, with angle-irons riveted on each side of the upper and lower edges, so as to form flanches 12H inches in width, and j-inch in thickness. Each tie-bar, which when in its place had a versed sine of 20 feet, was composed of round iron, 4 inches in diameter in twelve pieces, meeting in screwed boxes at the foot of each of the struts, which were each made of four angle-irons, bowed out at the centre of their height, and kept apart by hollow cast-iron straining-pieces, bolted between the angle-irons. The diagonal ties met also at the ends of the struts. The purlins were of timber 5 inches square, trussed by a tension tie- rod and straining piece, bolted to cast-iron shoes at both ends. They rested on the back of the rafters, butting against each other endwise, at intervals of 8-feet; and there were numerous wind-ties 1} inch diameter, springing from the foot of every other arch, and running diagonally to the other side of the roof. The centre was composed of an elevated lantern of glass on the top, and iron louvres at the sides, extending the entire length of the roof, and parallel on each side to the same extent, was a skylight 54 feet deep, giving 128.000 square feet of glass, or nearly one-half the superficial area of the roof, the remainder being covered with galvanised sheet-iron corrugated. Each end was terminated by a gable screen of wood, glazed, and sus- pended from the end truss; the glass throughout was fluted plate, about 1g inch in thickness, rolled in pieces of 6 feet long by 16 inches wide, and about 115 tons were used. The important parts of the roof were proved before leaving the works of the constructors; one principal being loaded with a weight equal to 40 lb. per superficial foot, exclusive of its own weight. The total load was 90 tons, under which the deflection was 344 inches, the ex- tension of the foot upon rollers being 2j inches, and of the other foot 4-inch, and after the trial no permanent set could be detected. Other and more stringent tests showed the roof to be amply strong and stiff. Details were given of the moveable scaffolding, raised on a staye, extending the entire width of the station, in such a manner that the traffic of the line could be carried on whilst the roof was in course of construction. The stages were moved onward as required, and the whole of the principals and other parts were raised and fixed by sheer- legs, without the occurrence of any casualty. The finishing of the last principal was completed on the anniversary of fixing the first column; the total weight of iron raised being 1050 tons; the number of squares measured on plan was 1705; the cost, in- cluding 320 squares of ridge-and-furrow roofing, of spans from 45 feet to 188 feet, was 32,274/. or 16l. per square; this expense could not how- * See Journal, Vol. XIII. 1850, p. 105; Vol. XIV. 1851; p. 178; also that by Mr T. Hawksbaw, at Tythe Barn Station, Liverpool, Vol. XVI. 1853, p. 56. 16 98 ever be received as for the present price of iron, the roof having been executed when materials and labour were much less costly. The greatest amount of expansion that had been recorded was shown to be 546 inch for upwards of 31° of variation of temperature. Details were appended of the scantling of all parts of the roof, which was constructed by Messrs. Fox, Henderson, and Co., under the direction of Mr. W. Baker (M. Inst. C.E), the Engineer for the Rail- way Company; the desi for the roof being made by Mr. E. A. Cowper (Assoc. Inst. C. E) and the moveable scaffolding designed by Hu J. Philips who had charge of the general construction and ing. Feb. 6.—On the announcement of the additions to the Library, attention was specially directed to the presentation by the Architectural Publication Society of the three first of the 'Architectural Dictionary —a valuable work, calculated to be of great use to the profession, and worthy of general support;—and also to a collection of very valuable Reports, with illustrative plans, relative to the water supply and other municipal arrangements of the City of Paris, &c.; they were entituled ‘Memoire sur les Eaux de Paris; ‘Recherches Statis- tiques sur les Sources du Bassin de la Seine,’ par M. Belgrand; and ‘Rapport sur le mode d'Assainissement des Villes, en Angleterre et en par M. Mille.— These latter valuable documents were presented by the Prefet de la Seine, through M. Mille, and were transmitted by the Consul-General of France, and the special thanks of the Institution were unanimously voted for this mark of consideration. The paper read was ‘‘On the flow of Water through Pipes and Orifices.” By J. LESLIE, M. Inst. C.E. The author, having been professionally called upon to report on a small scheme of water supply, in which it was proposed to lay down a pipe with an unusually small declivity, was induced to have a set of experiments made on the discharge of a new lead pipe of 24 inches diameter, and 1086 feet in length, with heads varying from g inch to 10 feet. This pipe was laid in a coil of about 70 feet in diameter, and was afterwards successively shortened into lengths of 540 feet, 270 feet, 100 feet, 25 feet, and 10 feet. Other experiments were also made with pipes of 14 inch, and 14 inch diameter. As much care as possible was taken to insure the escape of air, but the results were in some cases so anomalous as to induce the belief that complete success had not in this respect been always obtained. The pipes were also carefully joined and soldered, and it was believed that with one trivial exception no internal obstruction had existed. The observations, which were exceedingly numerous, were stated to have been made with much care by Mr. John Lamond, an assistant of the author, and these had been tabulated at great length, and were annexed to the paper. The object of the author having been to institute a comparison between the deductions of hydraulicians, and the results of direct experiment, he had adopted, as a standard of comparison a formula which he believed to be due to Du Buat, and from that had calculated „the ratio of actual discharge to Du Buat's formula.” The formula em- ployed was thus expressed : 3000 ^/ d v = Ü h in which v was the velocity per minute, I the | of the pipe, increased 50 diameters, and d the diameter of the pipe, all in feet. For the discharge (D), cubic feet per minute, this formula became 2366-2 di TT h Adopting this formula the following were a few of the resulta obtained from the pipe 24 inches diameter : Pipe 24 inches diameter, 1086 long + 50 diameters = 1096 feet. Head. Observed discharge actual discharg Ft. In. Gradient. cub. ft. per minute. ne De Bite formula. i 0 Ov... lin 70,256 . 0444. 232 0 1 .. I in 13,152. 2048 503 0 11 .. lin 7515 241 448 0 2} lin 5, 260 4412 684 0 5) .. lin 2391 . 1407 776 1 51 .. lin 757 14634 863 2 9] .. lin 394 2-99 945 4 9] .. lin 230ũ—. 3 975 7 0) .. lin 15 3-53 945 9 111... lin 10 4-286 961 (It was shown in the discussion, which was onl commenced, that the formula relied upon by the author was not that of Du Buat, which when applied gave results more closely approximating to those of the experi- mente than were obtained by the formula employed in the construction of this table.) THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Numerous experiments were also made on simple orifices,—on short tubes placed sometimes vertically and sometimes horizontally,—and on vertical pipes, from which coefficients of discharge, greatly at variance with accepted data, had been deduced; but it was afterwards discovered that the apparent anomaly disappeared if the active head were measured by the difference of level between the surface of water in the cistern and the point of exit from the pipe, or the difference of level of the water in the upper and the lower cisterns. Observations on a large scale were also made on the pipes of the Edinburgh Water Company. The ‘‘Crawley pipe” was 15 inches in diameter, and 44,400 feet long, with a differential head of 226 feet. The actual discharge was 255 cubic feet per minute, whereas, by the formula, it ought to have been 294 cubic feet per minute. This pipe was, however, 30 years old, and was known to be considerably reduced in diameter by incrustation. The ‘‘Colington pipe” was 16 inches diameter, 29,580 feet long, with a differential head of 420 feet. The mean of fifteen observations gave an actual discharge of 571 cubic feet per minute, whereas the formula required, that the discharge should have been 575 cubic feet per minute. This pipe was only eight or nine years old. | A section of the same pipe, of 25,765 feet in length, with a differential head of 230 feet, yielded, on a mean of twenty-six observations, 440 cubic feet per minute; whereas the discharge by the formula should have been 457 cubic feet per minute. Another section of the same pipe, 3815 feet in lengtb, with a differential head of 184 feet, yielded 1215 feet per minute, instead of 1063 expected from the formula. But a new iron pipe of 21 inches diameter, and 1150 feet long, with about 11 feet of fall, yielded about what was due by formula to a pipe of 2} inches diameter. Observations were also made on the Dundee Conduit, which was 2 feet broad, with rectangular sides and a bottom of smooth stone slabs, with the followlng results :— Fall 1 in 1000. Calculated Actual Depth in discharge in i inches : in ascertained velocity, at ; : Cubic Feet. Cubic Feet. in Cubic Feet in Cubic Feet 8 109: 110:09 ...... 110:09 ...... 128:5 T om 134 T 18483 ...... I6. 129:7 8 160 16216 1210 133˙1 R 186: ...... 184:61 ...... 1233 — 136°7 11 213 214-2828 1286 138˙1 bLb- zou 24083 ...... 9240 ...... T31 „„ 140° 122 268: s 266:6 ...... 183°3 ...... 1467 The formula used in this instance might be thus expressed : 18 A/hyd. mean depth x fall in feet per mile = velocity in miles per hour. The dis by the sluices of dock gates of Dundee and the lock gates of the Monkland Canal were also ascertained and tabulated. (The mean of the first seven observations gave a coefficient for feet of 5:3, and of the next four observations, omitting one imperfect observation, of 5:25, which were consistent with the received formula) A few experiments were also undertaken with respect to the flow of water over Notch-Boards; and some investigations were made for the urpose of determining whether the theoretical addition of 50 diameters to the length of the pipe was practically correct. The author's conclusions were, that while Du Buat's formula gave very accurate results at moderate rates of inclination, it gave a great deal more than the actual discharge with very low gradients, and very considerably lees with steep gradients. At the Monthly Ballot, the following Candidates were duly elected.— Messrs. Henry Banister, Philip H , and James Henderson, as Associates. Feb. 13.—The evening was entirely devoted to the consideration of Mr. Leslie's paper. In the discussion, when moving a vote of thanks to the author, it was stated to be only due to his position in the pro- feasion, to direct his attention to certain points which appeared to require revision before the paper was printed. The paper might be divided into two heads :— lst, as to the accuracy of the experiments themselves; and 2nd, as to the extent to which they might be considered as a test of the accuracy of the formula of Du Buat. With regard to the expe- riments,—in the cases of low velocities and flat gradients, due precau- tions did not appear to have been taken for guarding against obstructions, especially from the effect of the accumulation of air. For instance, in the second series of experiments with a pipe 500 feet long, it was obvious that the results could not be relied upon; in experiment 1, with a gradient of 1 in 2000, the flow of water was stated at 3243, whereas in thepreceding series of experiments the flow was stated to be 7407, with a flatter gradient of 1 in 2391. In experiment 5 of the second series, the flow was stated to be 2:18, with & gradient of 1 in 220; whereas in the preceding series, in expe- riment 8, the flow was stated to be 3: with a gradient of 1 in 230. These were examples of the discrepancies more or less, pervading the whole of the experiments of the class. With regard to the test of the formula of Du Buat, the author had THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. adopted a formula which omitted from it all those corrections which were introduced by Du Buat, with the express view of meeting the case under consideration. On applying Du Buat's formula to the author's experi- menta, the alleged discrepancies were however reduced; for instance, in experiment 1, in first series, in place of being as 4 to 1, they were only about 2} to1; in experiment 2 in place of being 2 to 1, they were as 3 to 2; and in experiment 4, in place of a discrepancy, as represented, of about 3 to 2, the results were nearly identical. Referring to the experiments by Mr. Provis, quoted from the ‘ Trans. Inst. C.E.' Vol. II. the author had omitted in the deductions, to allow for the head due to the velocity generated in the pipes. That allowance being made, and the correct formula applied, the results were identical with those of Du Buat; affording a strong confirmation of the accuracy of Du Buat, not only as regarded the formula, but also as to the expe- rimenta upon which that formula was based. While on that subject, as there appeared to be at present a strong tendency on the part of public Boards to invalidate established formule, and to introduce others affording larger results, the attention of all who desired to investigate the subject, was directed to the article Theory of Rivers, in Dr. Robison's ‘ Mechanical Philosophy,’ Vol. II. page 388. By an attentive perusal of the article, they would not only be confirmed in their faith in the experiments and formule of Du Buat, but they would be satisfied how little practical result depended upon whether, in point of fact, the flow of water was under-stated, even to the extent of 20 per cent.; for instance, in a culvert of 100 inches diameter, such a discrepancy would not influence its dimensions to the extent of 74 per cent. nor the cost of construction probably to the half of that per centage. In fact, practically below the margin allowed by all careful engineers for contingencies that could not be estimated. And after ing and understanding the article, they would appreciate the sentence—‘‘ We must understand their motions and their mode of secret, slow, but unceasing action, that our bridges, our wharfs, our dykes, may not become heaps of ruin. Ignorant how to proceed in these daily recurring cases, how often do we see projects of high expectation and heavy expense fail of their object, leaving the state burdened with works not only useless, but frequently hurtful ?” | This quotation derived peculiar significance from certain facts attending the publication of a pamphlet proceeding from ore of the recently appointed Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, and purporting to be a ‘‘Memoranda on the data employed in determining the sizes and esti- mating the cost of the works designed for the Main Drainage of the Metropolis,” in which it was stated,—‘‘ De Prony’s formula applied to this latter class of cases, gives results, which as Claudel states, (‘ Formules,’ p. 110) deviate in some instances from the truth by no less than 29 per cent." But in reality, on reference to the authority there quoted, it appeared that no such passage existed, and the inference was entirely unsupported. It was pointed out, that if several miles of huge sewers, in the metro- polis, were constructed of too large dimensions, there might be an extra expenditure of 5 or 10 per cent.; but if by the adoption of empirical and incorrect formulz their dimensions were unduly restricted, the whole system might be a failure, and the expenses induced would be enormous. On this point it was remarked, that the formulæ published by authority, and insisted on by the Board of Health, gave results differing very con- siderably from those of accepted practised experimenters, and men of admitted scientific attainments and mathematical knowledge; it would be desirable therefore to ascertain how and by whom these modern ex- periments had been made, in order to be assured as to the degree of credence to be accorded to the results. It was thus elicited that the experiments referred to, although gene- rally stated to have been made for the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, and actually undertaken by a committee composed of gentle- men at that time forming part of the Commission, and the expense, amounting to upwards of 7000L, being paid from that office, yet that no complete records of the proceedings could be found in the archives of the Commission, nor had any official report been presented relative to the experiments, which had been chiefly made by a person who was not an engineer by profession, nor a man of scientific attainments, but who was a foreman, or clerk of works, on some small contracts for sewers. A careful examination of the details of the experiments showed, con- clusively, that they had been instituted and prosecuted by persons entirely ignorant of the science of hydraulics, and as a natural conse- quence, that the results were utterly worthless for all practical purposes, and moreover, that such as they were, they had evidently been tampered with and perverted, apparently with the object of fitting them to pre- conceived theories; thus the extensive circulation of deductions from these fallacious experiments had diffused error, and would, if persevered in, obstruct the progress of sound engineering in all matters connected with the drainage and supply of water to towns in this country. In the course of the discussion it was further elicited, that the formula which the author had employed was not the formula of Du Buat, nor was it applicable to the case of very low velocities, in which the adhesion of the water to the sides of the pipe would produce a very sensible retardative effect. The formula used was, in point of fact, a special modification of Eytelwein's formula, and did not comprehend in its terms this cause of resistance. Du Buat's formula, on the contrary, did 99 include the resistance by adhesion, and also that of viscidity, and waa of the following form, when reduced to English inches: 2307 (Vd — 01): | = "= A-L JI 6. — 03 (Vd — 0°1) d being the dydraulic mean depth, s the denominator of the fraction expressing the slope or gradient, and L the hyperbolic logarithm of the quantity to which it was prefixed. This formula gave values much more nearly approaching the results of the author's experiments, with minute heads and low velocities, than the formula employed by him; but it was less exact than the still more elaborate formula of Dr. Thomas Young, published the Philosophical Transactions for 1808, which afforded correct results on pipes, even so small as the yyy part of an inch in diameter, and with velocities of ouly one-fourth of an inch per second. This formula was of the form— l l v—a,97--2c,v in which a and c were exceedingly complicated functions of the diameter, each involving four or five terms. For all practical purposes, however, the formule of Eytelwein, Prony, Poncelet, or Hawksley, might be used almost with indifference. The last-mentioned was the result of au independent investigation, had been frequently verified on a large scale, and in addition was better adapted for mental calculation in the practical operations of engineers. This formula was :— Te h d ctl 1 UA papas mese ee V being the velocity in yards per second, L the length in yards, À the active head in inches, d the diameter in inches, and the coefficient 14 the divisor when L vanished into a tubulated orifice. It was also shown that the results of Mr. Leslie's experiments, instead of being at variance with received formule, were singularly consistent with and confirmatory of those formulæ; and this whether as regarded pipes, orifices, sluices, or weirs; for instance the pipe of 24 inches diameter, with a fall of 1 in 5260, gave by experiment 44 cubic feet per minute, and by formula 48 cubic feet per minute, so with the following rates of fall. Result, by Result, by Du Buat’s Result, by Leslie's Rate of fall. experiments. formula. proposed formula. 1 in 230 ..... 30060 U 288 2°92 1im156__...... 8:59 — ...... Sb. — uos 3 $4 1 in 109 ...... £28 ...... 430 4 45 1 in 100 ..... 453 45 4°66 lin 70 ...... Sol. i OY. sapa 5:66 lin 10 LIE — us T8 — nuu 1:65 lin 36 ...... 800 . ..... 84 ..... 8:10 Again, with a tube of 2 or 3 diameters long, theory gave a coefficient for feet per second of 6:6 while Mr. Leslie's experiments gave an average 67. Moreover the discharge by Dundee Conduit differed scarcely at ali from theory, while the discharge by the Edinburgh pipes fell short of theory, only just so much as was due to age and corrosion. So also the experiments through sluices and over notch boards gave coefficients almost identical with theory; therefore it was encumbent on the meeting, in returning thanks to the author for his valuable contribution, to request that he would undertake to revise the tables of coefficients, and then to bring the subject again under the notice of the Institution. Great importance was attached to the communication at the present juncture, in consequence of the repeated attacks which had been made by certain public Boards and unlearned members of local bodies, on the present advanced state of hydraulic science, with the view of carrying out visionary schemes of their own creation, or of arresting proposed improvements of vast importance to the community. Particular atten- tion was drawn to the very inaccurate experiments, and still more inaccurate conclusions of the Trial Works Committee of the late Metro- politan Commissioners of Sewers, used and extensively promulgated by the late General Board of Health, which, it was feared, coming, as they did, from a government authority, were not even yet sufficiently eradi- cated from the public mind; and also to the evil consequences which had resulted, and still continued to result, from the suspension of the drainage of the metropolis, while successive Boards of Commissioners appointed by government were debating amongst themselves trivial questions, as to whether this or that formula should be used in the cal- culations of their engineer, or whether water would run faster through a cylinder made of one than of another kind of material. In these respects Mr. Leslie's experiments were most valuable, because they con- firmed the conclusions of all practically scientific men, that the accepted formule aufficiently well represented actual results, and that the velocity of water was the same, whatever were the materials over which it hap- ned to flow. On behalf of the author of the paper, it was remarked, with respect to the alleged discrepancies in the second series of experimenta, that instead of impugning the resulta, they rather proved the honesty of the records, and demonstrated their useful character, whilst they pointed 16* 100 out the difficulties to be encountered in making accurate hydraulic ex- periments, and where failures might be anticipated in their application to engineering practice. In reference to the formula commonly used for the discharge of pipes, it was contended that the rules adopted by Prony, Eytelwein, Poncelet, and others, were all substantially the same, varying only in the constant for friction, 45:5 being the lowest, and 50 the highest constant for feet per second, now more commonly used and referred to as Du Buat's in the author's Paper; but it was further contended that the formula of Du Buat 5 for the varying diameter of pipes, and also for tlie reduc- tion of discharge by the loss of head required for overcoming friction at flat rates of inclination, in a manner similar to, but much more com- plicated, than the plan proposed in the paper. The conclusions of Du Buat and of Bosset, a previous writer, were founded on experiments detailed in a scientific paper by M. Couplet, the engineer of the Versailles waterworks, in the year 1732; and those ex- periments were confirmed in a remarkable manner by the large practical conclusions given in the author’s Paper. It was maintained that the conclusions of all mathematical writers of the present century were based on the formula of Du Buat; that Prony, Eytelwein, Poncelet, Robison and the elder Leslie, as well as the en- gineers of the present day, had all agreed (in practice) in omitting the more complicated part of Du Buat's formula; in verification of this, a table was given, showing comparisons of the French experiments from 1732, down to those recently made by the author, and exhibiting the most striking coincidences of theory with practice; the variations for practical purposes in the different rules being small, and the correction proposed by the author affording an excellent application of the prin- ciples adopted by Du Buat, for providing the most ample allowance in extreme cases, such as all engineers must meet with in bydraulic opera- tions. Feb. 20.—The discussion was resumed on Mr. Leslie's paper, and was continued through the evening. It was stated that the necessity for introducing into the recognised formula, some modification to adapt it to cases greatly departing from a medium velocity or dimensions, had been admitted and fully discussed by D'Aubuisson and by Weisbach; the former suggesting the law of increase of friction to be as the square of the velocity, plus a certain addition of the velocity itself; the latter proposing à law of increase compounded of the square, plus the square root of the cube of the velocity. It was argued, however, that in cases where such modifications were necessary, they should rather be applied at fixed velocities of the water than at any fixed gradient. A comparison was instituted between the friction ef water in pipes with that known under the term skin resistance” of vessels passing through water. It appeared from the results obtained by Mr. Leslie, in the experimenta on the pipes of the Edinburgh Water Company, and those by Colonel Beaufoy on floating bodies, that there was a marked identity of the diminution of the law of increase from that of the squares, a8 the higher speeds were attained; and also that the resistance per square foot of the side of a ship was only about one-half that per square foot of the internal surface of a pipe at identical velocities. Whether this had any reference to the mass of water around the ship, as com- pared with the contents of a pipe, was a subject for consideration. It was explained, that the expression known as Hawksley's formula" was only assumed to be applicable to useful, practical cases falling within the ordinary practice of hydraulic science, and extreme cases of minute diameter and almost vanishing velocity were expressly excluded. The meaning of the term ‘‘friction” in hydraulics was explained to be that resistance encountered in the conducting of water, which varied as the square of the velocity. The influence of the adhesion of the particles of water to the internal periphery of the pipes was then explained, in order to render clear that of which all engineers, combining science with prac- tice, were well aware that within certain limits the friction of water in pipes was independent of the nature of the material over which it flowed. In fact the adhesion of a film of fluid to the interior of the pipe, caused the formation of a tube of water, through which the body of water flowed, virtually reducing the diameter which was provided for in the formule. There must be some resistance whatever the pipe might be composed of, but as the film of water was equally existent under all cir- cumstances, 80 the resistance was identical in all cases. On this assump- tion, Du Buat and Dr. Young had given the corrections in their formule. The result had been, that if the equations mentioned, modified for rivers or for ordinary cases of pipes for water works, were applied, the resulta would be found to coincide accurately with those of practical experi- ments when correctly performed. This had been confirmed by accurate investigations and by gauging rivers, and also by the examination of sewers, as shown in Mr. Wicksteed's report on the drainage of Croydon. It had been assumed that the greater fall of side branches or inlets increased the velocity of tbe flow in inain sewers; practice, however, showed this assumption to be fallacious, as the various bends and junc- tions caused considerable retardation of the current. A recent experiment was mentioned as having been tried at the East London Waterworks upon a main of pipes 42 inches diameter and 2 miles in length, under the pressure of a constant head of 10 feet. Some curious effects of oscillation of the surface in the vertical air-pipes had been observed, and an account of them was promised to the Institution. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. In answer to questions, it was stated that the reductions of the er- periments made for the Trial Works Committee, and the report upon those experiments were not to be found in the archives of the present Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers. This was unfortunate, as it would have been interesting to have compared the results of these com- paratively recent trials with those of Du Buat, Dr. Young, and other well known experimenters, who had tried lead, iron, and even glass pipes, and had arrived at the conclusion, that the discharge was irrespective of the nature of the material of which the pipes were composed. The remark in Weisbach's ‘Mechanics,’ that Experiments with 24 and 41 inch wide common wooden pipes, have given the author the coefficient of resistance 1:75 times as great aa for metallic pipes, must be received with qualification; inasmuch as the position was not supported by details of the experiments, the results of which had probably been influenced by peculiar circumstances, and they were at variance with all others, in- cluding those upon water flowing through wooden troughs. A table was mentioned as being published by Mr. J. Thomson and Mr. G. Fuller, calculated from the formula of Weisbach, to show for pipes 100 feet in length, the relation between,—the velocity of the water, in feet per second,—the internal diameter of the pipe,—the head to overcome the friction, in feet, —and the number of cubic feet of water delivered per minute; so that when any two of the four quantities were given, the remaining two could be found. This table has been found correct and practically useful. It was maintained that the explanation of the resistance of the interior periphery of pipes, of whatever material they were composed, was con- sistent with the results of actual experiment, and that any further expenditure on trials for VV supposed advantages of smoothness of internal surface would entire waste. On the other hand, it was well known that the state of the external surface had much influence on the resistance of floating bodies moving through water, and no doubt this fact had, from analogy, led to the delusion that the smooth- ness or otherwise of the internal surface of pipes, would exercise an influence on the velocity of the flow of water. It being then an admitted fact, that, within certain limits, the surface was immaterial to the flow of water in pipes, it was desirable to seek a satisfactory explanation. Probably it might arise from the circumstance of there being a com- paratively fixed filin of water, held by the force of cohesion against the internal surface, through and between which the main body of water moved, whereas with a vessel or other floating body, the surface passed continually into a fresh mass of fluid, bringing the asperities of the moving surface successively into contact with new particles, and thus materially influencing the resistance. The facts which had been stated with respect to the experiments of the Trial Works Committee, of the former Commissioners of Sewers, and the corrupt use that had been made even of those worthless experi- ments, was another striking instance of the bad effects produced on private enterprise, and on the development of sound practice, by the rapid growth of functioneering influence during late years. The always useless, and sometimes injurious, interference of the Railway Depart- ment of the Board of Trade, of the Harbour Commission, and of the Board of Health, was strongly insisted upon, and well known instances were given in support of that opinion; referring to previous discussions at the Institution as examples. During along period of peace the cum- brous machinery of government departments had been presumed to have been rendered perfect, and was assumed to be so, whilst no demand was made on their active energies, or so long as no exigencies arose; but the late melancholy and disastrous events had shown their utter inability to fulfil their functions under any unexpected pressure, or to conduct any practical measure in a business-like manner; why, therefore, it was urged, should the rising generation of engineers be restricted and con- trolled by officials not deriving their appointments from merit, but from personal or political influence? In extenuation of the alleged perversion of the experiments of the Trial Works Committee, it was stated, that the results had not been wilfully perverted, but the apologist would not render himself responsible for the acts of the Board of Health; still it must be remembered that other engineers besides, those employed by that Board had extensively used pot-pipes for sewers, and there were instances of small sewers of two thousand years old. The sweeping denunciation of the acts and con- stitution of the late Board of Health was earnestly deprecated. In reply, it was urged that the remarks made were not personal, but were directed against a system proved to be pernicious, and from which the most serious resulta must be anticipated. That the engineers who had used pot-pipes for main sewers, had only done so under the compul- sory pressure of the Board of Health, as by no other means could they have procured permission to execute the drainage works they had under- taken. With respect to the experiments of the Trial Works Committee, it was remarkable that whilst the results of experiments which had cost upwards of 7000“. had been suppressed, the late Board of Health had not hesitated to pay a considerable sum for some tables of observations of a similar nature, made by an individual, and to publish and circulate them extensively. In explanation, it was stated that the Commission of Sewers, appointed in 1848, was abolished upon the representation of parties connected with the sanitary inquiries, and a single commission was appointed to control THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 10! the entire metropolis. The Board of Health was also established at the same time, and its most active member became a commissioner of sewers. THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION. That gentleman had previously considered the sewers of London to be Tuis Institution has recently opened with an entirely new too small; but his ideas underwent a change, and he arrived at the con- management, it being now under the sole control of Mr. Pepper, viction that conduits of very much smaller ares might convey larger the Professor of Chemistry, and most creditably has he entered NIA Wo of fluid, provided their internal surfaces were glazed. tae upon his new office; a marked inprovement is perceptible through- trial Works Committee was appointed to make 1 for estab. out; everything betokens a vigorous administration; no expense lishing this and other theorits. Documentary evidence still remained being spared to render the Institution, what it ought to be the to show that the experiments were undertaken without the necessary most attractive in the metro li, As far as we can ju dge 5 D i 3 knowledge of the science of hydraulics, or of the mode of experimenting ^ or of recording the resulta correctly; the prine qualification for experi: Mr. Peppers efforts are Warm y responded to by the publie; menters being the knowledge how to observe, and what to observe." but this is no more than might naturally be expected, for he The natural consequence was, the collection of a number of documents appeals to the intellectual spirit of the age, instead of grovelling to of the most heterogeneous character; many of them being indorsed by a morbid and vitiated taste; and such an appeal is seldom made the examining commissioners — <‘ anomalous,” — incredible, — ''re- in vain. People may talk as they will about the want of quired to be retried,” &c. Application was, however, made to Professor intellectuality in the public, but we hold a totally opposite Airy, to appoint some competent calculator to reduce the resulte into & opinion, and call to witness the admiring crowds who throng to tabular form, and to draw up a report. The gentleman accomplished any su rior entertainment—such as the oratorios at Exeter his ungrateful task, and was very in paid for the performance; but, Hall; the sublime strains of Mozart and Beethoven at the strange to say, notrace of either the tabulated resulte or the report existed Promenade Concerts; and the first-class plays at Sadler's Wells. amidst the mass of documents which, like everything in the archives of : : the presant Commission of Sewers, had been excellently arranged for haere Lon 185 to enumerate all the attractions of this itted, we would gladly ive an analysis reference; however, they were artly printed, by order of a succeeding ee permit 2 : yg Board of Commission, who, or seeing the results in type, declined to of Professor Pepper's highly interesting lecture on ‘Sound ien and issue such a document, and it was finally suppressed; but not based on experiments made some years ago by Professor Wheat- until a few copies had reached private hands (one of them being produced stone. It treats of the various conductors for the transmission of and quoted from by the speaker), and such as it was, the document sound; and, commencing by observing that sound depends entirely might be denounced as most unscientific and utterly worthless. Here it on the state of the atmosphere, Mr. Pepper leads you from the might have been presumed that the matter would have rested, but the simple experiment of striking a piece of sheet iron, to the final question was taken up by the Board of Health; evidence was obtained, and startling one of, what he terms, a Telephonic Concert :” this with the object of showing hat all the formule in use among profes- consists of Rae harps in the lecture room being connected, by sional men were fallacious; a blue-book, intended to demonstrate this, means of a wooden conductor, with various instruments two or hin publisko aie thousand t e eae x Dar three stories below; when the latter are played, the music, through expense, and practical engineers Yorn f at every turn by this fallacious the medium of these conductors can be heard almost as distinctly document. ‘The profession as à body had a right to remonstrate ener- ; : j : getically against such unjust and unconstitutional interference with be if the performers were in the lecture Thom and, as either of the . : f ; ; disengaged from the conductor, so the music imme- private enterprise and the public had still greater cause to complain of are : 3 the disregard for iheir interests, and the wasteful expenditure incurred diately ceases from the instrument to which it was attached; in the execution of works based on false and unscientific principles, and there ore—to use Mr. Pepper's language We can have our — which within a short period it would be requisite to reconstruct. music laid on and cut off, as we do our water;” and “M. Jullien, while giving a concert in London, can contract to give one at the —— 9 — game time at Liverpool, Birmingham, and Southampton!” The explanations ‘llustrating this curious and pleasing lecture were ON A NEW FORM OF THE PLATOMETER" so exceedingly lucid an plain, that the most juvenile among the auditory must have comprehended it. By the bye, this is a great feature in the lectures delivered here: instead of using—to 2 Taz name of Platometers, or Planimeters, has been given to novice—incomprehensible words and phrases, and speculating instruments which by a mechanical contrivance measure the on abstruse doctrines, they instil science and art into the multi- guperficial contents of any area, round which a tracing point con- tude by descending to their capacities; and with what success nected with the instrument is made to pass. In all those hitherto their numerous audiences can testify. We must not omit to constructed, the essential part of the instrument has consisted of mention the beautiful and popular lectures of Dr. Bachhoffner, a wheel, which is turned by the friction of another revolving on electricity, astronomy, &c.; or the explanatory ones on the body connected with the instrument, the radii of which are un- — various objects of interest in the Institution, of Mr. Johns. And equal; and the change of position of this wheel is effected by a then there are the dissolving views of the “Seat of War,” and lateral slipping along the surface of this body. Now, it might be “ Sinbad the Sailor;” but why the latter should be divided into shown mathematically from the laws of friction, and confirmed two parts, we cannot imagine, unless Mr. Pepper fancies we can by the simplest experiments, that, though the friction is suffi- have too much of a iod thing. There is a new, and rather cient to ensure perfect rolling when there is no lateral sliding, important feature introduced by the new laps ruin that of yet, when auch lateral sliding takes place, the very slightest dis- having special lectures every Monday evening, dressed chiefly turbing force produces a deviation from the result of perfect to the working classes, who are admitted on payment of sixpence rolling, the amount of which depends on the amount of this dis- each; 2 liberality on the part of the Institution which is fully turbing force, and on the distance over which the lateral dragging appreciated by the public. takes place. Mr. John Sang, in a paper in the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, has explained this effect, and shown how to measure and correct it. The instrument described THE PAN OPTICON. by the author was atated to be the result of an attempt to do ; ; "m E l away with slippin altogether, and as far as the theory goes it is THE Council p eoim y iA ir ud j^ a rfectly successful. The working parts of the instrum t con- conversazione on Saturday evening, the ya Cra Fa of A hemis here revolvin Eon a 5812 i 3 large number of savans and fashionables attended. The enter r "a 5 tainment provided for the visitors commenced by & performance sphere mounted on a framework, 80 that its axis remains always : - horizontal, but changes in position so as to admit of ditlerent on the gr and organ by sh T. Best, a organiat 5 5 points of the sphere and hemisphere coming in contact. The stitution, which was followed by a series = e . L „ tional Electricity by Dr. H. M. Noad, who said that not more phased 8 : 5 pus uds e pce eere in such a way than half the power of the machine was available in consequence E H : . ^ Me : i ng in front, and the large extent of damp that while the ratio of their velocities of rotation changes accord- of the fountain playing In ^. 8 : ! ing to the position of the tracing point, the action between the canvas at the back and above lt Rhumkorff'a coil and the quM : ; c also exhibited by the lecturer. A lecture ‘nts in contact is always that of perfect rolling without the electro-magnet wer | : í eH plus eet ons tem dere ule emu, Aqu ee F us bein ie necessary souree of error in all former instruments has been dis- jews of the War in the Crimea, followed by a instrum troduced, and vi d oi, and the ins! ent thereby rendered mathematically selection of chromatropes. In the course of the evening the luminous and chromatic fountain was put into operation; the effecta produced by the various shades of colour were surprising. By James CLERK MaxwELL, Trin. Coll., Cam. ———— ea perfect. > Exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arta. 102 NOTES OF THE MONTH. M.M. Caristie, De Caumont, Duban, De Gisors, Hittorff, Labrouste, Lassus, Le Bas, Lefuel, Lenoir, Lenormant, and Violett Le Duc, are appointed for the examination and admission of works in the architectural section of the Paris Exhibition. The Royal Society of Literature have established a Professor- ship of British History in Archæology, and appointed the Rev. H. Christmas, F.R.S., F.S.A., to the chair. An Architectural and Archeological Society has been formed in Leicestershire. A public meeting was held on the Ist of January, at Leicester, to establish it. The railway between Alexandria and Cairo, a distance of 130 miles, is now complete, with the exception of the three bridges on the two branches of the Nile and the Delta Canal. The com- munication between the two towns may be kept up by the line of railroad by crossing the river in boats, but it will not be avail- able for traffic and passengers until after the bridges are com- pleted, five or six months hence. The most important bridge is the tubular one which crosses the Damietta branch of the Nile at Benha, and which is well advanced towards completion. Herapath says, the first railway in Massachusetts was opened in 1827, and was only three miles in length. The following table shows the progress made in the extension of the railway system in the United States :— Years. Miles. Years. Miles. 18285 3 & 1842. . 3, 319 1829 ....... 28 1843 . . .. 3,877 1830 ........ 41 1844 ...... 4,174 1831 ....... 54 1845 ...... 4,311 1832 . . . . 131 1846 ...... 4,511 1833 ...... 576 1847 4,870 1834. . 762 1848 ...... 6,200 1835 ...... . 918 1849 ..... . 4,390 1836 ........ 1,102 1850 ...... 8,860 1837 . . .. 1,421 1851 ...... 10,900 1838 ........ 1,843 1852 ...... 13,320 1839 ....... 1,860 1853 ...... 15,510 1840 ........ 1,920 1854 ...... 19,440 The number of miles of railway now in operation in the world are 40,344; of which 21,528 miles are in the United States; 7744 in Great Britain; 5340 in Germany; 2480 in France; 532 in Belgium; 422 in Russia; 179 in Italy; 75 in Sweden; 42 in Nor- way; 60 in Spain; 25 in Africa; 100 in India; 1327 in British North America; 359 in Cuba; 60 in Panania; and 60 in South America. A new surveying instrument has been invented by Captain Bournier, of the French army. It consists of a compass-necdle, carrying a silver disc, the graduations of which are read through an eye-piece in the front of the instrument; above this disc, and on the same centre, another, which is loaded on one side, causing the diameter, which passes through the 90? division, to assume a vertical position. The sights are the same as those of an azimuth compass, and the whole instrument is very portable, being only 4 inches long, by 3 inches wide, and 1 inch deep. It may be used in the band or fastened on a walking stick, and gives quite accurate results for magnetic bearings, levels, or vertical angles. — — eoe COMPETITIONS. The competition for the enlargement of the Bradford Work- house for the accommodation of 370 additional inmates, has been decided in favour of Messrs. Lockwood and Mawson. The first premium for the Corn Exchange, Watford, has been awarded to Mr. James Murray, and the second to Mr. Edward Wyndham Tarn, M.A., of Brunewick-square. The designs of Mr. Hippisley, the surveyor of the Burial Board, have been adopted for the Cemetery at Wells. The first premium for the Cemetery, Weymouth, has been awarded to Mr. William John Pinch, of London, the second to Mr. Talbot Bury. ' The Guardians of the Poor of King’s Lynn have selected the designs of Messrs. Medland and Wicherly, of Gloucester, for the new workhouse, from twenty-six sets of designs. The designs of Mr. F. Fuller, of 13, Vineyards, Bath, for the Cemetery, Bath, have been selected by the local Burial Board. Fifteen designs were sent in. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. NEW PATENTS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW AMENDMENT ACT. Dated October 14. 2202. L. Monzani, Greyhound-place, Old Kent-road, widow and administratrix of W. T. Monzani, late of St. James's-terrace, Bermondsey—Improvemente in bedsteads, and packing-cases or boxes to contain the same and other articles Dated October 24. 2264. I. Adama, Massachusetts, U.8.—New and useful improvements in machinery for printing Dated November 10. 2389. E. W. K. Turner, Praed.street, Paddington — Improvemente in separating liquids or fluids from substances or matters, part of which improvements are also applicable to other purposes where the air-pump has been hitherto employed Dated November 14. 2114. G. Bodley, Everard-street, East—Improvements in revolving cannon Dated November 20. 2451. H. Diaper, St. Michael’s-terrace, Pimlico—The application of a new material to the manufacture of paper Dated November 25. 2495. J. 8. Holland, Woolwich, Kent—Improvements in large and small fire-arms, and in the preparation of their charges Dated November 29. 2513. J. M. Hyde, Bristol—lIinprovements in iron steam ships, and in boilers and machinery for propelling the aame Dated November 80. 2519. J. Mason and L. Kaberry, Rochdale—Improvements in m apparatus for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotton and other fibrous materi Dated December 12. 2611. R. Larkin, St. John's-villas, Highbury—Improvemente in the construction of locks and keys Dated December 19. 2671. W. P. Dreaper, Bold-street, Liverpool—The improvement of the manufacture of pianofortes Dated December 21. 2695. A. Smith, Princes-street, St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, and J. T. Mackenzie, Lom- bard-street — Improvements in ordnaoce and small arms, by applying thereto projectile force obtained from high-pressure steam Dated December 28. 2717. T. Heppleston, Manchester — Improvements in machinery or apparatus for stretching and finishing silk or woollen yarns or threada in the hank or skein 2719. W. De la Rue, Burhill-row—Improvementa in treating products arising from the distillation of a certain tar or naptha to render the same suitable for dissolving or removing fatty or resinous substances Dated December 26. 2728. P. P. Blyth, Upper Wimpole-street —An improved application of materials to the construction of screw-propellers Dated December 30. 2758. F. Preston, Manchester—Improvements in bayonets, and in the machinery for manufacturing the same Dated January 1. 8. J. Seguin, Paris—Improvementa in obtaining motive power by the expansion of air, steam, and other fluida 5. S. Giles, Caledonian-road, Islington—An improved ratchet brace Dated January 2. J A. Roullion, Paris—Improvements in the manufacture of soap 9 J. Arnold, Tamworth, Stafford A new mode of ornamenting bricks, and other moulded articles for building purposes 11. G. Peacock, Gracechurch-street — Improvements in constructing propellers for ships and other vessels Dated January 3. 18. F. G. C. Dehaynin, Paris—Improvements in the purification of hydrogen gas 16. I. Lippmann, Rue Gcotfroy St. Hilaire, Paris—An improved machine for splitting or sawing the skins of calves, oxen, cows, horses, and other animals 17. S. A. Goddard, Birmingham—-A new or improved fire-arm, a portion of which is applicable to ordnance 19. J. Gaskell and G. Holcroft, Manchester—Improvements in the manufacture of mortar and cement 21. A. S. Stocker and S. Darling, Poultry, Cheapside—Improvements in the manufac- ture of bottles, pota, jars, tubes, and other receptacles, part of which improvements are applicable to various other purposes for commercial and domestic use 23. J. Venables and A. Mann, Burslem— Improvements in producing figures or orna- ments in articles made of clay or plastic material 25. G. W. Muir, Glasgow—Improvernents in warming and ventilating Dated January 5. 27. L. J. Martin, Paris—Improvements in the composition of colours for printing and dyeing, and in the application of such colours 29. W. H. Bulmer, Queen's Head, near Halifax, and W. Bailey, Halifax—Improve- ments in machinery or apparatus for combing wool, cotton, and other fibrous sub- gtances 81. R. Ashworth and J. Stott, Rochdale—Improvements in machinery for preparing, spinning, and doubling fibrous substances 83. F. Prince, South-parade, Chelsea—Improvementa in cartridges for fire-arms Dated January 6. 85. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fielda—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for effecting agricultural operations, part of the said improvements being applicable for the obtainment of motive power for general purposes. (A communication! 37. J. B. Rüttre, Paris—Improvements in the treatment of rags and other goods, formed partly of wool and partly of vegetable fibres, in order to separate the veget- able fibres from them and obtain the wool in ita pure state 89. J. Scott, Sunderland-—Improvements in the construction of anchors 41. C. J. Edwards, jun., Great Sutton-street, Clerkenwell, and F. Frasi, Tavistock- terrace, Holloway—An improved manufacture of bearings for carriage axles and shafts of machinery in general Dated January 8. 43. J. Huggins, Birmingham A new or improved machine for the manufacture of lint. 45. R. McCall, Pallas-Kenry, Limerick—Improvements in the manufacture of iron aud steel 47. W. Hay and J. Hay, Glasgow—Improvements in engines for obtaining motive wer "ma Bury, Manchester—Improvement in embossing Orleans cloth, or other similar fabrics. cominonly called stuif goods THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dated January 9. 51. E. Hayes, Stony Stratord, Bucks—Improvements in apparatus for feeding thrash- ines .J. Offord, Wells-street, Oxford - street. — Improvements in the construction of car- 65. F. E. Thomas, Paris—Improvements in the treatment of tissues and other goods formed of wool, mixed with other textile fibres, in order to obtain the wool from them 57. H. J. Hall, Charlton, Kent, A. Dalgety and E. Ledger, Deptford, Kent—Improve- ments in apparatus for propelling, guiding, or manamvring ships or boats 59. W. Major, Copenhagen— Improvements in the construction and arrangement of screw propellers Dated January 10. 61. T. Wilson, Birmingham—An improvement in the manufacture of bands used in the construction of small arms 62. B. Predaval, Great Russell-atreet, Bedford-square—Improving the production and manufacture of pulp for the making of paper 63. W. T. Henley, St. John-street-road—Improvements in steam boilers or generators, and in apparatus in connection therewith 64. E. Booth, Gorton, Lauster —I[mprovements in the mode and machinery for dress- „ starching, and finishing textile and other fabrics and materials 65. W. C. Fuller, Bucklersbury, Cheapaide—Improvemente in the construction and adaptation of indiamubb»r springs 66. H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, New Cannon-street — Improvements in the manu- facture of iron and steel 68. L. P. Lehugeur, and M. Uttinger, St. Denia, near Paris—Improvements applicable to machinery for printing fabrics Dated January 11. 69. J. Gedge, Wellington-strect South — Improvements in metallic flooring. supports for floors, walls, or partitions of buildings. (A communication frum M. N. Gervis, Paris) 70. J. L. Hervé, Paris—Improvements in preserving meat and fish T1. J. Norton, Dublin — Improvements in draining land 72. A. Robertson, Upper Holloway — A new manufacture of packages for dry goods 78. E. Hall, Dartford, Kent — Improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder 74 R. Oxland, Plymouth—Improvements in the manufacture and revivification of animal charcoal 15. E. Townsend, Massachusetts, U. S. —New and useful improvements in machinery for sewing cloth, leather, or other material. (A communication from A. Swingle, Massachusetts 16. J. Wood, Barbican—An improved process for lettering and ornamenting glass, which the inventor terms hyalotypy ; 77. W. L. Thomas, Anderton, Devon—Improvements in projectiles and gun wads 78. S. W. Davids, Carnarvon—Improvements in elongating chandeliers and gaseliers Dated January 12. 80. J. Onions, Wellington-place, Blackfriars- road —Improvementa in the construction of pipes and tubes for the use of smoking tobacco and cigars 81. W. Hunt, Tipton, Stafford—Improvements in the manufacture of iron 82. J. R. Hodgson, Sunderland—Improvements in the construction of anchors 83. F. V. Guyard, Gravelines, France— Improvements in the electro-telegraphic communications 84. E. Miles, Stoke Hammond, Bucks—An improved coupling-joint or connection for tubing or other purposes . C. Turner, Burnley —Improvements in power-looms for weaving 86. J. Harrison and J. Oddie, Blackburn —Improvements in machines for sizeing, ag es otherwise preparing yarns or threads for 3 87. F. ston, Manchester Improvement in ordnance and in projectiles for ord- nance and small arms 88. W. Barninghain, Salford —Improvements in connecting the rails of railways 89. A. Seithen, Coblenz, aud J. II. Lichtenstein, Berlin, Prussia —Improvements in machinery or apparatus for cutting and «haping cork 90. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street Certain means of devulcanising india-rubber and other similar gums, or of treating such gums after having been vulcanised. (A coinmunicat ion 91. P. N. Gadol, Bermondsey —An improved process to be employed in tanning Dated Jonuary 13. i 93. W. H. Nevill, Llanelly, Carmarthen —Improvements in the construction of reverberatory furnaces for the collection and condensation of volatile substances. 94. J. Graham, Hartsheed Print-works, near Stalybridge—Iimprovements in fixing certain colours in or upon yarns and textile fabrics 95. G. Warnecke, Frankfort-on-the Maine—Improvements in preserving vegetables and fruits 96. J. Claudot, Paris—An improved stucco 97. M. D. Holling, Stoke-upon-Trent—Improvements in slip kilns for drying clay 98. E. L. Hayward, Blackfriara-road, Surrey—Improvemeuts in kitchen ranges 99. J. C. Pearce, Bowling Iron-works, York — Improvermenta in machinery or apparatus for the manufacture and working of iron and other metals 100. J. E. Outridge, Constantinople, now at Blackfriars-road—Lmprovements in trans- mitting motive power 101. d Greene , Irwell-springs, near Bacup, Lancaster—Improvements in sizeing, stiffening, and finishing textile fabrics or materials Dated January 15. 102. F. Burke, Woodlands, Montserrat, British West Indies—Improvements in and apparatus for obtaining from the plantain, banana, aloe, penguin, and other vegetable N aubstances, fibres, applicable to various manufacturing purposes 103. W. T. Frost, Shottle, near Belper, Derby — Iinprovements in machinery for clean- ing knives 104. Hl. M. Ommanney, Chester — An improvement in the manufacture of shot, shells, hollow shot, and other projectiles 105. J. P. Lark, Nine Elms-lane, Vauxhall —Improvementa in effecting the combustion of fuel and the consuinption of smoke in steam boiler and other furnaces 106. G. Riley, Portland-place North, Clapham-rouad—An improved false bottom for brewera, distillera, and vinegar makers’ mash tubs 107. E. Haynes, jun., Bromley, Middlesex—A smoke-consuming furnace Dated January 16. 108. M. T. Stefani, Paris—Improvements in fire-arms 109. U. C. Choisnet and C. Giajola, Birmingham — Improvements in moderateur lam 110. H. Adkins, Edgbaston, near Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in bleaching or decolorizing oily and fatty bodics 111. J. Yeoman, Walworth. Surrey—Improveinents in self-feeding furnaces 112. G. Jackson, Manchester—Improvements in the construction of tents 113. J. Simkin, Rolton-le-Moors, Lancaster -Improvements in rifles and other flre- arms 114. J. L. Norton, Holland-street, Blackfriars—Improvements in recovering the wool from fabrics composed of wool, or wool in connection with cotton or other vegetable substance 118. J. Saunders, 8t. John's-wood—An improvement in the manufacture of axles and shaftin 116. J. 4. F. V. Oudin, Mons, France —A new liquid for preventing sea-sickness 10³ 117. R. J. M York-road, Lambeth—Improvements in the construction of steam engines, which consists of a better means of mechanism for effecting the transmission of and conversion of action of motion for working and applying steam or other equivalent motive power Dated January 1T. 118. G. W. Garrood, Burnham, Easex—An improved apparatus to be used in conjunc- tion with windlasses on ships, cranes on land, and with other machinery for raising or lowering weights for the purpose of guiding and controlling the action thereof 119. 8. Lomas, Manchester—lmprovements in machinery for winding and doubling silk 120. J. Horton, Birmingham An improvement or improvements in packing or storing gunpowder 121. 4 Quertinier, Chaleroi, Belgium—An improvement in glass furnaces 122. A. Colles, Millmount, Kilkenny—Improvements in sawing marble and similar materials. (A communication) 128. D. Davidson, Meiklewood, by Stirling—Improved 9 for pointing ordnance, and restoring the aim of the piece, either by ijs or nigi t, when it is once obtained 124. J. Webster, Collingham, York—Improvements in the application of motive power 125. J. Higgins and T. 8. Whitworth, Salford, Lancaster—Improvements in moulding for casting shot, shells, and other articles 127. E. Hall, Salford, Lancaster Improvements in combining metallic wires with textile materials, or fabrics for forming wire ribbon 128. L. Flower, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, and G. A. Dixon, Cobham Hall, Stratford, Essex — Improvements in machinery or apparatus for sifting and cleansing Dated January 18. 129. C. J. Duméry, Paris—Improvements in smoke-preventing apparatus 130. J. B. Surgey, Lidlington-place, St. Pancras—Improvements in carriages 181. T. Blackwood and A. Gordon, Paisley, Renfrew—lmprovemente in motive power engines 132. W Lancaster, Preston—Improvements in “temples” employed in the manu- facture of textile fabrics 133. E. Leigh, Collyhurst, Lancaster — Improvements in machinery or apparatus for 1 cotton and other fibrous substances for spi- ning 134. H. Partridge and J. Broom, Birmingham Improvements in the manufacture of wrought-iron ordnance 135. W. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fielda—Improvements in the application, treatment, cleansing, and dyeing of fibrous substances and producte. (A communication.) 186. W. Pidding, Putney, Surrey—Improvements in the manufacture of combe for the huinan hair 137. W. Pidding, Putney, Surrey—Improvements in the manufacture of building materials, and in the machinery or apparatus for making the same 138. W. 1 Putney, Surrey —Improvements in coverings for the feet of bipeds and quadrupe 139. J. G. Lawrie, G w—Improvements in the sights of fire-arms and cannon 140. M. J. Nyilassy, Chandos-street, Covent-garden—Improvements in wind musical instruments in the nature of the bugle and the trumpet 141. S. A. Bell and J. Black, Bow-lane, Cheapeide—An improvement in the manu- facture of congreve or lucifer matches Dated January 19. 142. C. F. Stansbury, Cornhill—Improvementa in the construction and operatum of self-acting railway breaks. (A communication from J. J. McComb, New Orleans, U.S.) 143. S. J. Paris, Manchester—Improvementa in machinery for embossing 144. R. Martin, High-street, Tottenham, and J. Hyams, Union-street, Bishopegate —Improvements in goloshes or over-shoes 145. S. Isaacs, Newman-street, Oxford-atreet—Improvementas in the manufacture of artificial coral 146. J. I. Clarke, Windsor-court, Monkwell-street — Improvements in applying colour to the edges of leather gloves. (A cominunication from F. Moat, Grenoble; 147. J. Abbott, Sinallbrooke-street, and H. Holland, Steelhouse-lane, Birmingham Improvements in preventing the sinking of vessels at sea or on rivers, and in raising of sunken vessels 149. T. C. Hill, Stanton Lacy, Shropshire—An improvement in drain D and tilee 150 P. C. P. Laurent-Préfontaine, Paris — An improved engine, ed hydraulic aling, for raising water and other liquids, or heavy ies 151. W. Smith and T. Phillipa, Snow-hill—Improvements in cocks or tape, and in balls or floats to be used therewith 152. ran , Paris—An improved apparatus for advertising, or for the exhibi- tion uf placards 153. M. B. Rennie, Whitehall-place — Improvements in preserving animals and vegetable suhetances for food (A communication) Dated January 920. rk Douglas and J. Carswell, Manchester — Improvemente in dyeing woven rica 156. 2 Salaville, Paris—An improved method of preserving and purifying grain and sce 157. W. G. Pearce, Grosvenor-street, Camberwell—An improved method of pro- jecting chain or coupled shot or shell from double and single barrel guns, and caueing them to explode simultaneously by electricity and other means 158. A. E. L. Belford, Essex-street—Improvements in paddle-wheels for propelling vessels in water. (A communication from J. U. Wallis, Dansville, U. 8. 159. F. Margueritte, Paris—Improvements in the manufacture of soda and potash 160. W. Eisenmann, Berlin—A new construction for a hearth, applicable to all firing- constructions or fireplaces Dated January 22. 162 J. Gedge, Wellington-street South—Impruvements in laminating m either in reJief or bas-relief. (A communication from MM. Tournel, St. Chamond, ce, 163. S. Trotman, Portman-square—Improvements in filtering apparatus 164. H. Carr, Peterboruugh—Improvements in railway crossings 165 J. H. Pape, Pals -finpror-ments in pianofortes 166. R. Johnsou, Drums-lane, Aberdeen— The use of certain portions of fish in the manufacture of soap 167. J. J. Van Camp, Paris—Improvementa in pistons of steam-engines 168. F. A. Vasnier, Paris—Improvements in fireplaces " ji^ P. H. G. Berard-Touzelin, Paris—Improvements in the manufacture of artificial owers 170. ls Fonte Liverpool—An improved manufacture of naptha, paraffine, and paraffine o HE [Arkell, Stockwell, Surrey—An improved mode of purifying whale and sea! oils Dated January 23. 172. J. Coates, Salford —Improvements in railways. 173. F. Prince, South-parade, Chelsea —Improvements in cartridges fee fire-arms 174. W. Dray, Swan-lane—An improved machine for cuteing chaff 175. W. Sellwood, Cheapside — An improvement in spatterdashes 176. J. Fenton, Low Moor, Yorkshire—Improvements in the manufacture of ax!es, shafts, rods, and bars 177. G. B. Pettit and H. F. Smith, New Ox‘ord-street—Improvemente in stoves and other apparatus for generating heat from gas, and in the employment and remoral of the vapours produced by its cumbustion 104 Dated January 24. 178. B. Laming, Carlton-villas, Maida-vale—Improvements in obtaining and combining ammonia 179. J. Webster, Birmingham—A new or improved method of changing the direction of and e motion 180. Sir J. C. Anderson, Fermoy, Cork—Improvements in steering ships. 181. C. W. Tupper, of the firm of Tupper and Carr, Mansion House-place—Lmprove- ments in the construction and arrangement of coverings for buildings. 183. A. E. Schmersahl, and J. A. Bouck, Miles Platting, Lancaster—Improvements in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and in apparatus for effecting the same. Dated January 25. 184. W. E. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improved machinery for raising and forcing fluids. (A communication) 185. J. Gregory and A. P. How, Mark-lane—Improvements in steam engines, and in padi for pumps and other machinery in which packing is required 186. W. Winstanley and J. Kelly, Liverpool—Improvements in pump gear 187. B. Samuel, Sheffield—Improvements in the manufacture of knife-handles, umbrella and stick handles, door knobs, articles of furniture, aud other articles having the appearance and transparency of solid tortoiseshell 188. H. B. Powell, Foxleaze-park, Lyndhust—An improved precautionary keel, to be applied to vessels in shallow water or other difficult navigation m E F. Burnard, Plyinouth—Imnprovements in the manufacture of super-phosphate of lime 190. A. W. Anderson, Birmingham—Improvements in pasting or exhibiting advertise- ments 191. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fields — Improvements in the construction and arrangement of electric telegraphs, and in the application thereof. (A communication from the Chevalier G. Bonelli, Turin) 192. J. H. Johnson, Liucoln's-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for reparing cotton, and similar fibrous materials. (A communication from C. Leyherr, val, France) 193. G. H. Bursill, Ranelagh-road, Pimlico—lmprovements in cases or coverings for exploaive substances or compounds 194. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-strect —A power accumulator or apparatus to be employed with hydraulic presses. (A communication from J. B. Falguitre, Marseilles; Dated January 26. 195. W. Townsend, Coventry—Constructing vehicles without axle-trees, and thus . improved method of lowering the body of the vehicle 198. W. Bealea, Arlington-street, Camden-town—Improvements in cartridges 199. G. Bell, Cannon-street West—Improvements in constructing air springs munication) 200. J. Leese, jun., Manchester—Iinprovements in the process of printing calicos and other textile fabrics 201. W. T. Vose, Massachusetts, U. S.—New and useful improvements in pump for elevating fluida 202. I. Atkin and M. Miller, Vernon-terrace, Nottingham—Improvements in apparatus for measuring the supply of water and regulating the supply of fluids 208. W. R. Morris, Deptford—Improverments in the construction aud arrangement of apparatus for preventing the waste of water from service pipes or cisterns 204. G. Searby, Sloane-street, Chelsea—Improvements in the manufacture of boots and shoes, also applicable to other articles made of or partly formed of leather 205. R. Mallet, Dublin—Improvements in the manufacture of hollow shot and shells, and similar hollow bodies of cast-iron or other cast metals 206. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's iun-ficldaà—Improvementa in the construction of kites, and in the application thereof to the purposes of carrying lines, and of signalling (A communication from A. M. Préverand, Paris) Dated January 27. 209. W. Onion, Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in gas stoves 211. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-strect, Fiusbury-—- A improved ma- chine for manufacturing thimbles employed on board ship or elsewhere. (A com munication) 212. H. Nightingale and R. Nightingale, Chorley, Lancaster — Improvement in ma- chinery or apparatus for slubbing, roving, and spinuing cotton aud other fibrous materials (A com- Dated January 29. 214. J. Wilkins, New Charles-street, City-ro«d—4AÀn improved mode or method of damping or moistening postage, receipt, or other stamps, adhesive labels, the surface of paper, and other substances 215. W. Polkinhorn, Gwennap, near Redruth, Cornwall—Improvements iu apparatus for cleansing wheat 216. H. L. Dormoy, Paris—Iniprovements in braiding or plaiting machinery. munication 217. J. D. Humphreys, Charlotte-street, Caledonian-road—Improvements in steam- engines 218. É . Imray, Bridge-road, Lambeth—Improvements in locks 219. G. Goodfellow, Great Fenton, Stoke-upon- Trent — Improvements in supplying heated air to the bottoms and tlues of potters’ and brickmakers’ ovens and kilns, and of steam-engine boilers 220. A. Collinge, Bridge-road, Lambeth —Improveinenta in spring hingen 221. T. Binks, Wentworth, York—Lmproveiments in raising and regulating the supply of water and other fluids 222. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln'a-inn-fields - Improvements in looms for weaving. munication from G. Borntque, Baviliers, France 222. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fielda—Improvements in the generation of steam. (A communication from P. J. C. Montety, Toulon 224. A. Pichot, Poitiers, France —-Improvemeuts in postage paper and envelopes 225. E. Death and J. Popplewell, Halstead, Essex-—An improved stop-valve or cock for water, gaa, aud other liquids and fluids 226. E. Cunnah and J. Hampson, Liverpool—Improved tumstile counting apparatus (A com- (A com- Dated . Iinttary 30. 227. D. Moline, Adelaide-place—Improvem-nta in the manufacture of metallic window- frames and skylights. A communication) 228. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street—An improved filter. (A communication) 230. G. W. Henri, Fishergate, Yurk -A new compound or meal mixture for feeding cattle 232. D. Warren, Glasgow—Improvementa in screw propellers Dated January 31, 233. J. Smith and J. Hollingworth, Lanelev Mills, Brancepeth — Improvements in treating certain fibrous materials for manufacturing paper 234. A. Lyon, Windmil-street, Finsbury — An improvement in sausage-making or mincing machines 235. 8. White, Southport, Lancaster— Improvements in the manufacture of pencils or crayons 236. 6. Price, Wolverhampton Improvements in iron safes, chests, and boxea 237. J. Howard, Bedford—Improvements in ploughs 238. J. R. Delguey-Malavas, Montbrison, Frauce—Improved machinery for obtaining and applying motive power THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 239. M. Samuelson and A. Samuelson, Scott-street Foundry, Hull—Improvements in stcam-engines 240. J. F. Porter, Bessborough-street — Improvements in the manufacture of bricks, and other articles of clay or brick earth 241. J. Harrington, Pelham-street, Brompton—Improvements in priming fire-arms 242. A. E. L. Belford, Essex-street—linprovemente in machinery for forging nuts and washers. (A communication from C. H. Wateron, America) Dated February 1. 243. W. Taylor, Oxford-terrace, Hyde-park—Improvemente in cables for holding at anchor, and towing ships, and other floating bodies 241. T. O. Dixon, Stecton, near Keighley, York—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for turning, boring, cutting, and shaping wood and similar materials 245. A. Prince, Trafalrar-square—Improvements in fire-arms. (A communication) 246. I. Jecks, Trowse Newton Lodge, near Norwich—A machine for sweeping grasa or weeds from lawns or fields, and depositing the same into a box or other receptacle 247. A. W. Williamson, University College, Gower-street—Improvements in apparatus for feeding fires Dated February 2. 248. B. Goodfellow, Hyde, Chester—Improvements in ordnance 250. G. Ritchie, Moninouth-place, New Kent-road—lmprovementa in beds or mat- tresses 251. J. Castel and F. M. Beaupré, Marseilles—A new system of burner for lampe, called the ‘‘ pyropneumatic burner” 252. I. Carlhian and I. Corbière, Castle-street, Holborn, and Rue du Sentier, Paris— Improvements in moderator lamps Dated February 8. 256. R. J. Maryon, York-road, Lambeth—Improvement or improvements in the con- struction of, and manufacture of bullets, or shot, or projectiles 258. E. Clegg aud J. Leach, Shore Mill, near Littleborough, Lancaster—Improvements in temples for looms 200. H. V. P. dela Bertoche, Paris—Improvements in manufacturing paper, pasteboard aud pulp 262. E. C. Bisshopp, Stonehouse, Devon—Improvements in breech loading flre-arms Dated February 5. 264. A. E. L. Bellford, Easex-street—An improved mode of constructing hulla of vessels (A communication from V. P. Corbett, Corbettaville, Broome County, New York) 266. A. Morton, Kilmarnock, Ayr—Lmprovements in weaving carpets 268. J. Dorrell, Bilston, Stafford—Improvements in machinery for pressing, squeezing, and rolling iron 270. J. Imray, Bridge-road, Lambeth—Improvements in measuring instruments 272. P. J. Carré, Asnieres, Scinc—Improvements in ornamenting fabrics with metal leaf Dated February 6. 274. D. J. Hoare, Salisbury-street, Strand—Improvements in propelling vessels 216. H. Trappes, Manchester—A process for the preparation of leather to be used in the manufacture of a new flock, and for the manufacture of the same, to be used and applied in lieu of flock made from pounded or ground wool and woollen materials herotofore commonly used in the manufacture of painted, printed, and dy decorating papers, carpeta, oil-cloths, and other things, and also to be used as a paste or pulp for the manufacture of all kinds of paper, parchment, and pasteboard, toya, of ornamental and other picture-frames, of mouldings, architectural and sculp- tural ornaments, and other things. (A communication) 278. F. Gray, Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in candlesticks 280. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's- inn-flelds— Improvements in the combination of materials for vare riro onig: aud similar purposes. (A communication from J. T. Trotter, New York, U.S.) 282. W. S. Roberts, Loderaville, Pennsylvania, U. S.—Coupling railway carriages 284. J. Grainger, Birchwood, Alfreton, Derby—Improvementa in the manufacture of pantiles ae PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 154. C. Van den Bergh, Lacken, by Brussels—Improvements in rotatory steam-engines —January 20 195. J. Lamacraft, Westbourne-grove — Improvements in envelopes or means for securing letters, notes, and similar documents—January 26 208. &. Mayer and W. Hush, Bristol—Improvements in reducing flint and other sub- Rtances, rendering them suitable for the manufacture of porcelain and other earthen- ware articles—January 27 218. A. L. Lenoir, Paris—Improvementa in breech-loading fire-arms—Jannary 27 219. W. Soelman, Bennet-street, Fitzroy-square—An invention de to shipping aud mills, under the title of the Naukinetic or Suip-moving Machine—February 2 NOTICES OF APPLICATION FOR PROLONGATION OF PATENTS, A petition by A. Rene le Mire de Normandy, Judd.street, Middlesex, praying her Majesty to grant a prolongation of the letters patent granted to him 8tb September, IS II, for ** certain improvements in the manufacture of rae On the 12th March, or on the next day of sitting of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, if it do not. sit on the day mentioned, an application wil] be made to that Committee to fix an early day for hearing the matters contained in the said petition; and any person desirous of being heard in opposition must enter a caveat to that effect in the Privy Council Office on or before that date A petition by F. J. Read, Friday-street, Cheapside, C. Foard, the Stock Exchange, London, and T. Shepperason, Herne Hill, Camberwell, praving her Majesty to grant a prolongation of the several letters patent granted to J. Juckes, Lewishain, Kent, but now of the Queen's Prison, Surrey, for England, 4th September. 1841; for Scotland, 28th December, 1841; and Ireland, 21st April, 1842, tor improvements in furnaces or fireplaces.” On the 29th March, or on the next day of sitting of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, if it do not sit on the day mentioned, an application will be made to that Committee to fix an early day for hearing the matters contained in the said petition; and any person desirous of being heard in opposition, must enter a caveat to that effect in the Privy Council Otfice on or before that date —— NOTICE3 OF APPLICATION FOR LEAVE TO ENTER DISCLAIMER. W. H. F. Talbot, Lacock Abbey, Wilts, aud T. A. Malone, Regent-street, for leave to enter a disclaimer for the purpose of disclaiming certain parts of the specification of the letters patent granted to them for improvements in photography." December 19, 1849 J. Lamb, Manchester, for leave to file a disclaimer and memorandum of alteration of parts of the specification of the patent granted to him for A certain improve- ment or improvements in machinery for preparing and spinning cotton, wool, flax, silk, and similar fibrous materials. — December 5, 1843 eRe — — -a= - — — o —— PI 12. ] iij i =, " | — m Mi »-— [T 1 II. | £i TT — XHH ^ M. MANCHESTER. JR Jobbms. pated Google TOWN HALL, C H E E T HA M. FIRST FL N. GROUND PLAN. B | — — r TIS THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 105 NEW TOWN HALL, CHEETHAM, MANCHESTER. (With Engravings, Plates XII and XIIL) In the latter part of the year 1853, it became evident that better accommodation for carrying on the business of the town- ship of Cheetham, in the parish of Manchester, was absolutely ne A meeting in vestry was called, and a resolution passed that a town hall and suitable offices should be erected, and the cost defrayed by the ratepayers of the township. The over- seers were empowered to appoint a building committee of the Most influential ratepayers, and to obtain designs for suitable buildings to be erected at a cost not exceeding 3000“. Several architects of Manchester were requested to submit designs in competition for suitable buildings, not only for the present use, but capable of future extension at a small outlay. After careful examination of each design sent in, those produced by Mr. Bird were adopted, embracing as they did, all the requisite accommodation, and most likely to come within the specific sum at their command. Tenders were advertised for, and that of Mr. Neill, one of the councillors of the borough, was accepted. The corner stone of the building was laid by B. Nichols, - mayor of Manchester, on the 3rd of April 1854, and on the 25th of January 1855, the town hall was opened for business. The site selected for the building is at the corner of York-street and Knowsley-street, and measures forty vards to the former by fifty yards to the latter street, and was presented by the Earl of Derby to the township, free of land tax for ever. The buildings are of brick faced with pressed stock bricks and dressings of Yorkshire stone. On entering the building on the right-hand side of a corridor is the overseer's general office A, for the receipt of the rates of the township and government taxes; adjoining which is an office B, for private business, and a fireproof safe C, for books, records, &c. On the left-hand side is an office for the surveyor of the township D, and an office E, for his clerks, adjoining which is a committee room F, for general meetings. A e G, leads to a lavatory H, and other conveniences outside the building. Returning to the centre of the entrance, a stone staircase Jeads immediately into the principal room or hall, which is 52 feet long by 29 feet wide, at the right-hand end of which are two ante-rooms I and K, which it may be requisite at some future time to add to the hall, making another panel to the ceiling to correspond with the left-hand end. An office L, is provided on this floor for any case of emergency. In the left wing of the building is a dwelling-house for the superintendent of police of the district; on the ground floor are a pour M, kitchen N, RTT O. Adjoining is a charge-room ; for the accommodation of the police on duty, and a number of lockups at Q. From the charge-room a staircase leads into a cellar where is fixed an apparatus for warming the locku On the chamber floor of this wing are three l R, H R for the superintendent and family. The wing on the left contains sitting-room S, kitchen T, and scullery U, for the accommodation of a hallkeeper. There is a basement story extending to the extent of the building, principally used for the accommodation of the apparatus of the plighter, scavengers, &c. — — a ÁÀ ——————— THE WARMING OF CHURCHES. A Pamphlet issued by the Incorporated Society for Promoting the Enlargement, Building and Repairing of Churches and Chapels. Ir has been frequently asserted, of late years, that as our ancestors were content to worship in cold churches, the present generation might be satisfied to do the same. But the superior comfort of modern homes renders the people of the present day impatient of discomfort in places of worship, and clergymen, who are the best judges in such a matter, find that churches must be rendered both dry and warm, if they are to expect congregations in the cold seasons. In the very last number of this Pass an Instance is mentioned of thin con tions in a church; although a much fuller attendance might be expected, if comfortable accomodation were provided, which, it is significantly added, is easily obtained in two large meeting-houses. Judging from the frequent applications to the Society for advice respecting the best mode of warming a church, and from the continual mention of failure in the methods adopted, it seemed that there must be either a difficulty in accomplishing No. 253.—Vor. XVUI—Aprit, 1855. this object, or that the matter is not well understood. With a view to obtain some precise information upon the subject, a few inquiries were addressed to a considerable number of those architecte who have been most engaged in church building, several of whom have very kindly sent replies. They were asked to state, Ist. The best mode of warming a church; 2nd. If by hot air, hot water, or stoves, whose system or what plan they deemed the most effectual; 3rd. What they considered to be the difficulties attending the warming of a church, so as to m the cause of the frequent failure of the plans adopted; 4th. Whe- ther one reason of this failure might not be the 5 of the means used; 5th. Whether there is not some scale of length and diameter of pipe or flue, &c, proportionate to the cubical contents of a church, by which a certain temperature may be secured; 6th. Why currents of cold air are so continually com- lained of in churches warmed by artificial means, and how this Inconvenience might be avoided; and two other questions were proposed, respecting the duration of the warming process when put in operation. I. Upon the first point, the general opinion is in favour of hot water; at the same time, hot air from flues or stoveg seems to be recommended, when the cost of the apparatus is a consideration, When hot water is used, it should circulate under the floor from a small boiler, through pipes 4inches in diameter, into an expan- sion cistern, and thence back into the boiler; the entire area under the church should become a warm-air chamber, having openings through the wall to admit the external air, which, when heated by contact with the pipes, is to rise into the church, through gratings in the floor. It is particularly recommended that a large body of moderately warm air be used in preference to a small quantity much heated by small pipes (whether placed above or below the floor), as the heat thus produced is apt to be offensive, and a limited supply of hot or burnt air quickly sup- plied, creates currents and an uneven temperature. In many old churches, the space required under the floor for a warm air chamber cannot be obtained, and therefore, the pipes must either circulate above it, or hot air from flues or stoves must be used. Some architects appear to prefer having the hot water pipes above the floor. . II. For warm water, the plans adopted by Messrs. Sylvester, Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury; Messrs. Price and Co., Derby- street, Parliament-street; and Messrs. Haden and Co., of Trow- bridge, seem to be approved. For hot air, the hypocaust of Mr. Cundy, Cumming-place, Kensington; the systems of Messrs. Haden, of Trowbridge, and Mr. Bennett, of Liverpool, are con- sidered to begood. The difference between them is not explained, and probably, if properly applied, the several plans of hot water warming do not uce much difference in their resulte, and the same may be said of the hot air systems. IIL The frequent failure of the plans adopted seems to arise from several causes: — Ist. Expecting results disproportioned to the cost of the means taken to obtain them, for it is asserted that there need be no practical difficulty in warming a church, if sufti- cient provision be made for so doing; but morethan one architect complains that plans for warming churches have failed, owing to their not being carried out, in consequence of the interference of persons not competent to decide upon such matters.“ “Failure,” observes an architect of long experience, is the result of quackery and ignorance; under the most favourable circumstances, it is impossible to warm economically and effectively; only a certain quantity of heat can be obtained by a certain quantity of com- bustion, and the chief point to be aimed at is, to secure the least waste of the heat thus produced." 2nd. The carelessness, and also the ignorance of the persons to whom the working of the apparatus is intrusted, who often imagine they multiply heat by their machines, whereas the preven- tion of the waste of heat is all that can be accomplished. A proper superintendence of the means adopted to warm a church seems to be absolutely indispensable. 3rd. An excess of venti- lating apertures; ventilation and warming must be combined, and proportioned to each other. 4th. The thinness of the roofs and other parts, which must be taken into account in caleulating the quantity of heating surface. 5th. The intermitting nature or the use of heating power, the great majority of churches being warmed for one day's use only in the week; in the interval the * For instance—an architect estimated that 1850 feet of pipe were required to warm a certain church, the cubical contents of which were 430,000 feet. A person on the committee, whose operations in the iron trade led him to form a different opinion, affirmed that 1350 (cet would be sufficient; this quantity was used, and a failure wag the result. 17 106 area, and the surfaces internally and externally, become e with E and where the walls are also damp, increased difficulty is created. IV. The inadequacy of the means used to warm a church, is generally acknowledged to be the chief cause of the failure of the plans adopted, as already stated. V. The architects have not supplied much information upon the subject of the quantity of heating surface to be provided. 1 foot of surface of pipe is mentioned, by one gentleman, as suffi- cient to warm 200 cubic feet of space. An approximate calcula- tion is given by another, thus:—1 foot of heating surface to 100 cubic feet of contents of church would be necessary, in unfavourable cases; 1 foot to 150 cubic feet would be sufficient, under favourable conditions: these proportions contemplate warm- ing and ventilating. The general opinion appears to be, that no fixed rule will properl apply, but that every church requires to be considered in itself. Difference of locality, quantity of glass, plan of internal arrangements, and other circumstances peculiar to such buildings, must be taken into account. VI. The most difficult part of the subject is to account for, and counteract, the currents of cold air which seem to prevail in almost every building warmed by artificial means. The causes are said 0 bo ig the air too quickly; the general pro- cesses of warming, heat à portion of the air too highly, and thus cold air rushes in from the windows and other „ cold air being admitted at too low a level; the beam- lling not being weather tight; the roof boarding letting in cold air; lead glazing rarely so perfect as to keep it out; &. It is said, that where warming and ventilation are combined, as they should be, currents of air must exist to some extent, from the disturbance to the equilibrium, caused by the admission of air warmer than that in the building. The remedies are, to admit a large but gentle flow of moderately warm air, which will disturb that in the building less than a quick admission of very hot air; having the openings to casements as high above the heads of the people as possible;—the casements themselves are objected to by one architect, who, of course, would ventilate churches by some other means;—placing baize curtains, weighted at bottom, over the inside of doorways, which are equivalent to and far better than double doors. Before applying any kind of warming apparatus to an existing church, to take care that the walls and floor are rendered dry, if they are not so; dryness in the building is essen- tial to the proper working of any plan of warming it.* It appears to be essential to the proper operation of a warming apparatus, to set it to work on the day previously to that on which the church is to be used, banking up the fires at night, and renewing them the following morning. Thus far the information given has been obtained from Archi- tects; upon applying to Engineers for similar particulars, the Society have been favoured by Mr, C. Egan Rosser, of Great Russell-street, Bloomsbury, the successor to the late Mr. Sylves- ter, who, as is well known, was long engaged in the business of warming and ventilating public buildings, with the following exact and useful facts :— There does not appear to be any evidence which can be con- sidered as decisive ın favour of any specific plan for the warming of churches. All the modes of warming in use make air the vehicle for dif- fusing heat throughout the building to be warmed. Heat is com- municated to the particles of the air by direct contact with some heated substance. This substance is commonly of a metallic character, such as cast or wrought iron, or copper. Earthenware surfaces have also been applied to a limited extent. It is in the mode in which the heat derived from the combustion of inflam- mable bodies, whether solid or gaseous, is imparted to the com- municating surfaces, that the essential differences between the various forms of warming apparatus are observed. Those forms are the simplest in which the heat generated by combustion acts directly upon the surfaces, whence it is commu- nicated to the air. This division comprises all kinds of hot-air apparatus, and most descriptions of stoves. Any hot-air apparatus consists of a certain combination of sur- faces, to one side of which heat is directly applied, while from the other side heat is abstracted by the passage of a current of cool * An architect refers first to a church accommodating 1000 persons, which is not warmed by any artificial means, and yet there is no complaint of cold; but the building is perfectly dry; he then mentions a small parish church, which holds only 300 persona, where a large stove fails to produce a moderate degree of warmth, but it is very damp. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL air over the heated surfaces; the cool air becoming ually warmer as it remains longer in contact with the heated surface, until it finally diffuses itself throughout the atmosphere of the church;—the place of the heated air being supplied either by cold, fresh air, from the outside of the building, or derived from the church itself. Stoves are to be considered simply as a variety of hot air apparatus, because their efficiency depends chiefly upon the amount of heat which their surfaces are capable of imparting by contact to the air; direct radiation having little effect upon the general result. A strong objection to the use of hot air apparatus, is the tendency of the heating surfaces to become so much over-heated as to render the air which has been in contact with them unfit forrespiration. This result may occur to a limited extent by the abstraction of oxygen from the air, but is more generally refer- able to the presence of various mechanical impurities therein, which undergo a change upon being exposed to a high tempera- ture, and form deleterious compounds that contaminate the air with which they are mixed. This 1 been successfully overcome by increasing the roportion of the diffusing relative to the receiving surface, i. e. by presenting to the contact of the air a surface ten or twenty times as great as that which is exposed to the action of the fire. The conducting properties of metals enable this arrangement to be etfected in various ways, and the result is so far satisfactory, that by observing certain given proportions of the receiving and diffusing surfaces, and the introduction to the diffusing surfaces of an adequate quantity of air, an agreeable temperature at a moderately low range can generally be commanded. A hot water apparatus is superior to hot air, because it is from its mode of action essentially diffusive. Between the in surfaces and the source of heat, a medium (water) is . which if open at some point of the atmosphere cannot easily become over-heated. By the application of the principle of circulation, the heating medium can be conveyed, in .almost undiminished power, to places at a considerable distance from the source of heat. This circumstance renders it much more manageable than a hot air apparatus, in which the diffusin surfaces must necessarily be concentrated in one locality, an the heated air afterwards conveyed in channels to the places where its presence is required. To effect this transmission of air in a manner at all perfect, requires great care and some acquaintance with the laws which govern the motion of elastic fluids, and can seldom be accomplished without a considerable loss of heat. This is the principal difficulty in warming a church by means of hot air placed beneath the floor, and if the air channels have not sufficient capacity, or are not quite clear from obstructions on their upper interior surfaces, or if there is not sufficient height in the basement to give the required velocity to the ascending current of warmed air, the most powerful hot air apparatus will often fail altogether to warm a church. A hot water apparatus is not subject to the same amount of disturbing causes, but there are some difficulties to which the heating of all large rooms is exposed, and a few that are more frequently found in churches than elsewhere. The principal difficulty special to & church arises out of the draughts to which a church is, more than any other building liable, from the number of its external doors, and the kind of glazing usually adopted for the windows. The use of open timbered roofs, frequently simply boarded on the back of the rafters, without any counter ceiling, lofty clerestories, and the important circumstance of all the enclosing walls being also external walls, and the usually large amount of enclosing surfaces as compared with the cubic contents of the space enclosed, have to 17 908 into account in arranging the warming apparatus for a church. There are also difficulties frequently attending the execution of a plan of warming; such as want of depth beneath the paving of the church for the construction of pipe trenches or warm air channels; and the difficulty of finding suitable places for the admission of warmed air. There is little doubt that the inadequacy of the means used is the ordinary cause of failure. When hot water pipes can be a above ground along the external walls and aisles, or in locks, in open situations, their surfaces then exert their full effect, both in heating the air by contact, and in the direct radiation of heat to surrounding objects, from which warmth THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. is again communicated to the particles of the air which come in contact therewith. When an apparatus can be thus disposed it is the most economical, but it seldom happens that the plan and uses of the building admit of such an arrangement. The necessity which exists in most cases where a hot water apparatus is used, of concealing the pipes, renders it imperative t they should be laid beneath the floor, and a very consider- able excess of power has to be provided, in order to make up for the loss of heat by radiation, which cannot be turned to useful account when the pipes are laid in trenches beneath the floor. It ia true that the greater portion of this heat is absorbed by the brickwork or other material of which the sides of the channel may be 5 which so becomes in it itself, to some extent, a heating 8 ; but when it is recollected that the temperature attained by the walls of the trenches seldom exceeds that at which the air enters the church, it is obvious that they cannot have more than a negative effect. An error into which the constructors of hot water apparatus frequently fall, is in laying the pipes in narrow trenches, covered by gratings, without any openings in the lower part of the side walls. When this is done, the air warmed by the pipes does not readily rise up into the church, because there is no admission of cool air from below to supply its place; the interchange of air having to be kept up by the descent of cool air from the church through the grating, in opposition to the course of the warmed air, and downwards past the hot surface of the pipes. The remedy is, to build the lower part of the walls that form the sides of the pipe trenches, honeycombed with holes for the admission of cold air beneath the pipes. The supply of air may either be drawn from the external atmosphere, or it may derived from the interior of the building, but it must be in sufficient quantity to afford to the pipes all the air which is required to be warmed, in order to maintain the proper temperature in the church, and the freest access and egress must be allowed. The extent of heating surface should be proportioned to the quantity of air which it is necessary to heat in order to maintain e required temperature in the building. In churches this temperature may generally be fixed about 56?. The extent of cooling surface, such as the walls, windows, roof, and the quantity of air escaping by leakage, or withdrawn in the of ventilation, afford the data from which the amount of heating power is to be calculated. The cubical content of the building has to be allowed for, because the whole of the air it contains has to be heated to the required temperature in the first instance; and the time in which this can be effected has also to be considered. Any standard of proportion between the cubical contents of the building and the quantity of pipe to be provided, can only he applied to buildings that are similar one to another, that is, that have about the same proportion of windows, and of external walling, &c. The following 7925 rule allows of considerable expansion to meet the varieties of ordinary cases, and will be found to be a tolerable approximation to the truth in the majority of instances To the cubical contents of the ckurch in feet divided by 300, add the surface of walls and roof divided by 120, the area of glass divided by 5, the superficial surface of doors and windows divided by 20, and the number of cubic feet of air withdrawn in ventilation by 6; the sum of these products will be equal to the superficial quantity of pipe in feet. or a hot air apparatus it is more difficult to assign any pro- portion, because the temperature of the heating surfaces and the rate of diffusion, vary in every form of apparatus. As an arbitrary rule, the cubic contents of the church, divided by 30, may be assumed as the standard of the quantity of air which a hot air apparatus should be capable of delivering per minute, ata temperature of 90°. As soon as the air of a church begins to be warmed, a general ‘movement or circulation results, and those particles of air which are brought into contact with the windows, part with their heat to the 2 and having their specific gravity thus increased, move downwards, and are followed by other particles which in like manner sink as they become cooled, until a descending sheet of cold air is formed against the windows, which upon reaching the sills is deflected inwards towards the body of the church. . When the difference between the external and internal temperature is very considerable, the descending current acquires a high velocity, and is capable of deflecting the flame of a candle at a distance of from twenty to thirty feet, and may be sensibly 107 felt as a strong draught by persons sitting in the line of the current. It is to this cause that the draughts oomplained of in churches warmed by artificial means are chiefly to be attributed, their effect being also greater the higher the temperature is raised. One mode of overcoming this difficulty is, either to place coils of hot water pipe beneath the windows, or to discharge a 3 of warm air upwards by means of flues carried up in the ickness of the wall, and terminating at the window-sill. The ascending current of warmed air from the coil, or ue, meets and neutralises the descending current against the glass, and prevents ita effect being felt in the church. Another plan is, to prevent the deflection of the cold current into the church, by continuin its direct descent, through openings in the window-sill an descending flues in the val terminating ultimately beneath the pipes in some of the trenches. t is essential to the successful operation of any warming apparatus, that it should be used for at least one part of the day previous to that on which the service has to be performed. This will tend to equalise the temperature of the church, to prevent the deposition of moisture upon the walls, and to economise fuel. It will not, however, prevent the draughts from the windows, which can only be obviated in some of the modes pointed out. The temperature should not be allowed to fall during the night, but the fire should be banked up, and made up again at an early hour on the following morning, and continued until the com- mencement of service, when it may be gradually lowered, and finally allowed to die out towards the evening, except in very severe weather; the pipes retaining heat enough to temper the air for some time after the fire is extinguished. Much, however, depends upon the details of the arrangemente, and the quantity of fresh air admitted. By proper care and attention to the special circumstances of the case, and by the adoption of a sufficient plan, and an adequate expenditure for the purpose, any well-built church can be effectually warmed. . — . — EXPERIMENTS ON THE MANUFACTURE OF GAS, BY THE EMPEROR OF THE FRENCH. In addition to the man of china, which has for many ears been established by ety Sevres, his imperial majesty Napoleon III. has erected works for the making of gas. The manufacture of the former article has at least some semblance to royal character, as the works produced are of the choicest kind, which can scarcely be equalled in less dignified establish- ments; but the making of coal-gas seems so extraordinary a departure from regal occupations, that it is about the last branch of manufacture that it might-be supposed would have engaged the attention of the Emperor of the French. Yet, the fact isso. He has had a gaswork constructed in the Park of St. Cloud, near Sevres; four distinguished members of the Académie des Sciences were appointed to superintend the manufactory, and the report of their bons which has just been printed by imperial authority, is now before us. His Majesty has been induced to turn gas manufacturer by an apparently zealous regard for the welfare of his Parisian subjects, who were, he suspected, paying too much for their gas, and he was determined to ascertain the price at which gas of good quality might be supplied. The circumstances of the case are these: A concession for eighteen years was granted in 1846 to the com- panies now lighting Paris, on the-condition that the public lights in the populous districts should be supplied at the rate of 5s. 9d. r 1000 cubic feet, and that the price to individuals should be xed at a maximum of 9e. 9d. per thousand feet, diminishing after the year 1856 to 9e. The gas companies were, however, compelled to pay an annual charge of 80000. for the occupation of the public highways. These prices are, no doubt, highly remunerative. The companies were anxious to secure a renewal of the concession or an additional term of twenty-one years, and they offered as a condition, to reduce the charges on the public lights from the present time to 4s. 6d. the 1000 feet, retaining the charge of 9s. on private lights till 1863, and then reducing it to 7s. 10d. This arrangement had been agreed to by the municipal council and other requisite authorities, with the exception of the emperor. In the meantime, however, a ular outcry was raised against the renewal of the charter, and M cars, Ardoin and Co., the bankers, submitted a proposal to the emperor to light the streets of Paris 17° 108 with gas for nothing, and to charge individuals 6s. 3d. per 1000 feet. They made it appear in their printed prospectus, that the net annual prone on those terms would amount to 312,0004 The emperor ving conflicting statements respecting the cost of gas, presented to him, determined to settle the question by actual experiment, on a large scale, and accordingly he had a gaswork erected for the purpose. The apparatus consisted of five cast-iron retorta of the usual size, set together in the manner best adapted to economise fuel; and the four Academicians appointed to conduct the manu- facture of the gas, and to collect and estimate the value of the products of distillation, adopted every precaution they could devise to make the results approximate to hose of actual practice. The report now published exhibits an animus to make the cost of production appear as low as possible, and the conclusion at which the commissioners arrived after operating on upwards of seventy tons of coal of different kinds, is, that gas of very quality may be made at the cost of only 4àd. the 1000 cubic feet. this estimate, however, there is nothing considered but the actual cost of materials, without making allowance for labour, management, leakage in the pipes, cost of the works, wear and tear, interest of capital, or any of the minor expenses and draw- backs that are necessarily incurred in conducting a working establishment. The report has been printed by the authority of the emperor, and the statements are so strongly opposed to the interests of the united gas companies, that they protest against the conclusions at which the savans of the Académie have arrived, contending that the manufacturing experiments of the emperor do not deserve to be considered as real indications of the proceeds from a practically operating establishment; and this view of the case has been also strongly advocated by our contemporary the cade of Gas Lighting, which supporta the gas interest generally. The imperial commissioners endeavoured to determine the cost at which a given volume of gas can be produced in the gasometer, deducting from the original price of the materials the value of the coke and of the other products of distillation; and in doing so they were compelled to go into the market, and become traders as well as experimenters. Had the commissioners confined them- selves to ascertaining the quantity of purified produced from given quantities of materials, together with che amount of the coke and tar and ammoniacal liquor, the attainment of such objects would have been quite within the range of their abilities as acientific investigators; and by operating on a large scale, their experiments would have borne the semblance of practical results. But even in that case, the volume of purified gas obtained from a given weight of coal, and the quantity of solid and liquid products, would not correspond with the results of practice, for it is well known that in the ordinary operations of gasworks, as in other manufactories, the skill and vigilance which are exercised in carefully-conducted experiments, can never be attained; conse- quently, the latter can only be regarded as indications of what is possible, and not as proofs of what is realised. In such experiments the apparatus being new, and constructed on the best known prin- ciples, regardless of cost, it works much better than the ordinary furnaces and retorts, after having been subjected to several months’ wear and tear. The fires would, of course, be more carefully attended to, so as to avoid waste of fuel, and the products of the retorts would be more carefully collected than would be possible in the common operations of a gaswork, wherein, perhaps, hundreds of retorts are being heated at the same time. These circumstances would necessarily augment the produce of experi- ment onpa with that of practice; therefore, if the question of cost had been altogether kept cut of view, the results of the experiments made in the imperial experimental gaswork would have been far from satisfactory data for commercial calculations. But when the savans of the Académie des Sciences proceeded from analytical processes to the investigation of the trade value of the different articles, and thus endeavoured to estimate the cost at which gas might be produced, they entered a field in which they were still more likely to be led astray from the results of experience. The imperial commissioners, going into the market to sell their coke during the long-continued frost in February last, when it was almost double its average value, and estimatin the coal-tar at the price at which it might be sold in quantities, they contrived to raise the money-produce of the retorts, exclusively of the gas, nearly to the same value as the original materials of manufacture. the report of the commis- sioners, however, they take no account of labour, or cost of management; they make no allowance for loss from leakage, for THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. wear and tear of a tus and repairs of pipes, and nothing for interest of capital. expended: When, e we perceive there are so many liabilities to error in the results of the experiments, such erroneous statements of the prices at which the residual products may be sold, and so many important items omitted altogether, we cannot place much reliance on the results attained at so much cost in the gas manufactory of the Emperor of the French. The attempt to determine by actual experiment whether the terms offered by the gas companies of Paris are reasonable is, indeed, deserving of praise, and it affords a striking instance of the interest which the emperor takes in all depart- ments of the government, though the object might have been more satisfactorily and much more readily attained by an examination of the charges made by other gas companies when exposed to competition, and the dividends they pay to their shareholders. There can be no question that the terms of existing concession are extremely lucrative to the gas companies of Paris, as is proved by the offer of reduction they now make as an inducement for the renewal of the privilege for twenty-one years. The difference between the present charge of 5s. gd. per 1000 cubic feet for public lights, and 4s. 6d.. to which the gas companies offer to reduce it, would amount to a sum of not less than 800,000/. before the termination of the concession in 1863; after which period, also, they propose to diminish the to private establishments from 9s. to 78. 10d. the 1000 feet. The offer of Messrs. Ardoin and Co. goes far beyond that of the gas companies, and the calculated profit of 319,000/. receives countenance from the report of the commissioners, which will probably have considerable influence on the decision of the emperor. — — ON STEAM—ITS APPLICATION TO THE USEFUL AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS. By W. Farreairn, F.R.S. Lecture delivered at the Manchester Mechanic? Institution, March 5, 1855. Mr. Fairbairn said, at the request of a large and useful body of engineers, and at the desire of several institutions for their instruction, he had set apart a portion of his time for the study of a subject which involved considerations of much importance to the great mass of the community. If he stated that the subject was one easily mastered, or that past experience rendered his task an easy one, he should practice a deception, and arrogate a degree of information and research which he did not profess. The statements he had to make had cost him much time and labour to prepare. In the consideration and preparation of two lectures for the Yorkshire Union Mechanics Institutions, the subject gained upon him so fast and became so exceedingly interesting, that he had a strong desire for further research; but at that time, in consequence of other professional duties, he was obliged to abandon the attempt to a more fitting op ortunity. During a long and somewhat laborious professional life, however, he had contrived, as a relaxation from labour, to devote a considerable portion of his leisure, and no small portion of the hours of sleep, to scientific inquiries; and, finding it had done him no harm, but rather quickened the intellect, by enlarging its sphere of action, he had the less hesitation in recommending this practice, as it would be found productive of enjoyment as well as benefit. In early life he laboured under many difficulties. Their causes he could not control; but experience had convinced him how much more might be done by a willing mind, and with what certain individual perseverance, and a never-tiring enthusiasm in one’s pursuits, would clear away all obstacles, and lead, by the most satisfactory and pleasant paths, to reputation and success. Before determining upon an occupation or upon a study for the employment of leisure time, he recommended the consideration of what it was desired to attain. Let the object be practical and useful; then bring the whole powers of the mind to bear upon the subject; work hard, and let not energy be thwarted even by the taunts and ridicule of companions and fellow-labourers. Be not discouraged by early failure, nor turned aside by the tedium of mastering the drudgery of rudimentary study; the pleasures and delights of study came with a thorough understanding; and nothing valuable—least of all the treasure of a gifted mind—was to be had without labour.— To distinguish between steam generated at different pressures, he traced water in its varied THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. stages of temperature corresponding with its conditions in from the solid 1 to the fluid and the vaporous states. Dr. Black found that it was not sufficient for converting ice into water that it be raised to a temperature in which it could no longer retain that form, as a piece of ice, of the temperature of 32°, would remain a very SOE time in air at 50°, continually absorbing heat until it melted. By comparing the time at which the ice had its temperature changed from 20° to 32°, he found it absorbed from 130 to 140 times as much heat as would raise ita temperature 1°; and he found that 1 Ib. of ice when mixed with 11b. of water 140° warmer, was just melted, but without rising in ita temperature above 32°. Hence he justly concluded that water differed from ice of the same temperature by containing as a constituent a greater quantity of heat united in such a way as not to quit it for another colder body, and therefore so as not to affect the mercury of the thermometer and expand it. If more heat were added to the water, it was no longer latent, becoming sensible in its effects by raising the thermometer. Water would not boil unless heat be applied to the bottom or sides of the vessel containing it. If the heat were applied to the top of the vessel, the water would evaporate and waste away. When heat was applied to the bottom and sides of a vessel, the icles of water in contact therewith formed into globules, which, being of greatly reduced specific gravity, ascended until the colder stratum on the up surface robbed them of their heat and destroyed that elasticity which was necessary for their ascent. The distances they reached before collapsing depended upon the temperature of the fluid, but they continued to rise until the temperature reached 212°, when commotion became gen and boiling ensued. Heat, from its want of ponderosity, was highly elastic; and when enclosed in films of water in the form of globules, its specific gravity and elasticity was many thousand times less than that of water. To & certain extent the particles of heat radiated from a fire in every direction; but it would be found that in open space the tendency was upwards, and that more particularly when imparted to water, when the globules are produced all over the bottom, and make the ascent vertically. Steam was evaporated, and water boiled, at different temperatures, according to the weight of the atmosphere. When the barometer was low, the fluid would boil at a lower temperature, as water, at 30 inches of the barometer, boiled at 212°; at 28 inches, it boiled at 2084?; and upon the plains of Quito, where the air was attenuated, and the barometer stood at 21 inches, it boiled at 195?. There was a wide difference between steam generated in an open vessel and in a close one. In the first case, the temperature never exceeded 212°, whereas in the latter, the temperature, as well as the arian elasticity, &c. may be carried to any extent, consistent with the safety or strength of the vessel. This condition should never be lost aa ie of, as the security of life and property not unfrequently depended upon the extent of knowledge of the densities and other properties of steam. Data could not be supplied for the construction of vessels calculated to bottle up and retain vaporous matter of highly- elastic force, without an acquaintance with the nature of the material, and the agencies to be dealt with. The vapours exhaled from a liquid at any temperature contained, according to Dr. Ure, “more heat than the fluid from which they spring, and they cease to form whenever the supply of heat into the liquid is stopped.” This might be perfectly true; but continue to apply the heat, and also the supply of water, and the process of evaporation is continued, with all its accompanimenta, as exhibited in the general practice of raising steam. the temperature of the furnace, and the steam or evaporative part of the water contained in the boiler, are so nearly adjusted, as to be exactly in accordance with the density and quality of the steam produced, there would be through- out the whole process the required equivalents of qualities as regarded temperature, density, and elasticity; but increase or stop the supply of heat, or increase or diminish the extraction of the steam thus generated, and immediately the relations of demand and supply, which previously existed, were changed; and although the relative quantity of heat and density might be retained, there was nevertheless a total change in the force and elasticity of the steam, when compared with that uniformity of the process which maintains a true balance between the expenditure and the supply. The interception of any one of these processes was a matter of the utmost importance, and often resulted in accident. For further information, he referred to his report upon the explosion of a boiler at Longsight.* Comte de Pambour said, in his ‘Practical * Bee Journal, Vel. X VIL, 1864, p. 219. that upon the same principle as & volume of air could 109 Treatise on the Steam-engine’: “When the steam after having been formed in a boiler, remains in contact with the generating water, it is observed that the same temperature corresponds invariably with the same pressure, and vice versed. This being the case, it is impossible to increase the temperature without the pressure and density increasing spontaneously at the same time; and it is equally impossible to increase its density or ita pressure without increasing its temperature.” It was immaterial how this was accomplished, as the compression of a volume of steam into a small space would increase its temperature in the ratio of its density, and that without the infusion of additional increments of heat. Compression alone was sufficient to effect that 5 e red hot by severe compression. In this state of the relative temperatures to pressure, steam was at its maximum density and pressure for its temperature, and hence followed the connection which eonstantly existed between temperature and pressure. In every case where steam is generated, it must be in contact with the liquid in the vessel supplying the steam. Else, if the temperature be augmented, the state of maximum density, according to Pambour, would cease, “since there will be no more water to furnish the surplus of steam or increase of density corresponding to the increase of temperature" Experimente as to the relative temperatures and densities of steam had seldom extended beyond a few atmospheres; most of them had been made below the pressure of the atmosphere. As scientific inquiries they were valuable; but to the practical engineer, having to deal with steam as high as six or seven atmospheres, and when he might be called upon in future to use and economise steam at double that pressure, they were comparatively of little value. The experimenta of Arago and ee instituted at the request of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France, to determine certain data, and they were not of a character to instruct the operative engineer in the elementary truths connected with his pursuits.) Here he would notice the difference artes: between our government and that of France. There, if a doubtfu question in science had to be determined by experiment,the govern- ment cheerfully undertook it, generally through the medium of the National Institute. Here, it and the expense were left to individuals; and he would not say what he had spent in this way. He was glad to observe a more li ana Uenerone feeling on the part of our government, in the grant of 10004. annually, to promote and extend science. (Having instituted a comparison between the resulte of the experiments of dus and Dulong, with those of his own experiments at Longsight, he referred to others made by Mr. Ramsbottom, the resident enginoer on the north-east division of the London and North-Western Railway, proving that all means of escape for steam, with a blazing or moderate fire under the boiler, could not be closed with impunity. The results of the experiments of sya and Dulong, and those made by himself, approximate so closely, that they might be safely recommended for adoption in every case, where the temperature, density, and volume of steam e & question of consideration for the practical engineer. After quoting Pambour, on the relative volume of steam to its equivalent volume of water, he said it appeared to be a unive law, that any increase of pressure was followed by its relative increase of 5 and that we could not with impunity attempt to force the atoms or molecules of bodies into closer contact, without an equivalent increase of temperature. This he had found amply verified up to a pressure of 6000 atmospheres or 90,000 lb. on the square inch. According to the experiments of Gay Lussac, as given by Pambour, for every augmentation of 1° Fahrenheit, there would be an increase of 00202 of the volume occupied by the fluid at the temperature zero. This law did not apply to steam in contact with water, as the P arces invariably changed with the temperature, and vice verd. Philosophers differed as to the laws which governed the mechanical action of steam, ita loss of temperature, &c., particularly when the steam was in contact with the water in the boiler. Steam, when evaporated from water under the pressure of the atmosphere, never exceeded a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit. Therefore, all the heat given by the furnace to the water must resolve itself into the steam, and must remain there in a latent state, as the additional incrementa of heat had no effect on the thermometer, and only became perceptible when the steam was condensed and parted with its heat. The transport or conveyance of steam to any distance had invariably been attended with loss, from the escape or radiation of heat given out from the pipes by which the steam is conducted in its passage to the engine, or to 110 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. the spot where it might be used, either as a motive force or for the purposes of heating, boiling, &c. Deprived of a portion of its caloric, it then became steam of a different description to what it was when in contact with the liquid in the boiler, and when it was receiving constant supplies of heat from the furnace. Once admitted into the pipes, that contact with the fluid so essential to the maintenance of its temperature and density no longer existed; and, without care, a considerable portion of ita heat, and along with it the pressure, would inevitably escape. This was a question of t importance to every one connected with the procreation a use of steam; and he could not sufficiently impress upon the minds of engineers, operative and professional, the necessity for instituting a careful inspection into all the requirements of clothing pipes and boilers to prevent condensation and the disengagement of that subtle fluid, heat. Under all circumstances, special attention should be paid to the retention of heat, whether latent or otherwise, in contact with the steam, and that by care- fully clothing the exterior surface of pipes and boilers ig eter to the atmosphere. Heat was one of those insiduous, sly, deceitful agents, that was constantly on the watch to make its escape. It resisted every attempt to place it under control, and it frequently happened that the strongest iron plates and bars were insuflicient to resist the force and impetuosity of its attack. When allied with the vapour of water, it gathered strength by confinement. Therefore, in the exercise of an economical distribution of steam, as a motive power, care should be taken to maintain the union of heat and water. To produce a maximum mechanical effect with & minimum quantity of steam, it was necessary to prevent the escape of heat in its transmission from the boiler to the engine, and to work it expansively when there. A t deal had been said of surcharged steam—steam re-heated in its passage from the boiler to the engine; and, though not so well acquainted on this subject as he could wish, he had suspended steam-pipes in heated flues, and he had not only found the plan economical but preventive of condensation, conveying to the engine what was technically called dry steam. It was further desirable to make use of the surplus heat for increasing the temperature of the water from the feed pump by enclosing those pipes also in the flues, or by exposing a series of pipes to the action of the heated currents as they pass from the boiler to the chimney—a method already adopted successfully by means of apparatus constructed by Mr. Smith, of Oldham. It was now generally acknowledged that a considerable saving was effected by the expansive action of steam, independent of what was accomplished by the improved methods recommended for the generation and maintenance of the hae pick and density of steam in the boiler and in its passage to the engine. To effect this with increased economy, high steam must be used and applied with a sound discretion, not only as a principle of economical working but as a measure of safety, either as regarded its consumption, the strength of the boiler, or the different organic parts of the engine exposed to its influences. Among the ingenious devices to effect this object there was Wolff's system of the double cylinder, the cut-off principle in the single cylinder, besides other methods which had been more or less successful. All these, however, tended to the same result, and, whatever the mechanical arrangement, the ultimate tendency was to economise fuel by the introduction of a highly-elastic force upon the piston of the reciprocating engine, in the first instance, and that, having overcome the vis inertia of the load, gave the impetus of motion immediately, as the piston ed from a state of rest to a state of motion at the return of the stroke. In this way the communication between the boiler and the cylinder was cut-otf at the required point, and the further motion of the piston was continued by the force of the expanding steam to the end of the stroke. In this way the motion of the engine was continued, and that with greatly-increased economy in the use and applica- cation of the steam.—In conclusion, he requested them to reflect upon the matters he had laid before them; and he trusted that he was not too sanguine in hoping that he had impressed them with his own conviction, that the wide spreading of sound ps. and enlarged views in practical science would not only useful to themselves, in the pursuit of their separate avocations, but advantageous to every class in the community of nations. — € — Ó——À—— Somersetshire Central Railway.—This company have a bill now before parliament for an extension of the line to the city of Wells and the watering place Burnham, and for the construction of a pier at the latter place. LOCAL SCHOOLS OF ART IN CONNECTION WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND ART. RAND OF TOWR. Birmingham, New-st, with Elementary Branch at Saint Peters, Dale-end. Bristol Cheltenham Chester (Mechanics’ Instn.) Clonmel (Mechanics’ Instn.) Cork Coventry Doncaster Dublin (Royal Dublin Socty.) Glasgow Hereford, with branch at— Ludlow Leeds (Mechanics’ Institution) Limerick Liverpool Central authority Branch Schools, North District School, at the Coll. Inst. Shaw-st. South District School, at the Mech. Instn. Mount-st. Macclesfield (Mech. Inst.) Manchester (Royal Instn.) Newcastle-on-Tyne Norwich Nottingham, Stoney-street Oxford Paisley Penzance Potteries, Central School at (Town Hall) with Ek- mentary Branches at— Stoke (Town Hall) Hanley (Brit. & Forn. Schl.) Burslem (Mechanics’ Inst.) Newcastle-under-Lyme (Mechanics’ Institute) Sheffield Stourbridge Swansea, with branches at— Wolverhampton Worcester Yarmouth, Great York, Minster-yard. Estab- lished. 1853 1854 MASTER OB MASTERS. Cleland, P. Stannus, A. (Vacant) Wallis, G.; Wood, D.; Wallis, W.; Walker, J. W errier, R. E. Brooke, A. N. Rowland, J. C. Davies, J. Knight, J. P. Davidson, E. A. Healy, J. (Not appointed) r, H , H. (Not appointed anus, H.; Holmes, T. Cochrane, R. Baker, L. Newton, G. Wigzell, M. Wilson, C. H. Bustin, R. B. Swallow, J. C. Raimbach, D.; Casey, W. Bishop, W. H. Norbury, R.; Cosbie, W.; Somerville, J.; Pugh, E.; Aitkin, H.; Pedder, Jane tewart, G. Hammersley, J.; Evans, J. Scott, W. B. Nursey, C. L.; Elton, T. Fussell, F. R Clifton, J. S. Stewart, W. Geoffroi, H. Rice, S.; Carrier, A. Hodgetts, T. C. Muckley, W. J. Ryles, à Mitchell, Y.; Peppercorn, J. P.; Lomas, eats, G. P. Hamerton, R. J. Chevalier, T. W. Gill, G. R. Collinson, R. M'Cloy, 8. Chittenden; T. Kidd, J.; Bowen, W. P. Griffiths, W. T. (Not appointed Established between 1841, and 1852, 19 Schools; Established since 1852, 29 Schools; Total, 48 Schools. — — Paris Eækibition.— The lords of the committee of the privy council have appointed Mr. Henry Cole, C. B., sole superintendent of the British department of the Paris Great Exhibition. . — . THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL SALUBRITY OF TOWNS. M. Junop, of the French Institute, has communicated to that body some interesting facts respecting the relative salubrity of of cities according to their aspect and position. Hesaysthat in most European cities the wealthier and more intelligent portion of the inhabitanta have settled upon and occupied the western districts, while in the eastern have been located the working classes and trading population. This is the case not only in London and Paris, but also at Berlin, St. Petersburg, iud Vienna. The old Italian cities exhibit the same peculiarity, and all their cemeteries are situated eastward. M. Junod endea- vours to prove that these arrangements are in strict accordance with reason, and are based on a natural law. During westerly winds, the barometer iu general is very depressed, and all the evaporations of the earth, as well as the smoke and other emanations from the burning of fuel, descend and remain near the surface. When, on the contrary, easterly winds prevail, the barometer ranges high, and the air becomes purified, as all vapours ascend, and soon disa . If, therefore, westerly winds blow, they convey to the inhabitants of the eastern districts the unwholesome exhalations and vapours of the west; whereas the western districts receive only the purer air of the surrounding country. If easterly winds prevail, the noxious vapours of the eastern districts become scattered before they reach the western portions of the city. From these observations the following inferences are deduced. Considerations of health ought to induce a preference for the building of residences in the western portion of a city. And, on the contrary, all the trades and occupations which are of an unwholesome nature, or which produce and emit smoke, steam, or other offensive exhalations, should be consigned to the east ward. Even in single dwellings, it is expedient to plan the kitchens, larders, washhouses, &c., to face the east. — — —— LEITH DOCK COMMISSION. On the 19th February a meeting of this Board, as a Committee on Extraordinary Improvements, was held for the purpose of considering the subject of a site for the proposed Graving Dock at Leith—Mr. Muir presiding. The commission had already received two plan from Mr. Rendel, to both of which they enter- tained objections. The first site proposed was on the east side of the harbour, and the estimated cost was about 50,0004. The commission, however, found that great difficulty would be experi- enced in obtaining sufficient depth of water at the entrance proposed, while the nature of the ground, the expense of the Jock in that situation, and the necessarily tidal entrance to the dock, were also considered as objections The commission then : directed Mr. Rendel’s attention to the west site, requesting him tofurnish plans and estimates of & graving dock there. Mr. Rendel accordingly prepared the plan of a dry dock at the west . end of the Victoria Dock, and entering from it. It would be capable of accommodating a ship 350 feet in length, and would cost 30,0007. This site the commission at last meeting had also by a majority negatived, on the ground that entrance could not be had to it without disturbing nearly all the shipping in the Victoria Dock. A long discussion took place as to the practica- bility of obtaining a more eligible site. The only situation proposed was to the west of the timber arching of the new pier, and within the old breakwater—a s which was looked upon as a feasible situation for new wet dock accommodation, should that eventually necessary. There, however, it was under- stood that the cost would be considerably ter, whilst it would be necessary to have a tidal entrance from the fairway. Mr. Lindsay, who recommended that this site should be considered, stated that a plan had been sent to him of a dry dock in this quarter by Mr. G. C. Bruce, engineer. It had been sent to him unexpectedly, and he did not know any about the gentle- man whose name appeared on the plan. . Stott and other gentlemen remarked that they could not receive this or any other plan without giving just and serious cause of offence to their own engineer, Mr. Rendel, and it was accordingly with- drawn. It was proposed that the Board should direct Mr. Rendel’s attention to the site suggested, and request him to give his opinion of its practicablity and its probable cost; but eventually it was agreed to adjourn the discussion for a fortnight. The Board according adjourned till Monday the 5th, ult, at which 111 meeting the following resolution was carried:—“That the com- mission adhered to their resolution of the 12th February, dis- approving of the site at the west end of the Victoria Dock, which had been pressed by the commission on Mr. Rendel's considera- tion, and that the same be intimated to Mr. Rendel; and that Mr. Rendel be requested to make another survey of the ground available for a dry dock, and to report to the Commission what, in his opinion, would be the most suitable site." ——— — — WATER SUPPLY OF PARIS. At the meeting of the Institute of British Architects, on the 22nd January, the chairman, Mr. T. H. Wyatt, V.P., said a d “projet” was now under the consideration of the Municipal ommission of Paris. It consists in substituting for the waters of the Seine, spring water, brought in large quantities by a gigantic aqueduct from the valleys of the e, between Jhalons and Epernay. It is calculated to give a supply of 21,600,000 gallons per day of twenty-four hours, delivered in Paris at a height of about 250 feet. is would insure a most abundant supply to four-fifths of Paris—the remaining portion would be provided by means of steam-engines pumping from the present sources, viz, the Seine, the Canal de l'Ourceq, the 1 of Arcueil, the Well at Grenelle, and the waters of Belleville and Pré St. Gervais. He believed this was very like the scheme of Napoleon I., which, he had always understood, was abandoned on account of the bad quality of the water; but it was stated that a M. Degrand had discovered a stream called “la Somme Soude,” the water of which was very fresh, of extra- ordinary purity, and extremely agreeable to drink. He believed it was not so much a question of insufficiency of water as of the inconvenience of not having it supplied to the houses by gravita- tion or by artificial means, as in London. Political reasons had, no doubt, hitherto operated in this matter as in others of a sanitary nature. The “Porteurs d’Eau” of Paris were too nu- merous and formidable a body to be thrown out of employment, It was, however, a fine subject for the energy and powers of the m Emperor, whose comprehensive mind, he had little oubt, would find a solution of this as of many other social questions. — . ! ® DESTRUCTION OF HILL’S BRIDGE, BRISTOL. THE city of Bristol was startled on the 20th ult. by the fact that the great iron bridge over the Avon, called Hill's Bridge,” and leading from the Bath-parade to the London-road, had been entirely carried away by a steam-barge, precipitating a number of persons (several of whom were drowned), as well as horses and carts, into the river. The bridge was of cast-iron, made by the Colebrookdale Ironworks Company, was of 160 feet s and comprised a single arch, with six cast-iron ribs, by iron girders, tied and pinned and supported by cast-iron stanchions. t occupied in its erection from 1805 to 1809. In 1808, owing to defects in the stonework upon which it rested, it fell, and either killed or injured thirty-two persons. An eye-witness of the destruction states, the ebb current was running very strong, and that the screw-barge, which was the immediate cause of the unfortunate accident, was descending the river, propelled by the screw at a great speed, and apparently badly steered, as it came down in an oblique direction, and the mast (which had been lowered to enable the steamer to pass under the bridge) touched the arch, the bow at the same time striking the framework of the bridge, on the Bristol side. The force of the collision caused the steamer to rebound eight or ten feet, and the bridge immediately sank with a tremendous crash. Whether the bridge was in good repair is not yet known, but it is stated that one of the authorities had refused to cross it when a large wagon was passing over shortly before the accident. lf so, great blame is attributable to the local authorities for allowing so frail a structure to remain there. — ͤ äaZ—— — The public baths and washhouses recently erected in Berlin, are upon a plan similar to those in England. The baths of the first-class are made of polished slate of an appie n colour, and present an extremely pleasing appearance. e walls of the large 5 baths, also, are made of the same durable and cleanly materi 112 HINGED ACCOUNT-BOOK COVERS. Messrs. Waterlow and Sons are now introducing a very valuable improvement in the manufacture of account books, charging no more for books on the improved than for those on the ordinary principle. A metal hinge C, as shown in our engraving, is employed for fastening the inside of the book B, to ita covers A, in the place of the linen joints ordinarily employed. By this improvement the inside of the book is entirely independent of the covers, and may be separated from them by the mere with- drawal of the sliding hinge-pin, so that one cover may be used for several books, or new covers i Lec at pleasure to an old book, without the necessity of the book itself being placed in the hands of a binder. The great objection to the common glued joints is their liability to give way under the influence of a damp atmosphere; but with the improved hinge 55 this is, of course, impossible. By the use of the metallic hinge, the pages of the book are allowed to lay quite flat, wherever it may be opened, an advantage which every accountant will know well how to appreciate. — RAILWAY VIADUCT, DINTING VALE. Mr. Alfred S. Jee, C.E., of John-street, Adelphi, has made the following report, dated January 31, 1855, to the Directors of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway :— “I have to report that the operation recommended by me for restoring the viaduct at Dinting Vale to its proper condition, has been successfully accomplished. In my former report, I laid before you the state in which I found the large timber anghes or ribe, which were considerably out of line, having become so, no doubt, from the vibration caused by the passing of heavy trains over the elastic structure, which had loosened the iron bolts and stays. I therefore advised that the ribs should be drawn back into their proper places by a system of wrought-iron diagonal tension-rods or braces; these being made fast to the abutments and piers and connected with the timber ribs on the opposite sides alternately, the latter, by means of screws upon e tension-rods, would he drawn back and thus held to their roper position. This operation, which you entrusted to me, has 5 carried out, and is completely successful; the power obtained upon the ribs by means of the screws being amply sufficient to move them as much as was required. The great additional stiffness given to the whole structure by the diagonal rods, is very apparent, for the vibration is by no means so great on the passing of the trains as it was before the rods were introdueed. Therefore, although having reinstated the arches in their proper line, you might move the rods and so leave the viaduct in the same state as when first constructed, I recommend the rods be feft in permanently as now fixed, which will prevent any tendency in the ribs to move out of position, or any slight deviation may be correeted at any time without cost, by the simple application of screws. I have hi.. e timber in the ribs very carefully examined, and it is found tu perfectly sound and free from any symptom of deeay. This, after more than twelve years' service, is very satisfactory, and warrants me in expressing to you my conviction that the strueture will last for very many years longer. Thus, by a trifling outlay the viaduct has been ut into good conditien, and a large expenditure for re-construct- ing it saved to the shareholders. This description of structure is of course liable to decay, but it has the advantage of being so put together that any part may be replaced as decay occurs in the particular portion, and it can never be necessary to re- construct the whole at the same time. — —/^—— —— THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. LIBRARY FURNITURE. (With an Engraving, Plate XIV.) THE specimens of furniture from the desi Colling, architect, manufactured by Messrs. Holland and Sons, of Mount-street, Grosvenor-square, and which, we believe, are intended for the Paris exhibition, consisting of bookcase,* (Plate XIV), estal, table, and chairs, are executed in wainscot oak, portions being inlaid with pollard English oak, malachite, and Irish marble. The style adopted is the Renaissance, but without the strap-and-cartouche work, or the admixture of the grotesque by the introduction of animal forms among the ecorations. The object sought was to produce works of a te and unobtrusive character, with freshness and elegance in the ornamentation. The carving is, therefore, all designed and rendered in a purely conventional and thoroughly artistical manner from nature, without being in any ey copied from previous decoration of any kind. The natural objects thus rendered are the oak, the ivy, the hawthorn, the maple, the ho the holly, the thistle, and the passion flower, besides the nation emblems, the rose, shamrock, and thistle. It is intended that the furniture exhibited should represent a portion only of a complete suite, suitable for a library in a gentleman’s mansion— thus, by simple 5 in the number of the divisions, the bookcase may be adapted with ease to the fitting up of a complete library. s of Mr. J. K. NOVEL ARRANGEMENT OF PICTURE GALLERIES. AFTER the late M. Rothmann had acquired a great reputation as & landscape painter, King Louis of Bavaria sent him to Greece, where that artist produced works highly spoken of by the German press. Some consider them the ne plus ultra of landscape delineation, each painting being a poem, representing in the perfect concordance of earth, light, and air, the incorporate image of some ideal harmony; we are struck, moreover, by an objective adherence to nature, and the utinost faithfulness of & sitive locality, its picturesque and vegetative physiognomy. tis as if the Athenians, the Spartans, arose anew from their resting-place of ages,—as if a battle was again to be fought on those spots so intimately represented in the Eleusian groves, once the place of sacred initiation. Such appreciation led to the desire of having these productions of art exhibited in the best possible manner, and an especial saloon has been appropriated to them in the new Pinakotheca, at Munich. he architect, M. Voit, being intrusted with its construction, has erected a gallery, where the light coming from above strikes only the ictures, the visitor viewing them from the shade of a covered all, which occupies the middle portion of the room. By this arrangement, the paintings are brought out in a very striking ilumination, imparting to them that mysterious sentiment, under which, without doubt, most works of art ought to be view — — 3 »— ——— NORFOLK ESTUARY. THE report of Sir J. Rennie and Mr. Stephenson states that since their last report every effort has been made to carry for- ward the works towards completion. Since August last, there had been excavated about 290,000 cubic yards. With regard to the cut through Vinegar Middle, there was on the eastern side an embankment, strengthened with fascines and cliff rock, extend- ing 6 furlongs, and 6 feet high above low-water mark. On the western side there was a similar embankment, 44 furlongs in length. The effect of these works was to scour the new channel, so that at West Lynn low-water mark had become lower by 4 ft. 6 in., or 12 inches lower than at the date of last report, and the channel had been deepened to a corresponding extent up to Denver Sluice. The harbour of Lynn, too, had been considerabl deepened and the facilities of the shipping thereby increased. The old channel had silted up from 6 to 7 feet in an area of about 1000 acres, and there was over it a causeway to Fisher's Creek, which would be a valuable approach to the Company's property. Messrs. Peto and Betts have contracted to complete the two cuts for 143,0007., towards which the Eau Brink Commissioners contributed 60,000/., and the town of Lynn 60,0007. more. * The pedestal, table, and chairs, will form Plate XV. of our next number. — — —— — Hie vuuujmg wuonger, Ughter, ana petter protected stoppings; by — — awe VE 18 1 " Pl. 15 III t m |) > 2 AH cy „N i 4 q € ^x e B PAY E * d» oh / Fi "^d a ; O) Az aangas ane * A EN EO: Nor CY VY N 2 -_ AP UNE MM "MM CHAIRS DESIGNED BY JK COLLING ARGH JR Jobhms 4240 teen -y | ogizea o, Google | THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 113 COAL MINES OF YORK, DERBY, NOTTINGHAM, LEICESTER, AND WARWICK. By CRHARLxS Morton, Inspector of Coal Mines. Abstract of Report to the Secretary of State, for the year ending June 30, 1852. TRR district assigned to me extends from Leeds on the north to Coventry on the south, and comprises about 440 collieries, which are located as follows, viz., in Yorkshire, 265; Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, 150; Leicestershire, 10; Warwickshire, 15; Total, 440. the number of pits in operation is about 800, some of which are worked by gins, but the great majority by steam-engines. Many of the Yorkshire mines are shallow and of small area; they have been won at a moderate cost, and employ only a limited number of persons. The collieries connected with the iron trade, and with the extensive system of canals and railways in the midland counties, are chiefly on a large scale, afford employment to a considerable population, and raise a great quantity of coal. The pits are of variable depth; many of them are less than 100 yards, and few exceed 250 yards deep. The beds of coal are numerous and of diverse quality and thickness; the least being about 18 inches, and the greatest 10 feet. Some of the coal strata in my district yield in working them copious supplies of fire-damp; others produce choke-dam abundantly; several are liable to spontaneous combustion, an give off mixed vapours; and a few are nearly free from gas. The variable nature of the coal beds, and of the roof and floor, has led to different plans of mining. The “ pillar-and-stall” method of excavating, so general in Durham, is not much adopted here; the “long-work” system prevails in the midland counties; and a modification or combination of the two is pursued in Yorkshire. The contrivances for supporting the roof are also various. In some collieries wooden props only are employed; in others piles of wooden blocks assist the props: in others, walls built of shale and stone are relied on; and in others, portable iron columns are used in the pite. Chance, caprice, custom, necessity, and in solitary cases— enlightened experience, have dictated the method of extracting the coal, and sustaining the roof; but it is obvious that the ps of the miner depends in no small degree on the selection of well- considered and judicious modes of conducting these operations. The state of subterranean ventilation in my district varies with the physical conditions of the strata, the pecuniary circumstances of the lessees, and the scientific attainments of the managers. In some of the -collieries ventilation is fortuitous, correct principles and practices are not understood, and the air currents are im ifed by natural agencies only; while, in a few others, skill and capital have already created a moderate degree of artificial ventilation, and are daily improving and augmenting it. Gene- rally speaking, however, this 5 of mining is not in a satisfactory condition in the Yorkshire and midland counties coal fields. During the year ending June 30, 1852, there have been in my district 80 fatal accidents, oe a loss of 140 lives, and the cause of death may be classified as follows:— By explosion of fire-damp and by suffocation ... 68 By tumbling down the shaft... m oe — 11 By being struck with falling substances in the shaft 3 By the roof falling in the interior of the mine . . 24 By masses of coal falling in the interior of the mine 11 By water bursting into the mine 3 By ropes and chains breaking TA - — 4 By machinery ... 988 sii Ps vds — 4 By incidental causes . i te .. 12 Fifty-two persons perished by a terrific explosion in the Warren Vale Colliery, near Rotherham; and sixteen other deaths have resulted from gases at sundry times in various other collieries. I regret to say that under this head the total fatality has augmented, when compared with that of the thirty-two weeks which preceded July 1, 1851. The rate of mortality in shafts has diminished, but that occasioned by falls of roof and coal in the mine has slightly increased. : There is also an increase of deaths from machinery, and from incidental causes; the total number of lives lost in the collieries of my district, during the thirty-two weeks prior to July 1, 1851, was 48, or at the rate of seventy-eight per annum. Excluding the Warren Vale explosion from the list, the deaths during the year ending June 30, 1852, were eighty-eight. Including the awful sacrifice of life at Warren Vale, the list proves that the past year has been a very fatal one in the coal mines of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, but more especially in those of the first- mentioned county. In regard to the statement that the deaths from erplosions “had latterly increased to the fearfal number of about 1000 per annum,” I find that during the half-year ending June 30, 1852, the total number of deaths from every description of collie accident, in all the mining districts, was not quite 600, of whic about 200 were caused by fire-damp, or at the rate of 400 per annum instead of 1000. I fully coincide with the opinion that reliance must chiefly be placed for security on increased ventilation, as being most effectual for the prevention of explosions; and experience shows that however useful safety-lamps may be, and are, in isolated portions of a coal mine—they must not be generally admitted as a substitute for fresh air. Concerning the system of ventilation to be adopted, I feel assured that, in my district, if capacious furnaces were universally introduced, instead of the natural ventilation which is now too common, an important amelioration would be effected, and the Qu aa of the existing mines would be met. xceptional cases may arise where the steam-jet would be a valuable auxiliary (as it was at Warren Vale Pit, near Rotherham, immediately after the explosion); but, in the prevailing un- certainty as to the power and economy of steam-jet ventilation, I do not think it advisable to urge its application in the collieries of my district, until the owners have actually tried—and many of them have not yet tried—the furnace system, and found it inadequate. In case of explosion, a steam-jet placed at the top of the pit would give temporary assistance in supplying air to those who are exposed to peril underground, from ihe: dreadful effecta of after-damp; and it is desirable in fiery mines to fortify the brick N with thick and substantial * pack-walls," which prevent the former from being blown out by the force of a blast; and thus the restoration of the air, and the extrication of the sufferers, would be sooner and more easily accomplished I cannot recommend the compulsory enforcement of any particular system of ventilating or working collieries throughout the kingdom. The method of excavation, the planning out of the works, the lights to be used, the mode of maintaining the roof, the dimensions of the air-ways, the number, speed, and direction of the air currents, and the ventilating agency to be employed, must necessarily vary with the peculiar physical conditions of the strata, or of the mine; and it is inexpedient, if not impossible, to lay down any general system of mechanical or mining practices that would be applicable to all the colliery districts, or even to all the pits in any one district. At the same time there are many and great defects that ought to be improved, and numerous remedies that might be applied, which are unknown to or disregarded by some colliery proprietors and agents; and, in my judgment, it would he politic to continue the system of inspection, and to increase the powers of the inspector, in order that acknowledged evils may be abated, and recognised amendments adopted, within the district assigned to him. It is sometimes contended that human fatality in mines has increased, and is increasing, which (if true) is attributable to the recent rapid development of the coal trade—a much larger population being employed, and a heavier weight of coals raised under more formidable natural obstacles than heretofore. The coal seams now worked are further from the surface, and are more fiery; and the shafts, owing to their augmented depth and cost, are fewer for a given area of coal; the underground works are consequently more extended and intricate; and the difficulty of ventilating them and of expelling the gases is correspondingly greater. These impediments may be overcome, and the destruction of life and health in collieries diminished,— First. By adding to the force of natural ventilation the general application of known and approved artificial ventilators; by sinking wider shafts, and a greater number of them; by abolishing wooden partitions in shafts; by driving larger air-ways; by building stronger, tighter, and better protected stoppings; by 18 114 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. substituting double trap-doors for single ones; by dividing the mine into districte, and ventilating each separately; by splitting the main stream of air into several currents, and thus shorten the circuit and accelerate the motion of each; by the regular use of brattice boards in places that have only one inlet for air; by excluding naked lights from the return air-courses, and preventing the vitiated atmosphere from passing through the furnace; by employiug two furnace-men, one to attend in the day, and the other at night; by watching and ventilating the “ goaf;” by using safety lamps, furnished with locks and shields, in those parts of the mine where sudden eruptions of gas occur, or are likely to occur; by the daily inspection of safety lamps; by removing all obstructions from the air-roads, and not allowing corves to hang in the pits when the mine is not at work; by the early and never failing examination of the works every morning with a safety lamp; by the constant presence, underground, of a skilful and vigilant steward during the hours of labour; by putting sub- stantial walling and conducting rods into the drawing shafts, and attaching improved mechanical contrivances and better ropes to the winding machinery. Secondly. By introducing into the mine the best instruments for safely lighting it, and for measuring and registering atmo- spheric changes and aerial currents. The Stephenson lamp is approved in some localities on account of its double cylinder (one of glass and one of wire gauze) by which the wick is surrounded. Watson’s modification of Stephenson’s has a lock in the tube at the top, ingeniously contrived to prevent the lock from being picked and the gauze unscrewed. Eloin’s lamp (manufactured by Messrs. Thornton and Sons, Birmingham) is fed with air below the wick, and the air is brought into close contact with the flame by means of a cap. In this respect it nearly resembles Upton’s lamp. It gives considerably more light than Davy’s or Stephenson’s, but it has a glass cylinder, which is liable to fracture. e glass is surmounted by a brass tube, which shields the lamp from the action of inflammable currents. A water gauge is useful to show the actual power required or exerted in ventilating the mine. A barometer and thermometer should be placed at the surface, and underground, to indicate changes in the weight and tempera- ture of the atmosphere; for when the barometer falls, or the thermometer rises, the gases issue more abundantly, the counter- acting effect of the air is weakened; and therefore the furnace should be fired more energetically. Mr. Biram’s anemometer is the best that has yet been employed for measuring air currents; but however delicate it may be in its ' construction, it is needful to make an allowance for friction, and to compare and regulate the instrument by others before its results can be implicitly relied on. The following is a copy of the required corrections, by Mr. Biram : Numbers to be added to the velocity indicated per minute to correct for friction and inertia, when the force of 100 feet produces motion. n — 10ft. 20 fl. 30 fl. 40 ft. 50 ft. 60 ft. 70 fl. 80 ft. 90 fr 1 ... 100 ... 95 ... 91... 86 ... 82 ... 78 ... 74 ... 70 ... 66 . . 62 100 ... 61... 58... 55... 53 ... 51... 50 ... 48 .. 46 ... 44 ... 42 200 ... 41...40... 89... 38 ... 37 ... 35 ... 84 ... 33 . . 82 ... 81 300 ... 30... — ...29...— ... 28... — ...27 ... — ... 25 ... — 400. 25... 24... — — . 23. — ... 22... — ... 21... — ... 20 500 ... 20 .. 19 .. — ...18..— ..—...17..— ..—...— 600 .. 16..,—..—..—..—..15..—..—...—...— 700 ... 14. —U.ĩ—— . — . 13 .——.— . ..—. — 800 — 12.— — .q— .. HT—T— . — . — 900 — 11.—— .—w —w— ꝰ WWA — . —. ꝛ 1000 10.—U— . —U— ͤ (t— .. q— . .. — . — at 100 feet per minute, it would require one-fourth of the force of a current of 200 feet, and one-ninth of 300 feet, to overcome the friction, &c.— Ex.: If the anemometer indicate a current of 267 feet per minute, add thirty-three (in the table) for the friction, which is one-ninth of 300, the real velocity. Thirdly. By keeping more systematic, accurate, and elaborate colliery maps, sections, and records. Satisfactory progress has already been made in this respect conformably with the third section of the Act for Inspection of Coal Mines; and it is obvious how indispensable regular surveys and correct plans must be, in order to avoid or guard against the danger and expense resulting from an influx of water or gas from ancient workings. , A register should also be kept of the state of ventilation; and the following is a convenient form for the purpose. Observutions made at the Colliery. Depth Temperature in ; al wi ter. mem 18 On Surface the Shafta. In the Mine. Place of Trial with Anemometer Date. Wind Remarks. at Surtace Down U Down- U Intake Air At the Face Return Air cast 12 Bar. Ther cast. ARA Bar Ther. per Minute. per Miunte. per Minute. 185 ; Yards. | Yards, | Inches. | Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. Inches. | Degrees. Area. | C. feet. | Area. | C. fect. | Area. | C. feet. Fourthly. By educational efforts among the miners, and by improved discipline in the mines. It is still to be lamented, that so large an amount of ignorance prevails among the officers and labourers engaged in collieries. It is not unusual in my district to meet with underground stewards who cannot write; some are unable even to read; and few possess the combination of academical, industrial, and scientific knowledge, which alone can fully qualify them for the efficient discharge of their important duties. This deficiency, I conceive, may be supplied by the establish- ment of local artisan schools and libraries, where the principles of geology, mineralogy, chemistry, mechanics, and a Hc applied to mining, may be taught to the workmen, who should be examined periodically as to their acquirements, and if found worthy should receive authorised certificates, to be afterwards shown to colliery owners as evidence of educational fitness to undertake the oftice of agent. It appears that, according to the Mercantile Marine Act, 1850, no vessel is allowed to leave the United Kingdom unless the master and mates respectively exhibit certificates of service or competency; and in my judgment it is desirable that the ability of mining managers should be similarly tested and certitied. The better instruction of youths in colliery villages may be promoted by enforcing more strictly the law which forbids the employment of children under ten years of age, and by enactin that boys working in mines between the ages of 10 and 15, shoul go to school for five or six hours every week, exclusive of Sunday. This requirement would not be found in practice to interfere with the ordinary routine of labour, for there are not many collieries working regularly six days a week, and the boys have leisure in the evening to admit of their attending a schoo The Factory Act and the Printworks Act already provide in this way for the instruction of youths p in such trades; and my belief is that a similar provision may applied to mines without difficulty, and would be followed by results highly beneficial to the population. In the meantime some good may be done by the voluntary exertion of coal masters and agents to instruct their work-people; by erecting Sunday and day schools; by forming reading societies; by a wider circulation of parliamentary documents relating to collieries; and by printing and distributing well-considered suggestions and rules for the guidance of every class of mining labourers. Fifthly. By rendering more amenable to the law those who disregard their duties and responsibilities, and thus cause injury to life and limb in mines. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL It sometimes happens that the investigation of a fatal accident devolves on a coroner’s jury locally or otherwise influenced by the coal owner or manager; and occasionally agents and workmen belonging to the colliery where the death took place are found on the jury; and my impression is, that if jurymen were more care- fully selected from a higher class of rate-payers, living in surrounding parishes, instead of in the township where the casualty occurs, a more impartial result would be arrived at. It is also desirable that the coroner and jury should have power to inflict a pecuniary fine, or some other punishment, on the proprietor, officer, or workman of a mine, who by neglect or mismanagement caused death. This would enable the jury to return a verdict intermediate betwixt “manslaughter” on the one hand and “accidentally killed” on the other, which latter is frequently accompanied by a remonstrance, showing that the jurymen are not satisfied with the present state of the law. cases where a fine were levied, it might be appropriated to the relief of the surviving sufferers and of the deceased’s relatives, who from their humble position are generally unable otherwise to obtain redress. | The provisions of the “ Act for Compensating the Families of Persons killed by Accident" are comparatively inoperative as regards collieries, owing to the poverty of the suitor; and it is likely that the legal process of obtaining pecuniary compensation for loss of life or limb in mines, might be facilitated and cheapened by appealing to a coroner’s inquest, or to magistrates in petty sessions. Sixthly. By extending and strengthening the system of govern- ment inspection, and by further legislative interference. The operation of the Inspection Act, thus far, has been salutary in exposing defects, suggesting improvements, and diffusin information; and it is expedient to increase the number an authority of the Inspectors, whose social and professional position should be as high as that of eminent colliery viewers resident in the inspectors district. I cannot advise the appointment of sub- inspectors, their interference would be repelled by coal owners and agents, with whom their opinions and recommendations would not have sufficient weight; collisions and misunderstandings might thus be engendered, which would necessitate the mediation of the chief inspector, and would eventually weaken the influence and obstruct the ameliorating tendency of the law. In regard to the increased powers to be given to inspectors, and the changes to be made in the Inspection Act, I humbly submit that it may be needful and politic for the legislature to authorise the inspector to stop the working of a mine or its machinery, which he considers unsafe, and in the followin manner: that if the proprietor vy iin to adopt the 9 8 55 remedy, the inspector may request him to appoint an arbitrator, to confer with him (the Inspector) on the subject; and they shall name an umpire to decide between them, in case of disagreement; and, if they cannot mutually select an umpire, the Secretary of State shall appoint one. If the umpire agrees with the Inspector as to the dangerous character of the mine or machinery, or as to the propriety of the proposed improvement, the latter may order it to cease working until its condition be amended; and if the proprietor shall refuse or neglect to arbitrate, or if he disobey the joint award of the Inspector and the umpire, a penalty of 10“. should be levied for every day that he continues to work such unsafe mine. The Inspector may further be empowered to direct, that old pits be securely fenced round by the colliery lessor, or the lessee, under a fine of 1/. a-day for each pit left unfenced. Concerning maps, the Inspector should have power to desire that accurate mining plans be prepared at the expense of the proprietor within six months, under a penalty of lé. per day for neglect after the expiry of that period. hat the coliiery owner or agent shall be required to send immediate notice of a fatal accident to the Secretary of State, and to the Inspector of the District. That at least seven days, instead of two days, should intervene between the day of the accident and the hearing of evidence by the coroner, as to the cause of death; meanwhile the coroner's certificate might be granted authorising the burial of the deceased; and thus the inconvenience of holding an adjourned inquest might be avoided. That it should be imperatve on the constable of the township where the accident occurs, to inform the Inspector of the district when and where the coroner's inquest will be held. 115 That the Inspector, at the request of the deceased's relatives, or of the injured survivors of an accident, caused by the neglect or mismanagement of a mining proprietor or his agent, should be authorised to appeal (if he sees fit) to the magistrates in petty . sessions for compensation to the sufferers, and punishment to the offender. That persons under twenty years of age, should be disqualified to work the winding machinery at and ironstone pits. That ironstone mines should be brought within the operations of the Inspection Act. That mere natural ventilation in mines should be prohibited, and effective artificia! ventilation required by parliamentary enactment. It has been recommended that a new power, or central board, should be established, to issue official instructions to the Inspectors, . and to receive their reports, to enforce precautions, and to facilitate the exaction of penalties; but I believe that the Secretary of State, aided by an &mended Inspection Act, and through the instru- mentality of an RE E staff of well-qualified and better authorised Inspectors, can advantageously administer the laws oe ee ane mines without the intervention of the proposed bo OXFORD, WORCESTER, AND WOLVERHAMPTON RAILWAY. Report of Mr. Fow er, C.E., to the Directors. In November last the traffic between the Birmingham, Dudley, and Wolverhampton, and the Shrewsbury railways, which is worked by the Great Western Railway Company, commenced running over the portion of the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolver- hampton railways between Priestfield Junction and Shrewsbury Junction, north of Wolverhampton Station. It will be in the recollection of the Board that this part of the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton Railway was completed for the reception of this traffic exactly twelvemonths before it was required, in.ac- cordance with a stringent parliamentary obligation, founded on the representations of those entitled to run over it. The broad- auge up-line from Evesham to Campden is being laid, and will be completed, ready for opening, on the lst day of March, whereby the length of narrow-gauge single line will be reduced from 27 to 17 miles. This useless expenditure is necessary in the present state of the gauge question on the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton Railway, to enable the public to have the use of the double line of narrow-gauge between those two stations. This second line of narrow-gauge has been in perfect condition for use during the last twelve months, but the company have not been permitted to have the benefit or the public the convenience it would afford. Additional siding accommodation has been pro- vided during the last half-year at Dudley, Netherton, Park Head, Round Oak, Brettel-lane, Stourbridge, Kidderminster, Droit- wich, and Worcester, and sidings are now in progress at Bilston, Tipton, Stourbridge, Kidderminster, and Worcester. The Tipton basin is in a forward state, and will be ready for use early in the spring. The Wolverhampton joint station is so far completed that the traffic of the joint companies has been for some time accommodated in it. The goods station and basins at Wolver- hampton, belonging to the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhamp- ton Railway Company, are now nearly finished, and will afford accommodation to a very large traffic in goods and minerals. The want of better station accommodation for passengers at Dudley bas been much felt since the opening of the line, and the public are not unnaturally eed dissatistied with the delay. The lessee of the South Statfordshire Railway and myself have long been agreed upon the mode of giving this accommodation, but difficulties have existed, without blame to either company, which have hitherto prevented this work being carried out. The engines and wagons you have ordered in consequence of my reports will enable you to accommodate the traffic at present laced at your disposal, and such further increase as may fairly be expected during the next twelve or eighteen months, up to an average of about 45000. week; but I must again repeat my original recommendation, that with a new and undeveloped line like the Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton Railway, you must reconsider your position with regard to plant every six months, so as equally to avoid a superabundance as a deficiency. —— a 18* 116 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. EXPENSES OF LOCAL BOARDS OF HEALTH. RETURN, to an Order of the House of Commons, from and incident to the Application of the Public Health Act, or charged or owing in respect Commission, or Remuneration charged, claimed, paid, or to be paid, to any Inspector or Engineer, or other Person, haring held an as Inspector of the General Board of Health, and whether arising in all Local Boards of Health, of (1) all Sums tn and about, and preliminary all Sums of Money, Per-centage, Appointment „ also (2) of the Matters aforesaid, or in respect of the Transaction of any respect Business for or on behalf of any such Local Board; and (3) the Nature of the Business done or to be done, and the Amount paid or expectant in f. respect thereo G. B. General Board of Health; L. B. Local Board; E. Engineer; I. Inspector; S. I. Superintending Inspector. (1.) (2.) (3.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Money, 5 N ad Remuneration Sums expended in and and incident to or Person erson having h held an appolntment as 5." | Nature of ; the application Inspector of the General of Health, on behalf of such the Public Health Act, 1848. Local Board. DuRHAM Expenses of applying Act, to be repaid by annual in- 3 5 à £81 5 6 Of which the first instalment is paid , : .1817 8 LEICESTER... 1550. 2s. 11d. SHEERNESS ... Owing to the G. B. preliminary ication of the Act to the parish of Minster, 1622. 6s. 6d. BRISTOL Owing to the G. I B. for the preliminary inquiry, 2691. 8s. 4d. SHERBORNE . No sums have been expended, or any account received of the amount. CABDIFPP .. 1541. 18s. 9d. A Trigonometrical Survey was made by the Ordnance department, the cost of which (unpaid) is 10990. 2s. 8d. SALISBURY ... vei 1902. 13s. 7d. BzRwiCK-UPON-TWREED 164i. 10s. 5d. GLOUCESTER .. 1881. 6s. 9d., and which has been already paid. ee T. Hawksley, for ey plans ae i55 None 6 % %„ „„ ves [o2 R. Rawlinson, S. I., is eeeteco for sewerage . £50 0 0 The same, his commission as C.E.. 276 13 9 J. W. Couchman, I. of work during 191 7 2° the progress of the sewerage N.B.—Neither Mr. Hawksley nor Mr. Couch- man have held appointments under the G. B. steed, who is unconnected with the G. B. M A sum owing to Mr. Ranger, an I. of the G. B. for services as consulting engineer, in preparing plans and estimates for sewerage and water sup- ply . . £230 17 8 A sum owing to the Board of Ordnance, for making a survey and map of district £795 19 0 aho Paid to Messrs. Dymond and Sons, Exeter— Cost of survey and plans, 1321. 13s. 6d. For general servioes, as Surveyors to Board, 2811. the works, which in co .. John Gowland, per contract for gewerage .£4722 0 0 Sundries for iron pipes, for gully traps, and other materials . 80610 5 Mr. Hawksley, as above . 275 13 9 J. W. Couchman, ditto . 191 7 2 £5495 11 4 The consent of G. B. has been obtained for raising on mortgage of the rates, the sum of 55008. cule The engineer employed by the L. B. is T. Wick- |... . A system of sewerage and water supply: the 5 expense of the works contemplated i . £13,184 17 8 But the amount of the tenders for performing the work ex : . £19,000 0 0 None ... Making survey and plans. Laying down on general plan the public or artis dem cn denda Dna: with own on wi tem of Pm house drainage. 3 X Preparing necessary drawings and specifications for works. Furnishing estimates and superintending per- formance of contract. Mr. Rammell, S.I., prepared a on for draining the town, and issued advertisements for executing uence of a difference of opinion in the L. B., as far as the merits of pi and bricks, was subsequently abandoned; his charge (at present unpaid) amounts to 7001. 5s. 10d. Mr. Hawkshaw P a plan for the drainage of the town, his charge for which is 368/. 9s. 6d. in addition to which he will be entitled to 5/. per cent. on the outlay, which will cover travelling expenses, and all engineers’ charges. The estimated cost of Mr. Hawkshaw’s plan is 30,000/. the construction of waterworks, 63. Five per cent. will be and sewerage, the cost of which is estimated at 21,5001. Paid engineer for plans, sections and estimates for deposit in Private Bill Office, for bill aa yable to the engineer on the outlay, for the public works of water, He has received on account 400. The engineer is T. W. Rammell, who is an S. I. of the G. B. by the L. B. as their Consulting eer. e amount of re- muneration to be paid for his services has not yet been determined upon, but 1007. has been paid to him on account. a8 their engineers, in designing and sion of 5L. per cent. on the estimates. estimated cost of about 11,0002. but has not been adopted by the L. B. The sum of 350i. Mr. Rammell, 8. I., has, in conjunction with his partner, Mr. Lister, been emplo out works of sewerage and water su e sewerage works are now in the course of A scheme of water supply was projected by Rammell and Lister, 7 nature of the de to be done, is that of consulting engineer, during the performance of the works for sew the town of Berwick-upon- Tweed (part of the district), and supplying it with water. Estimates have been ted by the L. B. for sewerage works to the amount of 49781. 5s. 3d., and Mr. Rawlinson estimates the cost of the neoes- sary works for a water supply at 50001. by the L. B. y, on a commis- construction at an has besn paid to Rammell and Lister, on account of their services, the total sum to become due to them not having yet been ascertained. The Ordnance department made the survey of the district, but have not sent in any charge to the L. B. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL (1.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Sama expended’ in Anc preliminary And. inokdent to the application of the Public Health Act, 1848. Newakx (“ Improvement Commissioners, 6991. 15s. 9d. NANTWICH ... sis T Preliminary expenses were 711. 14s. 7d. the first annual instalment of the prin- cipal and interest of which (107. 10s. 4d.) has been paid. WEDNESBURY 05 £s Preliminary inquiry, 54l. 35. Great GRIMSBY... a -€— No account received from the preliminary expenses of Mr. W. Ranger, the 8. I. Expenses of preliminary inquiry, nished by the G. B., 971. 15s. 10d. CHESHUNT ... 88 es dus J Preliminary inquiry, 702. 5s. 7d. TYNEMOUTH ... dei — Preliminary inquiry, 542. 16s. 8d. ILFRACOMBE... Ae a ve s NiL WOLVERHAMPTON ... us side aoe Total sum expended, 2321. 6s. Id. BRADPORD ... à T The Public Health Act was incorporated with an Improvement Act obtained in 1850, and 5 9 2 les ex of applying the Publi ct was included in the cost of obtaining the Improvement Act. ids ud None. LE (2.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration charged by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, or Person ha held an appointment as Inspector of the General of Health, on behalf of such Local Board. Nil. yu ... No sums of money by way of pae ontan; &o., |. id to have ag yet, save as aforesaid, been paid to any E. or I. of the G. B., but by a resolution of the Board, on January 8, 1852, it was resolved, that Mr. Lee should be appointed to act as consulting d to be paid at the rate of 31. 8s. per day, and bis travelling expenses, when engaged on Nantwich business. ... J. M. Rendel, C.E., appointed Engineer of the L. B., to prepare a scheme for water supply and sewerage; and to employ a surveyor to make the vem of the district required by the G. B., and . Bedford, a surveyor, contracted to make and repare such plan by his agreement with Mr. del for 2804. ; but this sum, as also Mr. Ren- del's bill for general business (amount not known) bas not been paid by the L. B. ... No other busmess has been transacted by any person under the G. B., but the L. B. have A survey of the town portion of their district made by E. Gotto, C.E., for the purposes of drai p on a scale of 10 feet to the mile, as recommended by the G. B., and for which they paid him 170i, ... Some of the streets have been ... The L. B. have since had a reduced 117 (3) Nature of Business done or to be done, and Amount paid or expectant in respect th Nil. and reported upon places for the site of water supply, prepared the drawings for the drainage and water supply of the town, advised the Board on matters relating thereto, prepared the estimates, specifications and tenders for the completion of such works, and will have to see to the proper construction and completion of the before-mentioned works. None with the consent of the G. B. for which 1200/. has been paid; and waterworks, a water reservoir, sewers, and a general outfall are proposed to be done by an Improvement Act, obtained the last Session of Parliament, the estimated expense whereof is 20,0002. on a scale of 2 feet, made therefrom, for which they have agreed to pay Mr. Gotto 45l. Such plans have been approved of by the G. B., and Mr. Gotto has prepared a report upon, and a scheme for the drainage of the district, which are now before the G. B. for their approval, and which report and scheme, if approved of by the G. B. and carried into effect by the L. B., Mr. Gotto ia to be paid for, unless he should be appointed engineer to the L. B. The sum of 85/. has been paid to W. Radford, C.E., for expenses incurred by him under the direc- tion of the L. B., in taking levels, &c., with a view to the preparation of plans for the drainage of the district. The sum of 196“. 14s. was charged by W. Ranger, an I. of the G. B., for journeys, attendances, reports, plans, tracings, and other matters wells, ceme Inspector's expenses have been in work. of the works as are not immediately entered u and the remaining 2j per cent. on the Engineer works. Ditto works, 1261. None. ... No claim has been made, although an I. visited the borough to ascertain and report upon the ex- iency of borrowing money to effect the open- Ing of a new street, considered as a work of per- manent advantage to the district. No sum has been paid or agreed to be paid by the L. B. ing the pro drainage , alteration of boundaries, and other works for the district, and the amount of such . The L. B has engaged Robert Rawlinson, as Engineer, to lay down a the borough, to furnish detailed specifications and estimates, and to superin e terms of his engagement are 5 per cent. on the actual amount of outlay, and on such parts 6 % „%% 0 ewe , sew water supply, claims havi isputed by the Board, Mr. Ranger to t the sum of 100/. in full satis- VV aud auch guai has been pai to him by the Board. - S^ xus None me "E a None 85 bi Mr. Ranger was the S. L, and the whole of the charges are now due. No other Engineer or lan of main sewerage for p tend the execution of the n; 24 per cent. is payable on the estimated amount, ing upon to superintend the execution of such A. Whitehead, C.E., for maps and survey, 1781. |... Superintendence to completion, 1201.; paid 251. Drainage and water supply estimated at 8800. None. T s . The sum of 79001. has been expended by the L. B. in respect of the above improvement. 118 | THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. (1) (2.) (3.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Money, For centage, Commissions or Remuneration i y, paid to, or due to an r or Engineer x Sums expended in and preliminary and incident to or Person having held ah apoo tment as Í Nature of business one n = Sona, 5 paid the application of Inspector of the General of Health, on behalf of such 8 respe $ the Public Health Act, 1848. Local Board. . LEAMINGTON ` - ` o pefe A remuneration of 5 per cent. was agreed to be paid to T. W. Rammell, C.E., on the estimated No amount has, at present, been sent in outlay for new waterworks and drainage of the district, as Engineer to the L. B. and which estimate to the L. B. has since been made by him as follows, viz. :— For drainage: £. £. If the outfall be fixed at Emscote ... 20,700 Additional for ditto, if the outfall be carried down below Warwick Park 8,000 Total for eee os s 28,700 For water supply ... 85 z 95 is - - 19,500 Total... . 48,200 Since which the L. B. have instructed T. Wicksteed, C. E., to deliver in an estimate, which he has made as follows, viz. :— £. For outfall drainage only .. a six ae io - hs T .. 6,000 For water supply ... s oe sce ae os aes "ST . 16,000 29,000 And which latter estimate, as regards the water supply, is now under the consideration of the G. B. with a view to obtain their sanction to raising, on mortgage of the rates, 16,000}. to carry out the same. BEACONSFIELD . Sse eeu ma None 4 "^ None Preliminary i inquiry, 1117. 1s. WOOLWICH ccs. Sg nnn an, Consulting Engineer, T. W. Rammell, S. I. of |... Preparation of plans and estimates for main Expenses of preliminary i inquiry not as | the G. B., to be paid 5 per cent. on the outlay for | drainage works, and superintendence of execution yet ascertained from the G. B. main drainage works, and 24 per cent. on the | of same, and for preparation of plans, &c., for private improvement works. private improvement works, and supervision thereof. DARTFORD .. |... .. 2. efans To W. Ranger, as Consulting Engineer to the L. B., for the preparation : Preliminary i inquiry, 751. 11s. 4d. of S ADM and laying down a combined system of drainage and water supply, Expenses of the Ordnance Survey not the preparation of specifications and estimates for contracta for carry- yet ascertained. ing out the necessary works, and for consultations with the L. B., journeys, 5 M Rad &c., and other services rendered to £. s. d. 25 March 1852 .. ws 885 TT .. 121 8 3 Ditto ditto 31 March 1853 25 sis .. 161 3 11 282 12 2 Ditto ditto from 31 March 1853 to June 1854 bi say £150 ALTRINCHAM e e TE oe . R. Rawlinson, C.E., per-centage on works |... Excavating and sewering the town, including (No Return.) completed, 1652. the above items, 30790. 175. 9d. Inspector of works’ wages, 1567. 7s. 11d. DARLINGTON — aae .. alt None "SE en 25 None Preliminary i inquiry, 14. CCC No remuneration has been paid, charged, or |... Inspections have been made, the survey of the Preliminary i inquiry, 1401. 198. 20. claimed, by any I. or E. of the G. B. "borough examined and approved, and reports de- livered, but no amount has been paid, or expected to be paid, in respect thereof. LLANELLY ... : ...|... J. H. Taunton, C.E., was appointed to super- |... The construction of the waterworks is progress- Preliminary i inquiry, 7 727. 14s. 11d. intend the erection of waterworks, and laying of | ing, and will be completed within this year. pipes through the town, for which he is to be paid 5501. SHIPLEY ee eee The L. B. have engaged the services of W. Ranger, C.E., who was the S. I. for the district, both Exclusive of the charges and expenses with reference to the sewerage and the water supply, for which he is to be paid three guineas per day of the S. I., the sums owing by L. B. for his own time, and from 30s. to 10s. for that of his assistants. will be under 182. BROMYARD ... eee eg „„ ee The Order of the House returned to the G. B. with statement, ‘‘No such Board in Bromyard now.” Two applications were made, but the above is the only answer made to either. CARMARTHEN pA s Nil "S m bes Nil Preliminary i inquiry, 851. 165. 9d. GODMANCHESTER ... .. .. . M None BER esed mm None Preliminary inquiry, 53. 75. 7d. GATESHE apo. .e.. sey None „ m None TowrN soifos Dymond and Sons, of Exeter, for the completion of the map of Towyn, laying thereon the construc- Nothing has been ‘expended, charged, tion of the proposed drainage and water supply, and for drawing specification of the works, and or owing, as far as the L. B. is aware. including R. Dymond's journey to Towyn, 2U/. — — zl r1 IER A d THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL 119 (. 2.) 68. NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Monet Fer GS, OUI MEC or Remuneration y, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, N of busi d to be d dA id Sams expended in and preliminary and incident to or Person having held an appointment as ature of business done or one, and Amount pai the application of Inspector of the General Board of Health, on behalf of such or expectant in respect thereof. the Public Health Act, 1848. ¢ REDRUTH— The L. B. are quite in ignorance as to the amount of the preliminary expenses; the only item of which they know anything is a sum of 52/. 8s. 11d. due to Silvanus W. Jenkin, C.E., who made a preliminary survey, and it is presumed that such sum will be included in the Order of the Treasury, and the particulars have been forwarded to the G. B. for that purpose. LANCASTER ... —... = exo ues The Board are engaged in executing works of water supply and sewerage under the advice of Preliminary expenses, 183/. 13s. 6d. Mr. Rawlinson, and his charge is understood to be 5 per cent. | MARCH -- sat 928 sie .J.. The services of an inspector or engineer on the staff of the G. B. have not at present been called for; Estimated at 60/. or thereabouts. engineers unconnected with the G. B. have been employed to make a survey and prepare plans of the district, and a scheme of water supply and sewerage, but no works have at present bee contracted for. CASTLEFORD ... hs Be T rr The L. B. have consulted Mr. Lee, with respect to a scheme for a water supply for the district, the Not known. arrangement being that he is to charge three guineas a day and travelling expenses when engaged on that business alone; but as there is to be no remuneration in the way of per-centage or commission, the Board cannot say what the charges for such services will amount to. CROYDON ... ee Ta "e Amount paid to W. Ranger, including charge |... As Consulting Engineer. Preliminary inquiry, 1197. 11s. 3d. of 203“. 19s. for testing map, 1520/. 7s. 9d. RoMFORD .. she site e ee The sum of 65/. paid to E. Gotto, engineer. . . For preparing survey and detailed plan of the Nil. district proposed to be drained. The sum of 471. bs. to be paid to E. Gotto. For preparing general plan. ET TS a ze debes s Nil Bj. wes s Nil Preliminary expenses, 990. 4s. 10d. | CARLISLE... is be ap. anien A commission of 5 per cent. on 23,0007. |... Sewerage works estimated at 23, 000“. Preliminary expenses, 208. 88. 6d. (= 11501.) to Mr. Rawlinson. GAINSBOROUGH -— Hi — bs Mr. Lee, the engineer, to receive, when engaged on the business of the Board, three guineas per Nil. day and his actual travelling and other expenses. BUBSLEM. d he dee The agreement between W. Lee, C.E. and S. L, is, that when engaged upon the business of the Preliminary expenses, 107/. 14s. 3d. L. B. he is to receive three guineas per day and other expenses; but as there is to be no remuneration in the way of per-centage or commission, the L. B. cannot say, until the works have been completed, what the charges for his services wil amount to. The L. B. employed Mr. Lee, as engineer, in opposing the Staffordshire Potteries Waterworks Bill before a Committee of the House of Commons in March 1853, when they paid for his evidence and assistance 28/. 11s. Id. DEWSBURY ... she "T zu — xen 6311. 10s. 4d. paid to W. Ranger, S. I., for his services as engineer, in obtaining The Dewsbury Not known. Waterworks Aot, 1853." 25l. 3s. 4d. paid to W. Ranger for obtaining Ordnance 5 of town part of district, and pre- paring specimen plans and specification for completing the same, for laying down the sewerage thereon. 74l. 14s. claimed by W. Ranger for his services as engineer in exami and levelling the district Da Dewsbury for the water supply, prior to the determination being to go to Dunford Bridge or it. The L. B. have also agreed to pay to W. Ranger for his services as engineer, &c., a per-centage of bl. per annum on the cost of the works authorised to be made by the Dewsbury Waterworks Act, 1853. (except the reservoir at Broadstone Dyke), but the total amount of such per-centage not to exceed 2000/. CHELMSFORD... TN Ans nao alen No money has been paid to any I. of the G. B. |... Preparing the plans, sections and estimates for Preliminary expenses, 104“. 163. Id. The Engineer and Surveyor to the L. B. has a] the sewer works; superintending their erection; salary of 40/. per annnum, and is entitled to 5 per | surveying the works on roads, pavements, &c.; cent. commission on the cost of all works executed | attending all meetings of the board and its com- by the Board. The Engineer to the G. B., Mr. | mittees. The salary has been paid, and 180. on Austin, has consulted with the Surveyor without | account of commission. any charge. BRECON es a E E ss None sa sees 5 None i Preliminary expenses (G. T. Clarke, S.I.) 50l. 1s. 7d., which, the L. B. submit, should be paid by government. DORCHESTER P T "Em ipi None TO dee - None Not known. ARNOLD " we m e. — decis -— None WE 000 csse Si None Not known. Keswick ... oF a epee apelis um None E. 0 cessere iis None Preliminary expenses, 77l. 9s. 2d. BARNSLEY .. s E Su gelan Mr. Rammell, I. of the G. B., made an inquiry into the water supply in Barnsley, at the request of Not known. the L. B., March 1854, but no bill of his expense has yet been received by the L. B. 120 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. (1.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Sums expended in and prelimi the application o the Public Health Act, 1848. Sr. THOMAS THE APOSTLE, DEVON Preliminary expenses, 75“. 16s. 1d. SELBY jus aus sve m Preliminary expenses, 76/. 19s. HEANOR Nil. RUGBY "s us mi T Preliminary inquiry, 105/. 8s. 4d. MERTHYR TYDFIL ... ie Preliminary expenses, 2301. SWANSEA... A Preliminary expenses, 1211. 13s. 1d. Pewaton BARE AND TORRISHOLME No answer returned. DONCASTER ... Nil. MACCLESFIELD RUSHOLME Nil. SANDGATE ... T T -— Preliminary expenses, 135l. 5s. 6d. EXMOUTH .. "T $55 x Preliminary inquiry, 1527. 188. 5d. STRATFORD-UPON-À VON Not known. ToRMOHAM (Torquay) "T ds Preliminary inquiry, 105/. 8s. 11d. Survey Department, 350“. HOLBEACH ... se e" iss Preliminary inquiry, 84l. 11e. 11d. NORTHALLERTON Not known. FAREHAM X is i Preliminary expenses, 1071. ls. 7d. PENRITH eee eee seon and incident to or (2.) (3.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration ê charged by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, Nature of Business done or to be done, and A paid having held tment Inspector of the General Board of Health, on behalf of such or expectant in respect thereof. Local Board. à; os It was agreed by the L. B. that their Surveyor should be remunerated for his services in superintend- ing and carrying out the sewerage and drainage works, by a commission of 5i. per cent. on the costs of such works; but with the exception of the prelimi expenses, no money has been charged by, or paid to any person holding an appointment under the G. B. 1 To Lee and Stevenson, Engineers, 7, Duke- street, Westminster (Mr. Lee holding the appointment of I. under the G. B.), arising in respect of services rendered and money paid by them on behalf of the L. B., 920“. 16s. 8d., viz.: 1. Sundry professional visits made to Selby during the years 1851, 1852 and 1853. 2. Taking the levels of the dwelling-houses in Selby; preparatory to drawing plans of sewage and water supply. 3. Drawing said plans. s Fresh set of plans adapted to a new site, exhibiting the systems of water supply and sewage nage. 5. Drawings and plans of artesian well, 10-horse high-pressure steam-engine and a dages, engine- house, boiler-house, main building to support Getron water ANE (drawn in 88880 elevations), drawings of said tank and steam-engine, and the preparation of specifications, estimates and tenders for letting the same to contractors. Amount already paid on account in respect thereof, 460/. 8s 4d. None None hil oes Amount paid to T. W. Rammell, Engineer of G. B., for reports, plans, sections and estimates, and superintending the erection and execution of the water and drainage works, including payments to clerks and travelling expenses, 1095/. 9s. 8d. Nil alias Mr. Rawlinson has been recently employed to lay down and carry out an efficient system of drainage and water supply; the remuneration required by him is 5 per cent. on the contracte, which may probably amount to about 60, 000%. N The L. B. paid 1051. for plans for the waterworks, but has not paid any per- centage or commis- sion on the works. The waterworks have cost the Board 2956“. 15s. 5d., and the town is amply supplied. Filtration, however, will be required, and, until what system is to be adopted, the expense cannot be ascertained. The drainage already effected has cost 1770/.; further works are in progress, which will cost about 13000. Nil None None aon Nil zie Nil Nic f xps Nil pesas Engineer (T. W. Rammell), 214l. 18s. 3d. ...i... .|... The sum of 43/. 14s. 3d. has been paid to Mr. Whitehead, of Exeter, engineer, for a partial map of the district and report; and the sum of 350/. is agreed to be paid to Mr. Whitehead when he has com- pleted the survey of the district, and the plans have been approved by the G. B. of District, by the Ordnance duse Nil Seia Nil M Nil 8 ess Nil salons Mr. Christopher Palliser, as Surveyor of the |... Repairs of the roads, &c., 1571. 2s. 7d. L. B. a yearly salary of 10“. of which only one payment has become due. sist es None None was Te The L. B. e R. Rawlinson, C. E., S. I. of the G. B., as Consulting Engineer, to carry out the works. He is to have 400l. for his services in that capacity. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 121 d.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Sums expended in and prelimi the application o the Public Health Act, 1848. and incident to (2.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration charged by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, or Person having held an a pointment as Inspector of the 9 PASE of Health, on behalf of such (3) Nature of business done or to be done, and Amount paid or expectant in respect thereof. PENRITH... i - "E m The L. B. appointed R. Rawlinson, C.E., S. I. of the G. B., as Consulting Engineer, to oarry out the works. He is to have 400. for his services in that capacity. Newport (Monmouth) ... . In February 1854, paid Rammell and Lister, the engineers, 211. for the expenses of a preliminary Preliminary expenses, 721, 25. 2d. visit to the town, with the intention of placing the drainage in their hands, in which, however, they were not further employed. Paid our present town surveyor in January 1852, for plan of the town, approved on behalf of the G. B., 250/., and the L. B. has lately employed Mr. Hawkshaw to make a plan of, and report on, the general drainage of the borough. Mr. Hawkshaw’s charge will be 3501. in case nothing is done in his report; in case he carries out the works, 250. for the preliminary expenses, with 5/. per cent. com- mission on the outlay; the L. B. paying the resident surveyor. HASTINGS... js a EN rm "M None S — wes iss None. Not known. Luton aie 888 EN "o No I. or E. has at present been engaged at all, |... About two miles and upwards have been made Preliminary inquiry, 128/. 8s. 6d. and paid for. nor any commission paid thereon. A t many sewers have been made which were paid by rates levied for the whole amount. NEWTON HEATH ng ..|... Expenses of R. Rawlinson, relative to pre- |... The levels and survey of the district have been Preliminary inquiry, 981. 18s. 11d. SOUTHAMPTON Preliminary i inquiry, 1601. 7s. 9d. Expenses of S. I. not ascertained. BARNARD CASTLE ... inquiry, 1161. liminary inquiries, not known. mas ee Mr. Ranger is engineer to the L. B., and S. I. of G. B. The sum of 3125. 0s. 4d. has been paid to him in respect of the transaction of busi- ness for the L. B., and there is a balance of 444l. 3s. 6d. due to him in respect thereof, besides the charges since the bills were made out. x en 390/. to Mr. Ranger for engineering business |... in planning and carrying out waterworks and gewerage. taken, and plans thereof are being prepared. In respect of improving and widening streets and roads, completing the sewerage of the town, and for carrying out the new supply of water for the town. Business as Consulting Engineer, in carrying out a combined system of waterworks and sewer- age. TOTTENHAM c0 (Wu ĩ ͤ uxo eds The only sum paid by the L. B. to any I. or E. connected with the G. B., has been a sum of 31. 10s. Preliminary expenses, 66l. 14a. 6d. paid to Mr. Ranger for his attendance and expenses at Tottenham, at a conference with the Board, in reference to the survey, water supply, and drainage of the district, the works in relation to which were subsequently carried out by their own resident Surveyor and Engineer. KxIdHRronns . Mr. Lee in conjunction with his partner, Mr. Stevenson, were, upon the completion of Mr. Lee's Mr. Lee's charge a as I. of the G. Bs for | preliminary report, appointed Engineers to the L. B., but the works are still incomplete, and nothing preliminary survey and report thereon, has yet been claimed by or paid to, or agreed to be paid to them. is 54/.; there is no other expense that The nature of the business done, or rather in progress, is a system of sewerage and water supply for the L. B. is aware of. the district, in accordance with a scheme proposed by Lee and Stevenson, as the engineers to the L. B., and reported upon, and sanctioned by Mr. Austin, the Surveyor of the G. B. The business remaining to be done is the completion of the water supply to the town. The cause 5 the non- completion thereof has arisen from the unexpected bursting of certain earthenware pi water carriers recommended by the engineers, and sanctioned by Mr. Austin, as Surveyor to the G. B., subject to a certain proof pressure, in consequence of the failure of which pipes, the whole works are delayed until iron pipes can be procured and substituted. The amount actually paid up to this period in respect of the works is 1364/., but until the comple- tion and admeasurement thereof, and receipt of bills and accounts, it is impossible to state the amount still to be paid. The L. B. has also paid for certain existing waterworks, and property connected therewith, 600/. HrzxuaM XM m TE Bu aehos None sre ae iv None. Not known. ÁCCBINGTON ... -— "0 nn No I. or E. has been employed by the L. B., or in connection with the application of the Act to this Not known. district, saving the I. sent down by the G. B. BAILDON For the survey and plans of the special district contracted for by Mr. Not known. M‘ Landsbro’, of Otley, the sum of 55/. ... Tid Oniáceount 20): TAUNTON .. 8 bs "2c m Nothing been paid by the L. B. on this account. The only occasion on which they have had Not known. recourse to the service of an officer of the G. B. was in the year 1850, when, on June 5, Mr. Clarke attended at Taunton, at the request of the L. B., to answer certain questions with reference to some estimates which he had previously made for the effectual drainage of the town. GAYWOOD ... oe oe Seo ees No return made. Order returned to Office unopened. WORCESTER . E Coe 85 None „ usse 3 None. Preliminary i inquiry, 1541. 7s. "WALLASEY ... ja kig uw woe 985 None „ Sa ns None. 10970. 175. 5d. 19 122 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. a) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Sums expended in and prelimi the application the Public Health Act, 1848. HAWORTH ... 5190. 8s. 74d. WARWICK naa as 2 Dec. 1849 to Sept. 1850 ...£886 3 Sept. 1850 to Sept. 1851 ... 1185 7 Sept. 1851 to Sept. 1852 ... 1477 7 Sept. 1852 to Sept. 1853 ... 1085 12 WORKSOP Not known. Wiaan "m nis dns Nil. WISBECH ... d dis Not known. WALSOEEN ... Not known DERBY pos liminary inquiry, 20%. WORTHING ... hs see is Not known. SWAFFHAM ... a - a Preliminary expenses, 721. 14s. 8d. ALFRETON ... 9280 ees - 1351. 15s. 9d. HECKMONDWIKR ... s os BATLEY fis dus TR one CALNE BRAINTREE ... Preliminary inquiry, 1011. 3s. 3d. BoLTON T T ne CLITHEROE ... oe wee A Preliminary expenses, 129/. 4s. ORMSKIRK ... E PR z Preliminary expenses, 125. 18s. 6d. BRIDGNORTH... 254l. 1s. lld. and incident to 0 ee T None Nes wee (2.) (3.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration charged by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, or Person ha held an appointment as Inspector of the General of Health, on behalf of such Local Board. Nature of business done or to be done, and Amount paid or expectant in respect thereof. ... Mr. Ranger. has sent in his bill to the L. B. for the sum of 671. 17s. 6d. for work done by him as 5 in projecting a scheme for a water mupply. The L. B. proposes to expend between 1600“. and 1700/. in carrying out a scheme of water supply so soon as matters can be made satisfactory to the G. B. ... An expenditure after the same ratio has gone on since the audit in October 1853. Moreover, permanent works of drainage and water supply are now in progress, at an estimated cost of 26,0001., and to pay for them and the Engineers (Rammell and Lister's) charges and incidental expenses, a loan of 27, 500“. is about being advanced by the Public Works Commissioners, with the sanction of the G. B. In 1852, a sum of 761}. 10s. 6d. was incurred by the Survey department of the Ordnance. ... No I. of the G. B. has been employed by the L. B. as Engineer, or in any other capacity; and not et having received the account referred to in the last answer, the L. B. cannot state what amount may ve been paid or allowed to Mr. Lee, who was the Inspector conducting the preliminary inquiries. ... 15007. This amount is to be paid to R. Rawlinson, for the superintendence (as C.E.) of the con- struction of new works for supplying the district with water. Mr. Rawlinson has already been paid in reference to an Act passed last Session for supplying the district with water, 3271. 15s. 9d. ise a Nil de x ved - Nil. Ns ak Nil "Dr 0 "T Nil. ... 1591. 0s. 6d. was the total cost of preliminary |... This is answered in the last. It may, however, inquiry and report. No E. or I. of the G. B. has | be summed up as follows: The preliminary in- otherwise been employed on behalf of the L. B., | quiry, inspecting the locus in quo of a projected except that on two or three occasions the visit of | new street and the widening of an old one, for an engineer from the G. B. haa been necessary to | which 5000/. were required to be borrowed on advise as to public works, before the G. B.'s sano- | mortgage of the rates; and lastly, inspecting the tion could be given to a mortgage of the rates. | sites of two open brook courses, receiving much On each occasion the professional visit was only | foul drai which it is proposed to cover over for the day, and at present no claim has been | and convert into sewers, at an expense of about made in respect thereof. 15,0007., to be borrowed on mortgage of the rates. ess| sce Nothing charged or claimed or paid to any I. |... The nature of the Consulting Engineer's business The L. B. employ W. Ranger as their Consultin Engineer, in the works of water supply an sewerage; but have paid nothing to him yet, on account of business done by him for the L. B. has been to devise and prepare plans for the water supply and sewerage of the towh, and advise the L. B. on the construction of the works. Nothing has been paid; the Consulting Engineer is to be remunerated for his time employed, at three None. ... Mr. Bromley, sen., for surveying, 39/. 5s.; Mr. Bromley, jun., for surveying, 45/.; Mr. Bradley, for salary as Surveyor, 170. 10s. aries There are certain moneys due to W. Ranger, S. I.; but his account or claim has not been sent in. — eee See Ditto es iss Ditto. —j . bes None ae dace m None. T W. Ranger has acted as Consulting Engineer |... Mr. Ranger has prepared plans for the sewerage to this Board. No payment has yet been made | and water supply of the district; but nothing has , to him, nor has any claim been sent in by him for | been paid to him; nor has any specific sum been his services performed. Nor has any arrange- | agreed upon in respect of his services. ment taken place as to the work to be done by him, or the money to be paid in respect thereof. eeelece 0 None ees TEILE * None. ssa |osi Surveyor who attended the S. I., 127. 12s. 8 The per- centage pan to Mr. Rawlinson, C.E., as Consulting Engineer, is 400/. on the original estimated outlay of 8000/ , 300/. of which is paid, and the remaining 100/. unpaid. Essai W. Ranger, the I. of the G. B. No account |... Completion of the two plans and surveys of the yet received from the Lords of the Treasury of | town, with sewerage and drainage denoted thereon, his charge. and the sewerage in Low Town, part of drainage district, completed, if possible, before the ensuing winter. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. (1) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Fuss exported in "y pre and incident to lication the Pablic : Health Act, 1848. NORWICH 2 „% eee eve ~ 999 None. BEVERLEY... Not known. Diss . Preliminary inquiry, 581. 98. 8d. LITTLEHAMPTON... oes Estimated N 1000. NUNEATON ... vi Preliminary inquiry, 501. 18s. 1d. PRESTON v m — ane 861. 11s. 10d., charged and paid. Preliminary inquiry, 1511. 14s. 1d. SLEAFORD 123 (2.) 6. er-centage, Commission, or Remuneration Peer Ty, paid to, or due to any or Engineer, erson eral Board of H an an appa tment as Inspector of the General th, on behalf of such Nature of Business done or to be done, and Amount paid or expectant in respect thereof. None ice 8 None. None None. ecc „%%, J. .- The sum of 1007. was claimed by Mr. Lee, the S. I. and E. to the G. B., for business done by him on the formation of the Board in February 1854, for journeys and other business, the nature of which is not defined, but has not been paid. pics No I. or E. has been appointed, but a survey of the town, VV an expense of 50l., by N with the gentleman who prepared the same. ay eer Nothing incurred or due. All engineering has been done by the Surveyor to the L. B. None None. ... The nature of the business performed by Mr, , the eer or Surveyor, was an ex- amination of the ocality proposed to be comprised within the limits of the L. B. and a report thereon . Nil; but a charge is expected to be made upon the L. B. in this respect, by the G. B. to the G. B. TENBY 260% % 0 Nil ore CTI ETT) PT Nil. Nil. WAKEFIBLD .. ši ; None ose Seal vos None. Preliminary expenses, 2201. AYLESBURY .. e 00 00 0 ele None 4. ids None. imi expenses, 124}. 18s. 5d. WEYMOUTH .. e 00 rte tf 4501. paid to Mr. Bury, Engineer, for survey and plans for drainage of the borough. Nil. GREAT YARMOUTH ... e. eee tees ‘ Ni ies Nil. None. | West RETFORD .. — — Preliminary inquiry, 1711. 153. 81d. East RETFORD ...|... The Town Clerk states, There is no L. B. for East Retford.” SAWTRY .. e 0 . '"There does not exist any L. B. in the parishes of Sawtry All Saints and Sawtry St. Andrew, Huntingdonshire. TEWEKESBUBY |... 0 0 0 eee Nil Via ibis Nil. Preliminary inquiry, 1017. 148. 8d. WALTBAM Hoty Cos . . 42]. 17s. 11d. to W. Ranger. | — THURMASTON 11111 a den Nil. None, STOCKTON er 955 Nil „ uide i EM Nil. None. MAIDENHEAD - — dòs Preparation of surveys and levels, 5211. LOUGHBOROUGE e . 0 Mes “es None ae sess ne None, Preliminary inquiry, 1121. 195. 6d. Havar .. uie 885 see Amount not ascertained € a E Not known. UXBBRIDGE ew m Mr. Pilbrow, of Tottenham, Engineer, has been |... Mr. Pilbrow is to superintend all the Adis for Preliminary inquiry, 861. 1s. 6d. supply of water and the drainage, and his remu- neration is to be 5/. per cent. on the amount of contract. paid 54/. 12s, for pes &c., and it has been to pay him 5/. per cent. upon the amount contracts for sewerage and waterworks, 19* 124 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. (1.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. Sums expended in and prelimi and incident to the application o the Public Health Act, 1848. HALSTRAD ... Not known. ENFIELD .. TM dm dag Preliminary inquiry, 111/. 19s. 6d. ELLAND Not any. YORK 2 Preliminary inquiry, 1367. 14s. 7d. MARGATE Not known. WATFORD Preliminary inquiry, 65“. 14s. 9d. of House, 7800. lli. 10s. 6d. Improvement Act, 10581. 95. 10d. CRUMPSALL ... Not known. KrNesTON-UPON-HULL ... "e Preliminary expenses, 28/. ls. for ex- penses of the Town Clerk. Epsom ass sss T T Preliminary inquiry, 1681. 12s. 6d. MORPETH None. BiLsTON St. HELEN'8 ... BURNHAM (2.) (3.) Money, Per-centage, 108 or Remuneration , ed by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engipeer, ; or Person having held an appointment as j Nature of B pean Connor ee Cope ar aaa paid Inspector of the General Board of Health, on behalf of such pectan pect TE 85 91. 1s. paid to Messrs. Machison for a survey, and 3157. paid to J. L. Alexander, for a survey and maps of the town. Nil " * " Nil. ecse] ee eee None eee eeefeceo eee None. sess Paid to R. Rawlinson, C.E., S. I. of the G. B. |... Report on a proposed system of sewerage and 471. 14s. 6d. drainage for the city of York. NUR EN No account rendered by the G. B. for I. and |... No answer. Ordnance survey, although already repeatedly applied for. weal see W. Lloyd, of Great George-street, carried out the drainage works for this Board, for which he had 24 per cent of the outlay, as Consulting Engineer and Surveyor. At present Mr. Humbert is Surveyor, I. of Nuisances and Collector of Rates, at 100/. per annum. J. Pilbrow, Tottenham, Middlesex, is Consulting Engineer to the Board, at 40/. per annum, and 1 guinea every journey he makes to Watford at the request of the Board. — . The business done by the L. B. in respect of which the above moneys have been expended, or are owing, is as follows (namely): The construction of sewers, and the laying the pipes for the sewerage of the entire district. The building and constructing a reservoir nearly three miles from the town of Launceston. The laying the pipes for collecting and carrying the water into the reservoir, and thence to the town and district of Launceston, and generally the supplying the district with water. The purchase and erecting lampe, lamp-posts, &c. for the extended district. : surveying and mapping the district, and generally the engineering in the execution of the above works. The purchase of land and water, and compensation to parties for consequential damage, &c. secos No return made ... 8 .. No return made. pie ss The sum of 127. has been paid to the Surveyor and I. of Nuisances for the district, on account of his salary; but not any money has been paid, or agreed to be paid to, nor has any claim been made by or on account of any other I., E., or other person having held an appointment as I. of the G. B. nu NR EP None 885 oe A -— None. E. 2. d. Amount paid to W. Lee, C. E., for general plans and surveys "A .. 340 4 6 Amount paid to him for designs and drawings for water supply from Epsom Com- mon, attendances and journeys of himself and assistants, preparing specifica- tions and forms of tender, printing, &c.* ... 216 5 2 Amount paid R. Rawlinson, for professional services, and expenses in respect of report on water supply use ats whe ái oi js asa .. 14 8 6 * Note.— The charges of Mr. Lee, in addition to the sum above-mentioned, have not been ascertained, and no account of them has been furnished: they will be for current as Engineer of the L. B., after the rate of three guineas per diem, whilst employed in and about bis duties as Engineer, in addition to his outlay. wen ioe 175l. was agreed to be paid by this L. B. to |... Mr. Rawlinson prepare the plans and specifica- R. Rawlinson, late L of the G. B., for preparing | tions for the aforesaid water and sewerage works, plans and specifications for, and superintending | and superintended their letting to contractore, and the construction of, the water and sewerage works | the construction; he has been paid on account, required for the town portion of the district. 1001. and there remains due to him 75l. for these services. 8 The Commissioners are of opinion that such return does not apply to them, this L. B. being con- stituted under the ‘‘ Bilston Improvement Act, 1850, which provides that no rates shall be levied under ‘‘ Public Health Act, 1848.” sels „There is no L. B. here. There is a Local Improvement Act; and the Returns called for do not apply.” aedem: This L. B. was formed by a Provisional Order, bearing date the 6th day of February 1852, and con- firmed by the first Public Health (Supplemental) Act 1852, for a limited district within the parish of Burnham, the whole of such parish having, for two years previous to the passing of the aforesaid Pro- visional Order and Act, been under the control of a L. B. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 125 (1) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD. (2.) (3.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration y, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, Nature of Business done or to be done, ane Amount paid Sums expended in and preliminary and incident to or Person having held an appointment as the application of Inspector af the General Board of ealth, on behalf of such or expectant in respect thereof. the Public Health Act, 1848. Local Board. HITCHIN — ... CI MP E m As in most works of a like nature, the total outlay has considerably exceeded the original estimate, but the sum of 8000/., which Mr. Rawlinson stated as the probable cost at the outset, did not provide for extending the works to Hitchin Hill; neither did he expect that the L. B. would carry the water- pipes into every court and alley, and construct the branch sewers from the main to the wall of every ouse. There has been also a considerable expenditure (in all not less than 1500/.) for engineers commission and salaries; purchase of land; law expenses in conveyances, contracts and loans; printing, advertising and other incidentals, which could not have been avoided, nor, in the first estimate, have been accurately calculated. The provision of a second engine and set of pumps for the waterworks has been advised by Mr. Rawlinson, and the L. B. consider it essential as a measure of prudence. Preliminary inquiry, 861. 19s. 7d. Litton m ijs nts — 2 Fer Letter from G. B., enclosing Order of House, refused, and returned unopened. Duper .. iis E - . . . No claim having yet been made upon the L. B. for the expenses of and incident to the Preliminary Not known. Inquiry by W. Lee, C.E., the S. I. prior to the introduction of the Public Health Act to Dudley, the L. B. cannot make any return as to their liability or otherwise. TORT The sum paid to the I. in respect of the Pre- |... The L. B. have effected the drainage and cleans- liminary Inquiry, as per Order of the Treasury | ing of all lands and places in the district without (and included in the above sum of 353/. 18s. 44d.) | the aid of any engineer, and there are no other MILEBAM ... sine diay T Preliminary inquiry, 353. 18s. 44d. is 741. 10s. Id. works of importance now in progress, 68 e To T. W. Rammell, charge for Preliminary |... No other I. or E. has been employed by L. B. Not known. Inquiry, not received. HannoW— w. an Ma" vail en Engineer (J. Roe), for attendances as to matters of drainage, drawing up specifications, &c., 517. 9s. 2d. Clerk of works, superintending drainage works, 27 weeks, at 30. 3s. week, 85l. 1s. Preliminary expenses, 607. 14s. 1d. N.B.—Both the Engineer and Clerk of Works, were elected by the L. B., and not through the G. B. HARTLEPOOL... din ate — — Pee “A return would have been made, as usual, if there had been one to make.” BRIDGEND ... - et et je... oui None "M ZU s 882 None. WIN $35 T - . . J.. . 821. 10s. have been paid to J. Bull, Surveyor, for survey and plans of the district. PENZANCE ... e wee — ... None whatever. The only engineer employed has been our salaried surveyor. Preliminary expenses, 92/. 10s. 2d. CLEVEDON ... = et et —— . ios None nd — we 2 None. Not known. RoTHERHAM ... e et one ‘|... Paid Engineers for survey and levels of district, as per contract, 3187. Not known. Paid Engineers on account of General Bill, for designs and drawings for works of water supply, and drawings, and for journeys of themselves and assistants, preparing specifications, forms of tender, printing and stationery, 5001. i Mr. was el by the L. B. to be their Engineer, and his firm will have other demands addi- tional to the sums above-mentioned, but in the present state of the business no account has been obtained. The additional sums will be for current charges as Engineer of the L. B., after the rate of three guineas per diem while employed in and about such duties, and for cash paid for travelling expenses, clerks’ wages, stationery, &c. NEWMARKET... e e. — — . On the first formation of the L. B. in November 1853, W. Lee, Engineer, then holding an appoint- Not known. ment under the G. B., was directed to a survey of the district, which he completed, and for which the L. B. paid him 1571. 10s. Mr. Leo was also directed by the L. B. to lay down a system of drainage and water supply, plans and estimates for which Mr. Lee furnished to the L. B. in February 1853. After advertising for tenders, it was found that the cost of the works would exceed 10,000/., and the L. B., in consequence of the smallness of the district, abandoned the works set out on the plans, and have since employed another Surveyor to prepare modified plans. Mr. Lee has not at present sent in any claim to the L. B. for preparing the plans of the drainage and water supply. ALNWICK... ns € Uwe — un Paid 400/.; owing, nil; R. Rawlinson, Superintending Engineer. Preliminary inquiry, 115/. , ae jiii : Dover a X" The sum of 154“. 19s. 3d. comprised the expenses of R. Rawlinson, as S. I., making the Preliminary Preliminary inquiry, 154. 195. 3d. Inquiry prior to the application of the Act to this borough, the amount of whose remuneration, as distinguished from the other charges comprised therein, this L. B. has no means of ascertaining. The sum of 500/. has been paid to T. W. Rammell, on account of his professional services as Engineer in laying down a system for the drainage and water supply of the borough; the total amount of the remuneration to which he will be entitled for same, and for superintending the execution of the works necessary for carrying out his plans, cannot be ascertained at present, as it will depend on the amount of actual outlay, upon which it is understood his commission will be 5 per cent., in addition to his travelling expenses. Cuuvzgs CoTON ... .. .. — 2j... p None » a 8 None. Preliminary inquiry, 391. 164. 2d. 126 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. (1.) NAME OF LOCAL BOARD, Sums expended in and preliminary and incident to the application of the Public Health Act, 1848. ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH T ‘se None. CLARBOROUGH OTTERY ST. Mary ... edi Preliminary expenses, 120/. BaNBURY WELCHPOOL ... oe ae as Not known. BRYNMAWR eee eee oe e.e ec Not known. NEWBURY .. d kis ia Preliminary inquiry, 12261. 18s. 9d. . HALIFAX TNT ecc *o* een Not known. 6 COVENTRY A sum of 94. 0s. 10d. to W. Ranger. BANGOR - iss jus iss Preliminary inquiry, 1181/. 10s. 11d ALVASTON AND BOULTON ... 925 vee Not known. EDMONTON ... "m bs ao Preliminary inquiry, 90/. 138. 2d. BATTLE Ni. W AVERTBEE ... Not known. (2.) Money, Per-centage, Commission, or Remuneration charged by, paid to, or due to any Inspector or Engineer, or Person baving held an Poonma as Inspector of the General of Health, on behalf of such Local Board. Seales Lee and Stevenson, of Duke-street, Westmins- ter, are the Engineers employed by the L. B. to plan and superintend their works of drainage and water supply, and a sum of 300/. has been paid to them on account of their bill, particulars of (3.) Nature of business done or to be done, and Amount paid or expectant in respect thereof. ... The business to be done comprises a complete system of drainage and water supply—now nearly completed; and the whole sum hitherto expended in the works and ent since the establish- ment of the L. B. amounts to about 11,000/. seus Surveyor, 351.; Inspector of Nuisances, 101.; Br ene, The In J: The Township of Wavertree adjoins the borough of Live which have not yet been delivered. Mr. Lee was the I. who reported upon the sanitary state of Ashby-de-la- Zouch. PEA ee The L. B. was formed in the year 1850, and ceased to exist the following vear, by reason of the members of the L. B. adjournnig sine die, and abstaining from attending any of the monthly meet- ings for three successive months, by which they became disqualified, and since the year 1851, the L. B. has ceased to exist. e The Surveyor of the L. B. has been paid a per-centage of 51. per cent. on all sums expended for carrying out the public sewage and waterworks in the district, and he is now paid by the day for services he may be called upou to perform. The public works cost in this district about 2600/. None None. ee oe The L. B. have had surveys and plans made of the district, with specificatione for sa end out a an system of sewerage and water supply of the town, for which they contracted with Dymon Sons, of Exeter, C.E., to pay the sum of 350/., which sum is still due to them. ... The Surveyor appointed is F. W. Dymond, of |... The design and superintendence of waterworks and drainage. The amount paid to the Surveyor has been 100l. on account, and the balance will become payable on the completion of the works. Exeter. He is not, and never has been, an I. or officer of the G. B. His remuneration is to be at the rate of 5l. per cent. upon the estimates certified to be correct by the G. B. ... No drainage or sewerage works have yet been done under the power of the Health of Towns Act. A. L. B. has been formed, and officers appointed; and a plan and survey of the town has been made, Salaries of other officers not fixed, snl ens The sum of 274l. 3s. 2d. has been paid to W. Ranger for surveys, plans, and a Preliminary Report on measures to be adopted for increasing the water supply to Halifax. The sum of 391/. 3s. has also been paid to him for surveys, plans and a Preliminary Report on the sewerage of the borough. Also, it hath been agreed to pay to W. Ranger the sum of 5l. per cent. upon the sum of 26,4002., the estimated cost of the sewerage of the borough of Halifax, for his services as engineer on behalf of the L. B. in the construction of such sewerage works, but no part of the said per-centage haa as yet been paid to W. Ranger. | | — . 6812. 15s. 1d. has been paid to Mr. Ranger, which, with a sum of about 70l. now due to him, is the total amount so expended. The amount has been paid for his professional services as Consulting Engineer of the L. B., and for work connected with the sewerage of the city. r of Nuisances and Surveyor, 3021. 18s. 241“. 18s. 10d. has been paid to E. Johnson for surveys and plans. 125l. has been paid to mell and Lister for making admeasurements for estimating the value of present waterworks, and preparing report, plan and valuation of existing and proposed waterworks. 240“. has been paid to E. Johnson on account, commission of 5 per cent. on the estimated cost of the main drainage works of Bangor, and there will be due to him about 90/. more when completed. None ... None. or ee G. T. Clout, C.E.... . E 60 0 0 |... For survey and plan of drainage. Ditto ditto... 104 1 2 |... S. I. of drainage works. Ditto ditto 125 2 0 |... S. I. of waterworks. l, in which a complete system of drainage is being carried out. The main sewers empty into the river Mersey; and as the drainage of Wavertree could not be got rid of without going either through the Townships of Allerton and Garston, a distance of about five miles, or through Liverpool, the L. B. obtained from the Health Committee of the borough of Liverpool permiasion to consult with their Engineer (J. Newlands, C.E.), with a view of obtaining the privilege of connecting the Wavertree main sewer with those in Liverpool, which has been accomplished. The staff of officers in the Liv ] engineer's department were permitted to survey Wavertree Township under the direction of Mr. Newlands, the L. B. paying the actual cost of them for labour and money out of pocket: they have surveyed and made plans of all the western part of Wavertree, which will drain through Liverpool, for which a charge of 204/. 13s. 10d. has been made. The L. B. in acknowledgment of Mr. Newland's services in superintending the surveys, preparation of plans, estimates for and superintending construction of main sewers, have paid him 100/. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS- PUDDLING IRON. Jauzs NasurrH, Patricroft, Manchester, Patentee, May 4, 1854. This invention relates to a process of puddling iron, whereby 800 will the di 9 E 5 es he moen m tly expedited, but the ity of the iron wi be considerably improved. In i out this invention, the molten cast-iron in the puddling or refining furnace is subje to the action of a current or currents of steam, introduced, as nearly as practicable, to the lowest portion of the molten iron, and thence diffused upwards, so as not only mechanically to itate the molten iron, aud thereby keep exposing fresh surfaces of the iron to the oxygen contained in the atmosphere passing through the furnace, but also, when brought into contact with the incandescent iron, to be reduced to its elements, and yield oxygen, which will chemically combine with the carbon of the iron, as well as with the sulphur or other oxidizable substances of the iron with which it may come into contact and have affinity, and thereby deprive the iron of those impurities; whilst the other component of the steam, simultaneously liberated (namely, hydrogen), is free to combine with any sulphur present in the furnace, whether as an ingredient in the iron, or as a product of combustion of the fuel employed for heating the iron; and thus, substances very prejudicial to the quality of the iron will be removed or prevented from combining therewith; whilst, at the same time, the operation will be materially expedited. "v Shi fy u , 7 , BLY OMS Ah 7 7 7 Z , . . EI AY The engraving represents, in cross section, an ordinary puddling de suitably fitted for carrying on the puddling operation according to this invention. a, represents the molten metal in the basin of the furnace; b, the rabble-hole in the furnace door; and c, a bent pipe, the forward end of which is admitted into the furnace through the rabble-hole, and which is shown of ual diameter throughout. This pipe c, is attached by a universal joint to a pendant-pipe d, in connection with a steam-boiler, and is intended to conduct a current of steam beneath the surface of the molten metal Affixed to the rear end of the pipe c, is a handle e, by means of which the attendant is enabled to direct the orifice of the pipe to any part of the bed of the furnace. Claim.—Operating upon molten iron in the manner and for the purposes set forth. MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT. BENJAMIN FuLLwoop, Bermondsey, Patentes, April 17, 1854. The invention consists in . cement by caleining ther chalk or other native carbonate of lime and oxymuriate offlime, or any other chloride or muriate of soda, or any other muriate or muriatic acid, the object being to dissipate the carbonic acid gas contained in the chalk or carbonate of lime, and to replace it to some extent by chlorine or oxymuriatic gas. The quality of the cement thus produced may be modified by mixing with it native or manufactured oxide of zinc or other cementitious or colouring matters in the proportion of about oue part by measure to seven parts of the cement, or in any other suitable rtions. f laim.—The manufacture of cement by calcining with coal, coke, breeze, or other like fuel, chalk or other carbonate of lime, and a metallic earthy or alkaline chloride, or muriate or chlorine or muriatic acid, with or without the admixture of oxide of zino, or other vementitious or colouring matter before or after cal- cination. 127 MANUFACTURE OF MANURE FROM SEWAGE. THORNTON J. HRA PATH, Bristol, Patentee, March 17, 1854. The inventor employs the coke of the so-called Boghead coal or Torbanehill mineral, either before or after the aluminous ingredients of the coke shall have been extracted by an acid or other chemical for the drying, deodorising, or abeorbing of sewage or other matters operated upon. Claim.—The employment of the coke of the said Boghead coal or Torbanehill mineral in the manufacture of sewage manure and other artificial manures, as a means of deodorising, drying, and absorbing them, and thus of rendering them more portable and less offensive than by any treatment now undergone. =a SUPPLYING AIR ABOVE THE FUEL IN FURNACES. James GILBERTSON, Hertford, Patentee, July 28, 1854. The tube becomes highly heated by the fire, and the streams of air are heated as they pass through the tube into the furnace, ultimately mixing with the products of combustion in all parts of the furnace, thereby causing the consumption of the smoke. Claim.—Supplying numerous streams of air above the fuel in furnaces by means of a perforated tube or tubes. DEODORISING SEWAGE. RoBERT ÁNGUS Surrg and ALEXANDER McDovucaLtL, Man- chester, Patentees, January 20, 1854. The obiects of this invention are the removal of all offensive smells from se and other offensive matter, and the separation or preservation of such parts of the same as are useful as manure. Offensive smells arise from the evolution of sulphuretted hy or phosphuretted hydrogen, or other inorganic or organic sub- stances, gases, or effluvia,—and to remove them the patentees use sulphurous acid, which, when brought into contact with the offensive gases, causes their immediate decomposition, and, consequently, the destruction of the smell. As it is more con- venient to use the sulphurous acid in combination, an alkaline earth is preferred as a and of such bases magnesia and lime are preferred. It has been found that esia has the property of rapidly separating the two substances which constitute manure in urine, sewage, and other organic refuse matters, but it was not used for that purpose because of its inefficiency as a deodoriser. These substances are phosphoric acid and ammonia, with which the magnesia combines to form the ammonio-phosphate of magnesia, a scarcely soluble compound, of great valie as a manure, and well known to chemists. The facts relating to the action of magnesia on substances containing phosphoric acid and ammonia have been for some years familiar to chemists, therefore no claim is made for ita use in the combinations specified. It sometimes happens that after the sulphite or sulphurous acid has done its part in deodorising, a slight residual smell is perceived, which is removed by the use of carbonic acid, either in a free state or in combination. When such substances are to be dis- infected, a mixture of sulphite of magnesia and lime is used, or a mixture of both and carbonate of magnesia and lime—the latter in very small proportion, which accomplishes the double of removing all smell and precipitating, in a condition most suitable for manure, the phosphoric acid and ammonia contained in the substances operated upon. In the application of this invention to the sewage of a town, if the object be merely the removal of the offensive smell, it will be sufficient to introduce the preparation into the sewers through the grids or other openings to the surface; but if it be also desired to preserve the manure, it will be necessary to provide reservoirs or receptacles (to be used alternately), in which the sewage may be allowed to stand while the matters which have been precipitated by the action of the disinfectant shall have time to subside, when the clear water standing above the deposit may be allowed to run off. Claim.—The novel and peculiar treatment abuve named, and the operation, employment, or use of the agents or substances so appin in the above-named process or processes, for the purpose of removing offensive or injurious effluvia. — ee 128 THE GYROSCOPE. THE accompanying diagrams represent that most remarkable instrument, the Gyroscope, which was exhibited at the last meet- ing of the British Association, at Liverpool, and described in the Journal for November last, page 396. The instrument has been contrived by M. Foucault, the author of the pendulum expe- riment, which attracted so much attention a few years ago, and which exhibited in a most interesting manner the motion of the earth actually taking place. In the above drawing of the gyroscope, A, is a section of the periphery, of the wheel AA, which is constructed with a very heavy rim or periphery, and a light disc BB, forming the arms by means of which the connection is made to the axis CC, of the wheel. This axis is hung or connected to a ring DD, by means of gymbal journals at aa; this axis at each end being brought to 4 conical point and dipping into the conical recess made in the end of the bolts b; which bolts being screwed, pass through the brass hoop or ring, and are secured steadily by the jam-nut d, in the position which permits of the free revolution of the axis CC. This ring DD, again is hung or connected to the brass ring EE, by means of gymbal suspensions at ee. These gymbal suspen- sions are constructed in the same way (with bolts and jam-nuts) as those described suspending the axis CC, of the wheel AA. Again, this ring EE, is suspended to the upper part FF, of the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. stand, by another pair of gymbals similarly to the others. The box FF, or upper part of the stand is provided with a prong G, or long pivot, which dips into a socket on the top of the lower part of the stand H. The apparatus so made is thus capable of the following motions:—The wheel AA, is capable of revolution on its axis CC, within the ring DD; the ring DD, including the wheel AA, is capable of revolution within the ring EE, round the bal suspensions ee; the ring EE is again capable of revolution within the box FF, or upper part of the stand, round the bal suspensions that connect it to the frame or stand; and finally, the whole apparatus is susceptible of revolution horizontally on the pivot G, which is inse into the socket of the stand H. With the apparatus so constructed, a variety of beautiful experiments can be performed, of which the following are the more interesting. Remove the ring DD, carrying the wheel AA, from the machine, set the wheel AA in rapid motion, which can be done by winding a piece of twine round the axis of the wheel AA, and while holding the ring DD firmly in the hand, pull the twine violently, so as to uncoil it from the axis CC; suspend the ring DD by a piece of line attached to itself, or what is better, to the projecting head of the bolt which is outside of the ring at the gymbal journal; and so long as the velocity of the wheel AA, exceeds a certain amount, the ring DD will stand horizontally, though suspended by the one side, or it will remain in any position forming any angle with the horizon in which it may be placed; and while so suspended will slowly revolve round the suspending twine as a centre of motion. Thus the revolving motion of the mass of the wheel and axis resists the action of gravity on the mass, both of the matter which is in motion and on that which is at rest. Another experiment is as follows: — Place the ring EE perpen- dicular, the ring DD at right angles to it; set wheel AA in rapid motion in the same way as before, and assuming that while the machine is at rest it is in exact equilibrium, suspend while it is in motion & small weight on the projecting head of the bolt, which forms the gymbal centre from the axis of the wheel, and a horizontal revolution of the whole mass round the pivot centre of the stand will take place. Suspend now a heavier weight at the other end of the axis of the wheel, and the motion will be reversed; that is, if with the light weight the revolution took place to the right or left hand, it will, after the addition of the heavier weight at the opposite end, revolve to the left or right hand, the directions being determined by the direction in which the wheel AA revolves. A third very interesting experiment is the following :— When the whole machine is at rest, if the stand be slowly turned round on the table, the whole mass will turn with it, the weight of the machine causing sufficient friction on the pivot to produce this effect; but set the wheel in rapid motion as before, and the stand may be turned either way without disturbing the upper part of the machine, or altering the absolute direction of the axis of rotation. Thus, as with the pendulum experiment, can be shown the actual revolution of the earth, seeing that as the revolution of the earth takes place, it slowly revolves round under the gyroscope, the axis of which retains the same absolute direction in space. Instead of the ring DD, being used to carry the axis of the wheel AA, a semi-sphere is sometimes substituted, and in this form if the cup or semi-sphere be carried in the hand, the resistance which the moving mass offers to any change in the direction of the axis of rotation opposing any horizontal or perpendicular angular motion in the axis, gives the sensation as if the inanimate matter possessed life and a will of its own. Having described the construction of this machine, and the more interesting experiments which are usually performed with it, we shall again return to the subject next month, and consider the theory of its operation. — — Alto-Relievo Photographs. — We have lately visited the Photo- phic establishment of Messrs. Thompson and Wagstaff, of 12, Pall-Mall East, where, amongst a variety of very beautiful specimens of the art, we inspected some of a remarkable and totally novel character, produced by a new process for which these gentlemen have just obtained letters patent. These por- traits have the effect of standing out in relief, and impart a roundness and life-like appearance which has never been attained by any method hitherto employed. The price does not exceed those taken in the ordinary way. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL PUMPING’ ENGINES AT KENSINGTON WATER- WORKS, UNITED STATES.* By WASHINGTON JONES. THESE works, commenced in the year 1849, under the super- intendence of Mr. J. Singerly, were intended to supply the inhabitants of the district of Kensington with water from the river Delaware. The engine and pump-house is situated on the river, at the foot of Wood-street, in the northern of the district. It is 50 feet wide by 70 feet long; built of bricks in a neat substantial manner, with rustic work at the angles; the foundation walls are based upon a solid rock, that lies about 18 feet below the surface of the ground. The two reservoirs are situated between Sixth and Seventh- streets, and north of Lehigh-avenue, at a distance, measured on line of the ascending main, of about 13,300 feet from the pum house, and at an elevation of 120 feet above the level of mean tide. The bottoms and sides are covered in the usual manner, with bricks set on a bed of well-rammed clay puddle. Each reservoir is, on the bottom, 161 feet wide by 296 ft. 9 in. long. The angle of inner slope 35° from a vertical line. The content of each, when filled to a height of 12 feet above the bottom, is 4,642,026 f gallons, or, about 100 gallons for each inhabitant of the istrict. There are two pumps and engines, with two sets of boilers, so arranged that either engine can be supplied with steam from either set. Engine and pump No. 1, was built by Messrs. Brock and Andrews, to designs made from the specifications furnished them by the committee appointed by the commissioners of the district from their body to superintend, in conjunction with their engineer, the construction of the works. The engine is non- condensing, with a cylinder 30 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke, lying in a horizontal position, and fitted with balance puppet- valves. The boilers built for this engine are six in number, 42 inches diameter, and 40 feet long, and supply steam of 40 Ib. pressure per square inch, for ten revolutions of the engine per minute. The pump-barrel is 18 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke, and lies in a horizontal position, about 18 feet below the steam cylinder, and 8 feet below mean tide. It is double-acting, with valve- boxes similar to those in use at Fairmount Waterworks, originally designed by the late Frederick Graff, C.E. Motion is given to the pump-piston by the vibrations of a vertical lever-beam, whose upper and lower ends are respectively attached by links to the cross-head of the cylinder and that of the pump. The specifica- tions required: “Two receiving and two discharging valves, which will be placed at an angle of 45°; each set will be divided into four divisions, and of equal or larger capacity than the area of pump-barrel.” This condition compelled the valve-boxes to be made unusually large. Their dimensions were 3 ft. 10 in. wide, 2 ft. 10 in. deep, and 9 feet long; thickness of metal, 1} inch. So much flat surface was presented to the pressure of the water, with an insufficiency of metal to resist it, that the boxes burst soon after being put in operation, of course disabling the whole works. A committee of consulting engineers, after inspection, advised several important alterations and additions to the pump- ing apparatus and engine, which were made under the super- intendence of W. E. Morris, C.E. The banks of the reservoir showed symptoms of weakness, and were strengthened in the necessary parts. The subsequent action of the engine has abundantly proved that the changes and additions were judicious and necessary. The consumption of fuel required to keep engine No. 1 supplied with steam is not positively known, as there have been no conveniences at hand for testing it; but it is stated by Mr. J. J. Dehaven, chief engineer, in his official report to the commissioners of the district, to be 11 tons in 24 hours, when engine averages 10 double strokes per minute carrying steam for the whole stroke, which shows the evaporative efficiency of the boilers to be 4:21 Ib. of water (first warmed by passing through a heater, forming part of the exhaust pipe of engine) converted into steam of 40 lb. pressure by the consumption of 1 lb. of anthracite coal. No convenient opportunity has offered for proving the amount of water pumped into the basins by engine No. 1, in a given time, but by aking the result of the trial made on engine No. 2, which gives the amount of water raised, 70°6 per cent. of the space isplacement of piston, making, at 10 strokes per minute, a total * From the ‘Journal of the Franklin Institute.’ 129 of 1,550,442 standard ons raised in twenty-hours by an expenditure of 11 tons of coal, or about 62:9 gallons, or 522 lb. of water raised 112 feet high, at a velocity of 120 feet per minute for each pound of coal consumed. Engine No. 2 was built by Messrs. Reany, Neaffie and Co., and put in operation August 1852. It is of the condensing type, and as a cylinder 42 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke, standing in a vertical position, and fitted with balance puppet-valves. Steam is cut off after the piston has travelled seven-eighths of its stroke. The piston-rod passes through the top and bottom of the cylinder; its upper end is attached to a lever-beam, which gives motion to a shaft for working the valve-gear, and carrying a fly-wheel of just sufficient weight to make the engine pass the centres without hesitation. e lower end of the piston-rod is attached to the horizontal arm of a right-angled Hell crank, whose vertical arm is connected to the pump piston-rod. The pumping apparatus is the same as that of No. 1, except the pump-barrel, which is 1947; inches diameter, or 1,7, larger. Both sets of apparatus have upon their discharging-pipes an air vessel whose content is 230 cubic feet; and also one upon the supply-pipe, containing 30 cubic feet. In the absence of experi- ment in this case, it cannot be determined whether the latter vessels are of use or not. The experiment of Messrs. Kirchweger and Prussman show that at high speeds of pump-piston, the application of an air vessel to the supply-pipe of a pump, is of sitive benefit; but, in this case, the speed of the piston is not igh, averaging 144feet per minute; the supply-pipe is more than one-half larger in diameter than the pump-barrel; the pump is about 8 feet below mean-tide, which head is sufficient after a liberal allowance has been made for friction in the pipe, to fill the vacuum made by the pump-piston, when moving at a higher rate of speed than obtains in ordinary times. These advantages tend to show that the air vessels on the supply-pipes might be dispensed with without prejudice; and again, the coefficient of effect is not greater than where such an air vessel is not used. In September 1852, one of the reservoirs having been emptied, the Watering committee instructed the engineer to fill it with pump and engine No. 2, and keep an account of the time occupied in raising the surface of the water 12 feet above the bottom, when the content is, as previously stated, 4,642,026 gallons. The evaporation from such a large surface of water, and absorption by the brick lining of the basin, would be probably compensated for by dews and rain; but as no account of the weather was kept, extreme accuracy not being required, the amount of water raised may be considered as neither increased nor diminished by incidental causes, The time occupied in filling was 60 hours; number of double strokes, marked by a register, 36,900. This gives for each double stroke nearly 126 gallons. The space displacement of piston is nearly 178°5 gallons; the actual effect of the pump is therefore not quite 70'6 per cent. of its capacity, or about the usual per centage. No account was kept of the consumption of fuel, but from the official report of the engineer for the month of November 1853, is taken the following account of the consumption of coal, runuing time, number of revolutions, and amount of water pumped into the basin by No. 2. Total tons of coal consumed .. T s is T € 120 Number of hours running time, including stoppages for oiling, cleaning, &c , 528, or "t 22 days. Total revolutions " De id - a gis 889,919 Total gallons pumped into basin, estimating the quantity raised each double-stroke at 126 gallons, as determined by the trial in September 1552 ae : 5 a .. 49,199,794 This gives as the actual effect realised by the expenditure of 1 lb. of coal 18277 standard gallons, or 1526 lb. of water raised 112 feet high, with a velocity of 1645 feet per minute. The evaporative efficiency of the boiler is about the same as in other boilers of its type (flue and rising return-flue) 8°75 lb. of water evaporated by 11b. of coal. The feed-water being supplied from the hot-well of the engine. When No. 2 performs the same work, with steam of 10 lb. supplied by the cylinder boilers, there is required a consumption of eight tons of coal, which gives 5:98 lb. of water evaporated by 1 Ib. of coal: an increased etfect which must be attributed to the slower and more perfect combustion of the fuel, as the fires need not be urged, but the contrary, when steam of but 10 lb. is required. Engine No. 2 has been kept running at a speed of 18 revolutions r minute, when the consumption of water from the basin has ben so much greater than ordinary as to require it. At that speed the valves do not jar much more than when making twelve beats per minute, which is attributed to their construction, the 20 130 part farthest from the hinge being made very heavy, to insure prompt closing before the return stroke of the pump-piston permits the reflux of the water to close the valve with a blow; and, to the very large size of the air vessel on the ascending main, its contents being 34 cubic feet (or nearly three times the capacity of the air pump-barrel) of air, at a density due to the pressure resulting from the effort of the column of water in the main when moving at that velocity. The pressure, as determined by one of Bourdon's gauges attached to the main, per square inch of pump-piston, when moving at different velocities, varies from. the commencement of stroke to halt-stroke: 63 to 68 lb. at a speed of 120 feet per minute. 70 to 15, “„, , 156 77 to 80 99 99 ?? 6 99 9 with 11 ft. 3 in. of water in the basins. The speed of the water in main, being inversely as the diameters of the pump and main, will be 16} per cent. greater than the speed of that in the pump. When at the speed of 156 feet per minute, which is greater than that intended for ordinary service, the throttle-valve was partially closed, effecting a reduction of, say 1°5 lb. below the boiler pressure of 10 lb, making the initial cylinder pressure 8'5 Ib., which is farther reduced by expanding one-eighth to a mean pressure of &4lb. Vacuum steam by guage 131b., total pressure er square inch in cylinder = 21'4lb. The pressure per square luch on cylinder piston necessary to keep the pump-piston at the 9. 12752 (EDU 11 * 15°49; subtracting this from 21°4 there remains 5:91 lb. which is absorbed by the friction of the pump and engine and the load on the air pump. The pressure per square inch on pump-piston due to the head 120 — 8 = 112 feet is nearly 485 lb., average pressure at 156 per minute 72:5 lb.; difference 24 lb.; equivalent to an additional head of nearly 55:5 feet, or one-half more than the actual height to which the water is raised. This proves that about one-third of the effective engine-power is used in overcoming the friction and inertia of the water-column. A loss that is occasioned by its devious course, two right-angled bends, in addition to those of a small angle, caused by the inequalities of the ground through which the main is laid, at an uniform depth below the surface, occurring in the passage to the basins, and by its great length, over two and a-half miles. During the very warm weather of July last, one pump would not raise enough water to supply the increased demand, unless the speed of the engines was made greater than that considered prudent, and for which they were designed—twelve double-strokes per minute. To meet the demand, both engines were set to work, each averaging ten revolutions per minute, which speed was found adequate to eee up the supply. Both pumps discharged into one ascending main of 18 inches diameter, which bore the increased pressure due to the increased velocity of the water, proving it to be of sufficient strength for the Ea strain to which it is subjected. above speed is — Ancient Usage of Coal as Fuel.— Although this substance is now one of commonest use in many parts of Europe, it appears that it was only so recently as the thirteenth century that it was introduced at Liege, in Belgium, where most extensive strata are to be found. Some think that it was the Saxon word hulia, whence the French huille is derived. M. de Villefragne, however, asserts in his Recherches sur la principautée de Liege, that the use of coal was first introduced about 1009, by a certain Hullos, a farrier or blacksmith in the village of Plainevau, from whom the French term might be derived. Two centuries later, Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, found the employment of coal quite common with the people of Cathay (China), one of the possessions of the Grand Khan, where it had been known from time im- memorial. M. Polo says:—“ It is to be seen, that in all the provinces of Cathay there is a black stone, which splits from the mountains like veins, and burns like timber; it preserves fire better than wood, and I tell you, that if you light it well in the evening, it will keep fire until the morning. There is a plenty of wood here, but they burn a great deal of this stone.” In the seventeenth century, the Academy of Sciences, Paris, took up the subject of coal in the way of certain experimenta and inventions of an Italian. It seems that a composition of peat, sawdust, and pulverised coal was formed into blocks, which were first used for fuel—a process very analogous to that for which patents have been granted of late years. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. . WATERWORES IN THE UNITED STATES. By Jacos Hovauros, C.E. Cincinnati.—'The city of Cincinnati is supplied with water from the Ohio river, from which it is elevated, by means of steam-engines, to a height of 175 feet into a stone reservoir, containing 5,000,000 gallons. There are three engines, one condensing, and two non-condensing. The pumping or rising mains are 800 feet in length. These works were originally owned by a company, from whom the city purchased them for $300,000. To April 1853, they had expended about $700,000 in improvements, making a total cost of $1,000,000. Further extensive improvements are in contemplation. Nine years ago these works were in a very bad condition, the water being dis- tributed principally through wooden logs, which have been entirely replaced with iron pipes. Cincinnati contains upwards of 160,000 inhabitants. Pittsburgh is supplied with water from the Alleghany river. At this place there are two reservoirs, at different elevations, the lower one at 160 feet, and the upper one at 396 feet above low- water mark. The water is elevated into the lower reservoir from the river, by means of two large high-pressure engines, through a distance of 2000 feet. At the lower reservoir are two smaller engines, driving pumps which elevate the water into the upper reservoir through a pipe about one-fourth of a mile in length. This pumping pipe is also used as a distributing main, being connected with the distributing pipes; and, while the engines are running, the entire service connected with the upper reservoir is supplied directly from the pumps. This mode of using the pump main, for the double purpose of an inlet and outlet, has proved an unfavourable experiment. All means of circulation are prevented, and the water, becoming stagnant, has a bad taste and odour, and gives rise to a great deal of complaint. The reservoirs are built of earth embankments, the inside slopes paved with brick. These works have cost about $700,000, and supply 50,000 inhabitants with water. Alleghany City.—The population of this city in 1850 was 22,000. Cost of works, to January Ist 1853, $331,442:12. The water is obtained from the Alleghany river, by means of two steam-engines, which are duplicates from the same patterns as those at the upper works in Pittsburgh. The water is raised to a height of 206 feet, through a pump main about 1000 feet in onpth: The reservoir is of earth embankment, and will hold 10,000,000 gallons. Buffalo.—The waterworks of this city are owned by a company. The water is taken from the Niagara river, and is carried into the pump well, through a tunnel cut through the rock, under the Erie Canal. The water is raised to the reservoir by means of two Cornish Bull-engines, cylinder 50 inches diameter, and 10 feet stroke. The reservoir is of earth embankment, and will store 13,000,000 gallons. These works have cost upwards of $400,000. Population of the city about 60,000. Albany.—The city of Albany is supplied with water from Patroon's creek, across which, about 6 miles from the Hudson river, an embankment of earth, 40 feet in height, has been built: thus forming a retentive reservoir, called Rensselaer lake, covering an area of 30 acres, and containing about 160,000,000 gallons of water. From thence the water is conducted by gravi- tation through a brick aqueduct about 4 miles in length, to Bleecker reservoir, from whence it is distributed in the usual manner. A further supply is delivered to the lower part of the city, through iron pipes, laid directly from Watervliet lake. This artificial lake is on the same stream with, and about 4 miles below Rensselaer lake, and was formed bv constructing a dam 25 feet in height, across the stream. It overflows about 20 acres, and contains 30,000,000 gallons. These works are capable of delivering 10,000,000 gallons daily, and have cost about $500,000. Population of the city about 60,000. | New York is supplied with water from the Croton river, across which a dam 40 feet in height is constructed, forming the Croton lake, covering an area of 400 acres, and containing, at the depth of 6 feet, an available supply of 500,000,000 gallons of water. From thence the water is carried, by means of a brick aqueduct (except at the crossings of the Haarlem river bridge, and the Manhattan valley, where inverted syphons of the respective dips of 12 feet and 105 feet are used), about 38 miles in length, and having a total fall of 44 feet, to the receiving reservoir, which covers 37 acres of ground, and has capacity of 150,000,000 gallons. From this reservoir the water is conducted through iron pipes to THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL 131 the distributing reservoir from whence it is distributed in the usual manner. This reservoir is built of stone, covers an area of THE RELATIONS OF LEAD TO AIR AND WATER. 4 acres, and contains 21,000,000 gallons, when full to the top Dr. Christison states that “water containing yyy or tago Part water line. These works are capable of supplying 30,000,000 of salts, may be safely conveyed in lead pi if the salts are gallons per day, have cost between $13,000,000 and $14,000,000, chiefly aulphates and carbonates; and that lead pipes cannot be and supply water to more than half-a-million of pope An safely when it contains ↄdoth part of saline matter, if this enlargement of the works is now in contemplation, by which the consists of muriates.” quantity of water delivered daily will be materially increased. At the request of the Board of Consulting Physicians of the Philadelphia. — Fairmount Waterwor ks. — At the Fairmount city of Boston, Prof. E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, U.S., in 1849 waterworks the water is raised from the Schuylkill river, by examined, with t care, the relations of lead to air and water, means of water power. A dam, 1149 feet in length, and 13) feet and gives the fo owing as his conclusions: «€ A coat of ter or in height, above low tide, is constructed. From this dam water less permeability forms in all natural waters to which lead is is supplied to run eight breast-wheels, and one “J onval turbine," exposed. The first coat is a simple sub-oxide, absolutely inso- each driving a double-acting force-pump. The water is forced to luble in water, and solutions of salts generally. This becomes a height of 96 feet, through mains be 10 inches diameter, varying converted in some waters into a higher oxide; and this higher in leugth from 183 to 433 feet. On the hill at Fairmount are oxide, uniting with water and carbonic acid, forms a coat soluble four reservoirs, containing, in the aggregate, 92,031,976 ale in from 7000 to 10,000 times its weight of m water. The gallons, and at a distance of three-fourths of a mile is a fifth above oxide unites with sulphuric and ot reservoir, containing 16,646,247 ale gallons, making the total sometimes enter into the constitution of the last coat; uniting storage of the Fairmount works equivalent to 38,678,223 ale with organic matter and iron rust, it forms another coat, which gallons. During the year 1852 the average quantity of water is in the highest degree protective.” | pumped daily was 5,731,744 gallons, which was distributed in & Dr. Horatio Adams, in a lengthy and very able report, before district containing 26,821 houses, in which there were 27,592 the American Medical Association, at its annual meeting, in ratepayers. The cost of these works to January Ist 1853, was 1852, deprecates the use of lead pipe for the conveyance of water, $3,247,894. These works were the first of any impor tance under any circumstances. Having shown, both by analysis ; and erected in the United States, and have served as a model for its effects on the system, that lead is present in the Cochituate almost every city in the country. | . water drawn through lead pipes, also in the Croton water, the Spring Garden Waterworks.—Yhe districts of i dn Garden New Orleans water, the Cincinnati and Louisville water, he and Northern Liberties are supplied with water trom separate concludes— That it is never safe to use water drawn through works, erected upon the Schuylkill, about a mile above Fairmount. lead pipes, or atored in leaden cisterns, fur domestic purposes; Three condensing engines are in use, which force the water toa and that any article of food or drink is dangerous to health height of 115 feet, into an earth embankment reservoir. There which, by any possibility, can be impregnated with saturnine are three pump mains, two of 18 inches and one of 20 inches matter.“ diameter, and 3300 feet in length. ‘Lhe district of Kensington is Gmelin, a distinguished German chymist, does not differ from also supplied by independent steam-power works, situated upon Christison. the Delaware river. These works, however, I did not examine.* Boston is supplied with water from lake Cochituate, formerly called Long Pond, from which it is conducted by means of a EXPERIMENTS WITH TURBINES.* — — There there is an inverted syphon of 58 feet dip), 15 miles in Memorandum of Experiments made in April, 1854, with tw length, with a fall of 4] feet, to the Brooklyn reservoir. This Jonval Turbines, built by Emile Geyelin, Philadelphia, and reservoir covers an area of 22} acres, and has a capacity of erected in the Social Cotton Mill, Woonsocket, Rhode Island. 89,909,730 wine gallons. From the PEE reservoir the Tux experiments were made in presence of Messrs. Oren À water is conducted through iron pipes to three distributing Ballou, S. L. Wild, superintendent of the mill Arnold Jillson, reservoirs, as follows: one on Beacon hill, in Boston Proper, head machinist, Emile Geyelin, and several manufacturers and capacity 2,678.968 gallons; the second on Telegraph hill, in other gentlemen interested in the result. The experiments were South Boston, capacity 7,508,246 gallons; and the third on Eagle begun on the 14th of April, with the test of the amount of hill, in East Boston, capacity 5,591,816 gallons. From these machinery the largest of the two Jonval turbines would drive reservoirs the water is distributed by means of iron pipes. The with full gate open, or all the water on, which it could use. On basin containing the water on Beacon hill is 15 ft. 8 in. deep, the next days, April 15th and 16th, both turbines were experi- gupported on arches, the whole being & massive structure of mented upon for the purpose of ascertaining the per centage of granite, the walls of which, on Derne-street, are 58% feet high, power produced by each turbine separately. The mode adopted and in the rear of Mount-Vernon-street, 40 ft. 8 in. igh. The to obtain said per centage was, other reservoirs are of the earth embankment kind. The water ist, To determine the correct amount of cubic feet of water ig carried across the channel of Chelsea creek to East Boston, in each turbine would use per minute, with full gate open, when a 20-inch flexible pipe, with swivel joints, and of nearly double the other was entirely closed. Then, by multiplying the number the ordinary thickness. During the year 1852, these works of cubic feet obtain by the specific gravity of a cubic foot of delivered 8,125,842 wine gallons per day, to a population of water; and, further, by multiplying said result by the amount of about 140,000. To January lst 1853, the works had cost fall of water in feet, we obtained the theoretical power of the $5,370,818. water. The peculiar formation of the race-way leading the Chicago.—The city of Chicago, for the last two years, has been water to the turbines of the mill (being a regular trench of equal engaged in constructing waterworks, which are now 80, far breadth and depth, between well-made cemented walls, and An inlet pipe, made of pine staves, 30 inches diameter, is adapted to obtain the accurate amount of cubic feet of water each extended into lake Michigan, a distance of 600 feet, through turbine used during the respective experiments. A float, made which water 18 supplied to the pump well, from which it 19 of boards the size of a section of the race-way, balanced so as to elevated, by means of two steam engines (a condensing and a float in a vertical position and . to the le duplicate non-condensing), into à reservoir at a height of 8 feet. race-way, afforded a rare opportunity to obtain said data with For the want of eleva ground, they are compelled to make use i m mode being by means of waste- of a tower and tank similar to the one in use at Detroit. The boards or orifices under a certain pressure, ant thus being obliged tank is made of boiler iron, braced across its centre with wrought- to refer to tables containing coefficients, which are always more iron rods, is 60 feet diameter, 28 feet deep, and contains about or less subject to error in their application, owing to alight varia- 493,000 gallons. Other reservoirs of like capacity, will be con- tions in the shape of orifices or waste-boards. structed as required. The works are calculated to furnish a daily And. Having thus obtained (by means of the float) a correct supply of 3,000,000 gallons, and have cost about $400,000. The result of the number of cubic feet used, we obtain the effective unprecedented growth of that city will probably require the power produced by the hydraulic motor, by means of a 9 immediate extension and enlargement of the works. meter of Prony applied to the main horizontal line shaft of the * For a description of the Waterworks of West Philadelphia, see Journal Vol. XVIL mill. The mode of trial and accuracy of this apparatus are too 90 dal p. 15 6 iict, e * From the ‘Journal of the Franklin Institute. 20* 132 well known to require further notice. It is, however, to be remarked that, owing to the peculiar locality of the apparatus on said line shaft, we were obliged to bring the weight suspended at the extremity of the lever over a pulley, thus creating a friction, which we ascertained by a counter-balance. It is further to be remarked that the actual per centages pro- duced by each turbine, are somewhat greater than the following calculations will show, owing to the fact that the actual motion and power of the turbines had to be transmitted from the turbine shaft to the line shaft by means of a pair of mortised bevil- wheels, which, in addition to the four bearings of said line shaft, absorbed some power, which the dynamometer could not, of course, indicate. The amount of power necessary for the trans- mission of 100-horse power at a velocity of 135 revolutions per minute through said gearing, we had no means of ascertaining; but it would be safe to say that the actual per centage of. the turbine must have been from 1 to 13 per cent. greater than what was obtained by the dynamometer itself. On April 14th, 1854, the large turbine was started, separately, and the small one closed and detached from the line shaft. This was done for the purpose of showing the amount of machinery it would drive with the right speed, when fully loaded and the gate wide open. was counted by Mr. S. L. Wild, Mr. Arnold The ay Jillson, and Emile Geyelin, and was as follows :— 72 Cards, 86 inches each; 2 lappers, 86 inches; 1 willow, or whipper, 8 beaters each; 4 railway heads; 8 speeders, or English fly frames, 5 fine, of 160 spindles each, and 3 coarse, of 80 spindles; making in all 1,040 2 Drawing frames of 4 heads each: 8 boss rollers. 4 Spoolers; in all 320 spindles. 4 Dressers. 4 Warpers. 4 Pair of self-acting mules of 1728 spindles each 8.112 1 ?9 Ld »» 1200 97 = 3 33 Throstle spinning frames, spindles in warps, making in all . 2,448 Total Spindles .. .. 10,560 138 Looms at 116 picks. All the shafting for 15,000 spindles and 300 looms. Data obtained from the measurement of amount of water when the large turbine alone was in operation, with full gate open, oe the time when the dynamometer was applied at the line shaft: As stated above, the mode adopted for the measurement of the quantity of water was, by means of a float, which was put transversely in the race-way, and left to float in a vertical position towards the turbine. At each side we had a man to prevent any tendency of deviating from the position in which it was intended to float. After being fairly started in its course towards the turbine, it was repeatedly tried, and found that it travelled 135 feet in four minutes. Velocity of water 185 feet in 4 minutes = Width of race-way 19 feet 11 inches = 19°91 feet. Depth of race-way pa 5 „ 5 „ 6416 „ Section of race-way — .. 19:91 x 5:415 = 107°81 square feet. Quantity water used per min. = (107°81 x 33:75), or 3638°58 cub. ft. per min. Fall of water during the experiment, 20 feet 3 inches = 20°25. Data obtained by the dynamometer being applied to the line shaft instead of the turbine shaft itself: The proportions of the bevil wheels are— Mortice wheel on turbine shaft Pinion on line shaft .. A " Owing to the greater facility of counting, the speed was taken on the turbine shaft itself, and requiring, therefore, in the follow- ing calculations, to be augmented 1n the ratio of the above-named mortice bevil-wheels. Radius of lever of dynamometer, or length of arm of break, 11 ft. 10 in.; number of revolutions of turbine shaft, 122 per minute, giving px cm 179'40 speed of the line shaft. Net weight attached to the end of the lever, 310 lb. 51 Experiments made on the Small Jonval Turbine, on the 15th of April.—The amount of water was measured with the same float and exactly in the same manner as at the experiment of the large Jonval turbine; further, the dynamometer was left in the same position on the line shaft, and at noon the large turbine was detached, and the small one brought in connection with the said line shaft. Data of measurement of water at the trial of the small turbine: Velocity of water, or speed at which the float travelled in race-way 18°70 ft. pr. min. Width of race-way .. 19 ft. 11 in. 19:91 Depth „ v .. 6 feet. .. 19°91 x 6 = 119 46 square feet. = 119°46 x 18°70 = 2233:90 cb ft pr min as 20 ft. 7 in. = 20 58. 38 ‘75 feet per minute. . T5 teeth. 51 during the time of the experiments Fall of water during the experiments THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Data obtained in experiment No. 1, when the dynamometer was applied to the line shaft in connection with the small turbine: The speed was again counted on the turbine shaft itself, and was found to be from 139 to 140 revolutions per minute. Mortice bevil-wheel on turbine shaft is m . 64 teeth. Pinion on line shaft .. vs - ss ba 8 1 Number of revolutions on turbine shaft 139 50 189°50 x 64 — 78] 7 116 R. as speed of line shaft. The radius of lever of dynamometer remained the same as in the experiment of the large turbine, or.. bà 11 ft. 10 in. Net weight attached to- the end of the lever 1794 lb. Data obtained in experiment No. 2, when the dynamometer was applied to the line shaft, in connection with the small turbine: The speed was again counted on the turbine shaft, and was found to be 133 revolutions per minute. X Ri — 16690 R. as speed of line shaft. The radius of lever remained the same, 11 ft. 10 in.: net weight attached at the end of lever, 1924 lb. gine experiment No. 2. small turbine, the amount of water fall, was supposed to be the same as during experiment 1991 x 6 X 1870 = 2230.90 cubic feet per minute; fall, 20 ft. 7 in. = 20°58. Experiment on Large Turbine. Calculation of water) 8638-58 x 62˙5 Ib. pr. cb. ft. x 20°25 ft. fall power (theoretic) ; 35000 — = 189-65 h. power. Calculations of Power obtained by Dynamometer from the Large Turbine. Radius of lever ES 2x 95 is .. IIft. 10 in., or 11:883 Circumference = 2 w R = 23:666 x 8:1416 = 14:349 feet, or 74°35 feet. Number of revolutions per minute .. - T és 179 °40 C x N. of Rev. x w 74°35 x 179 40 x 310°00 Power = — — 43090 ^ ^" a300 F 125:30 horse power. Theoretical horse power of the water 139:50 horse power. Actual b. p. as obtained by dynamometer 125-30 0*8098 or 0-81 per cent. Experiment on Small Turbine, No. 1. 2230:90 x 62:5 x 20°58 Calculation of water power = - — 83000 . Fallin feet = 87°07 h. p. Calculation of Power obtained by Dynamometer. Radius of lever ix ie ds - .. ]llft.10in. = 11:833 Circumference. . vx is .. 20 R = 23:666 x 8:1416 = 74:35 feet. Number of revolutions of line shaft during the experiment 1:16 Cx N. of R. x W 74°35 x 175°00 x 1794 een E Power = 33000 33000 = T0:86 horse power. Theoretic horse power of the water .. 87:07 Actual horse power as shown by dynamometer 70 86 per centage = 0 818. Experiment on Small Turbine, No. 2. 2230°90 x 62:6 x 20°58 Calculation of water power = ^ — 43000 = 81:07 per centage h.p. Calculation of Power obtained by Dynamometer. Radius of lever aa XN .. 11 ft. 10 in. 11:838 Circumference E = 2«* R = 23:666 x 3:1416 = 74:35 feet. Number of revolutions per minute - . os we 166 90 Weight suspended at the extremity of the lever 1924 1b. Cx N. of R. x v 14:35 x 166:90 x 192:50 Power — — — 38000 —— = — 33000 7 12:38 per centage h. p. Horse power by water wk is - we 12 bé by d ometer .. se i : Horse power by dynam T Average per centage of both Turbines at all the Experiments. 0:8098 0:813 0:83 2:5528 = 0°8176 per cent. Gigantic Line of Telegraph—A company has been started in Paris with a udi of 7,000,000 francs, and for which the French government have guaranteed an interest of 44 per cent. It roposes to connect Constantinople and other t cities of the t with those of Western Europe, commencing at La Spezzia, where the Sardinian line of telegraph ends, and will be continued over Livorno, Civita Vecchia, and Naples; passing the whole Appennine peninsula up to Otranto and Tarento; thence crossing the Adriatic by submarine communication, and reach the Turkish territory at either Cape Linguetta or La Vallona; transect Albania and Rumelia, pass the cities of Salonica and Gallipoli, and termi- nate at Constantinople. The plans for this undertaking are rapidly progressing. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. NEW MODE OF PROPORTIONING STONE BRIDGES.* By Joux C. Trautwine, C.E., Philadelphia. I respectfully submit to the profession the following method of determining the proportions of stone bridges. At the risk of being considered egotistic, I will venture to remark, that in my opinion it possesses merit, not only as a practical guide to the unscientific mason, but also as being equally dependable with the results of any of the generally received theories. It is found to give proportionably thicker arches and abutments to small spans than to large ones. The necessity for this is well known to those of the profession who have studied the subject. The method was devised by myself some years ago, while an assistant engineer, and before I had sufficient experience to warrant me in ere it as a reliable contribution to engineering practice. It applies alike to arches of any size or shape whatever, whether semi- circular, segmental, elliptic, catenary, gothic, parabolic, &c., as well as to every height of abutment. Vw The Rule is as follows: First, for the thickness a b of the arch, or in other words, the depth of the arch-stones in feet, take one- third the square-root of the span c d in feet. Next draw the arch toa scale, with the thickness thus obtained; and add to it c sand d t, the heights of the abutments; also 8 r and ¢ e, their base lines. Then, from the top of the arch b with an opening of the dividers equal to one-half the span c d, lay off b m and b n. Next draw m w parallel to b s, and n u parallel to b t. Make w z and u v each E to one-tenth part of the rise a g, added to one-tenth of the half-span c g. Then will a and t v be the bases of the abutments, or of the abutment-piers, as the case may be. Lastly, for the backs of the abutments, draw æ i and v j to the height of m and n; and for the haunches, draw lines from ¢ and j towards b, touching the arch as high as possible. Above these lines the space will generally be filled in with earth for the roadway; but if preferred, it may be carried up with solid masonry or parallel walls. A few of the lower courses of masonry should project so as to forin feet for the abutments; and then, the level of the top of the upper step or offset, should be assumed as the base line of the abutment in drawing the figure, instead of the bottom of the foundation pit. The Rule remains the same in all particulars, for all arches whatever. With first-class materials and workmanship, w x and u v may be reduced slightly; but I regard the Rule as it stands, better adapted to ordinary practice. Other trifling modifications suited to peculiar circumstances, will suggest themselves to an experienced engineer. The young practitioner will, however, bear in mind that if his stone bridges are too slight, a few years of heavy railroad traffic will shake them to pieces, although they may stand very well for a while. The arch of equilibrium for bridges, which forms the chief topic of discussion in theoretical treatises on that subject, has no existence in point of fact; and in small bridges, where a heavy load, as for instance a first-class locomotive, bears a large propor- tion to the weight of the bridge itself, the principle utterly fails to be applicable. The smaller the bridge the larger in proportion must be its parts; but to what extent we must proceed in adjusting them on this basis, depends upon the results of experience. I trust that my Rule will be found not to conflict with these; but to afford & really valuable aid to this important branch of engineering. I subjoin a table of depths of arch-stones calculated by this Rule. * From the ‘Journal of the Franklin Institute.’ 183 With these depths there is no N an increase as we approach the springing line of the arch. e depth of the arch- stones does not depend altogether upon their resistance to the compressive action of the arch and its load, as writers assert. If this were true, they might be made much smaller than practice requires. They must have, in fact, such a depth as will secure to them a leverage sufficient to counteract the displacement attendant on striking the centres, filling in the haunches, &c., and the depth necessary for this purpose is so t, as also to warrant us, in ractice, to overlook the modifying effect of the proportion existing tween the rise and the span of the arch. Depth of Depth of uir Ambsmes, | San gta R in- 200 4 8i 60 2 7 180 4 53 50 2 4} 160 4 23 40 2 14 140 3 11 30 1 10 120 3 77 25 l 8 100 3 4 20 1 6 90 3 2 15 1 34 80 2 113 10 1 o} 70 2 9i 5 0 9 THE HOOSAC TUNNEL, UNITED STATES.* THE state of Massachusetts has granted a loan of $2,000,000, to the Troy and Greenfield Railroad Company on certain conditions, to aid in the construction of the tunnel through the Hoosac Mountains. The connection to be formed by means of this work between Boston and the West, is considered by its projectors and friends, of very great importance; and by means of the state loan, recently obtained, it is proposed to re-commence operations on that part of the line, including the mountain section. 5 of its importance in a commercial or financial point of view, let us consider it as an engineering enterprise. The entire length of the tunnel is to be 24, 100 feet, or 340 feet over four miles and a-half. The summit of the mountain is about 800 feet above the grade line, and averages about 600 feet over the tunnel. The mountain is, according to Professor Hitchcock, primitive rock of mica slate, nearly all the way through, with some lime and iron on the western slope. r The strata is nearly vertical, or inclined only from four to ten egrees. e line of the direction of the railroad crosses the strata nearly at right angles. It is proposed to build the tunnel for a double track railroad. In order that there may be a proper drainage, it is proposed to make a slightly ascending grade from either end to the centre. To lay out this work and get it ready for the contractors, requires merely the careful use of properly adjusted, accurate instruments; but this is of itself a task of no ordinary consequence. The best plan to be adopted in constructing the work is of more importance, and involves questions not ordinarily met with in railroad engineering. Whether the tunnel shall be worked from both ends only, or whether shafts shall be employed, has yet to be determined. If shafts are used, then all the contingencies of pumping and hoisting have to be considered; and whether shafts are or are not used, how to effect a proper ventilation, during the construction and permanently after the tunnel is built and is in use, is a question of the greatest consequence. Then, too, it is no easy matter to determine what method shall be adopted to make the excavations after the plan is adopted on which they are to be made, whether by shafts or without them; and these questions of 55 run into and become one of “the time to be employed in doing the work.” Wilson's machinery, which was constructed before the loan was obtained from the State, and was tried at the eastern side of the mountain, is said to be defective in many iculars, but the inventor has modifications of his plans with which he confidently expecta to be able to overcome all the ditficulties. This machine is intended to cut a circular section, and leave a core in the middle, to be removed by wedges or blasting. Corcoran’s machine cuts a circular tunnel, removing the whole face of the section; this machine acts by reciprocal movements; Wilson’s by rotary motion. * From the Journal of the Franklin Institute.’ 134 Besides these, Gardner has invented a system of drills, which has merit in their combination. Browne, and others, have contrived various methods of applying ordinary drills; and still another plan is advocated, that of boring by the combustion of gases, and the application of electricity. By some of these machines, or by something else not yet contrived, or by the old-fashioned method of drilling by hand and blasting, the excavations have to be made. The profession and the public will look with interest upon the plans adopted and the results arrived at. REVIEWS. Annual Report of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Common Council of the City of Detroit, U. S.; with the Reports of the Superintendent and Engineer, and Secretary, for the year ending December 31, 1853; to which is appended a Report of Prof. S. H. Douglass, upon the Analyses of Waters. Detroit: Pomeroy and Co. 1854. 8vo. pp. 86. The Commissioners report that extensive repairs and improve- ments have been made in the works, and are satisfied that they are in a much better state of efficiency than they have been for many years past; but they are entirely inadequate to the demands made upon them by a rapidly increasing population. Mr. Jacob Houghton, jun. the superintendent and engineer, reports that 253,019,439 imperial gallons of water were consumed in the ear 1853, being an average of 21 gallons per day to each individual; he compares the average daily use by each inhabitant in other cities: Detroit... ces esictecese .. 22 gallons to each person. London ............... ss 23 M 7 Alban etes 31 $$ 5 Philadelphia ............ 25 5 " New York ....... TE $; p Boston .. 66 5 5 The total time run by the engines was 3056h. 10m., equal to Sh. 22m. per day; and 11222 cords of mixed wood, costing $2129°37 were consumed. * One cord of mixed western wood is considered equivalent, in evaporating qualities, to 960 lb. of bituminous coal. Taking that as a basis, coal, at a greater price than $3°95 per ton of 2000 lb., would have exceeded the cost of wood. Using the same basis of calculation, the average duty of the engines has been to raise 155,338 lb. of water, one foot high for 1 lb. of coal consumed. The following table shows a comparison of the above with the duty of other pumping engines. The figures in the column marked “ Duty,” give the number of pounds raised one foot high for 1 lb. of coal consumed. Condensing Engines. Holmbush, single-acting Cornish for pumping Duty. water, date 1836 ; ; . 1,254,848 East London Waterworks, Cornish engine - 943,430 2 " Boulton and Watt engine 416,092 Haarlem Meer, Holland . i i à 797,872 Average of 36 Cornish engines in 1843 638,298 Cincinnati, direct action, date 1852 à 478,723 Buttalo, Cornish Bull-engines, date 1852 . s 330,869 Boulton and Watts non-expansive rotative engine, Albion Mills, London, date 1786 229,971 Spring Garden (Philadelphia), date 1852 . A 219,633 U. S. Dry Dock engine (Brooklyn) 200, 000 Non Condensin Engines, Pittsburgh, Upper Waterworks engines, date 1852 178,050 Pittsburgh, Lower 5) 5 Wo 170,648 Alleghany City ” ” 7 25 171,667 Detroit 3$ 2 is » 1853 155,338 Smeaton’s atmospheric engine, Long Benton, Northumberland, date 1772 . : : 112,500 The duty of the Brooklyn Dry Dock engine, given above, is not a fair test, as it was made while docking the Mississippi; and the engine was stopped several times while the vessel was being shored up. Nor is the duty of the Detroit engines (which shows so badly, being but very little in advance of Smeaton's atmospheric engine eighty-two years ago) a fair test of what they could do. The engines and pumps are of like construction with those at Pittsburgh and Alleghany City, and would, under like circumstances, undoubtedly come up to, if not exceed the duty of those engines. Reservoirs of large capacity being provided, the engines of those places are run without stoppage each day, and at night the fires are put out. But at Detroit the consumption of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. water each twenty-four hours is twice the ultimate capacity of the reservoir; and while, for the purpose of keeping up a constant head, alternate runs and stops are necessary, the fires have to be kept up during the whole twenty-four hours, while the actual running time for the past year has averaged only Sh. 22m. per day. These facts, however, show plainly the well-known greater economy of the Cornish and other varieties of condensing engines, and also show the necessity of a larger reservoir." During the Da season, under instructions, Mr. Houghton visited some of the most important waterworks of the United States. (See present number of the Journal, p. 130.) In order to preserve a record of facts in regard to the commence- ment and growth of the Detroit Waterworks, the engineer has compiled a history, which is, in truth, a history of the advance- ment of the city, and is another light by which to estimate the future progress of this and other American cities. The nature of the soil upon which the city is situated is, for themost part, a stiff and impermeable clay. On this account, the water obtained from the wells is of a very inferior quality, as it drains into them from the surface only, during the seasons of rain, and has not the benefit of a filtering soil. There are very few of the wells that ves a supply through the summer months, and within the imits of the city there is not what can be really termed a spring. To this insufficient supply of water from wells may be attributed the establishment in Detroit of works for distributing water by artificial means to the inhabitants, at a much earlier period in her history than in any of her sister cities. To the early settlers and habitants, as well as to the present population, the Detroit was the unfailing source of the supply of water; and it was furnished to the former in casks and barrels, hauled in carts, and in buckets slung at either end of wooden yokes, which were borne on the shoulders of the worthy pioneers; and the ordinances of the trustees compelled each citizen to keep on his premises a cask containing a certain amount of water, and so arranged, with poles A rie. that it could be brought into immediate use in case of fire. In 1824, one Berthelet was authorised to erect a pump, at which all persons in Detroit were entitled to draw water. In 1825 a proposition for supplying the city with water was made and accepted. A pump-house was erected, 20 feet square, with a cupola 40 feet high; the water was raised by two pumps of 5-inch bore, driven by horse-power into a 40-gallon cask at the top of the cupola; from thence the water was led through tamarac logs of 4$ inches internal diameter, to the reservoir, which was 16 feet square, and 6 feet deep. At this time the city contained about 1500 inhabitants; for the use of water, families were uniformly charged $10 per annum. In 1829 an immediate enlargement of the works was resolved upon; borings were commenced, $6000 dollars were expended in the experiment, and a hole 4 inches diameter was bored to the depth of 260 feet. Ten feet of alluvial earth was first passed through. Next a stratum of tenacious marly clay, with veins of quicksand, 115 feet. Two feet of beach sand, with pebble-stones, succeeded, and rock was then struck. It consisted of a stratum of geodiferous lime rock, 60 feet in depth. The anger then penetrated 65 feet into lias, in the course of which it fell into a cavity 2} inches in depth. A stratum of carbonate of lime, impregnated with salt, in a rather friable and and yielding form, succeeded. This would appear to be a subordinate bed in the lias, for the latter was in found below it; and the borin continued 8 feet. At this depth no water had been obtained, an it was resolved to abandon the project, and erect pumping works, for obtaining the supply from the river. In 1830 new works were constructed, the reservoir was constructed of brick 18 feet square and 9 feet deep. The water was pumped into the reservoir by means of a 10-horse power stationary engine, driving a rotary pump, and was forced through a 3-inch iron pipe; the city was supplied through two lines of wooden logs of 3 inches bore. During the winter of 1830 and 1831, all but four of the hydrants were rendered useless from freezing, and remained in that condition until spring. The same was the case with many of the logs which had not been laid at sufficient depth in the ground. The reservoir was also found extremely defective. In 1831, a second reservoir was constructed. It was 40 feet square and 10 feet deep, and built with oak plank. This joined the brick one built the year previous. They also relaid the greater part of the logs, in order to prevent a second freezing. A 20-horse power engine was erected, the same 3-inch pumping pipe being used, and at first drove a rotary pump; but that not THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. succeeding,i t was replaced by a double. acting force-pump similar to those in use at the present works. In 1836 the city purchased the works, and various alterations were planned and executed. In 1849 it was found that the works were in a bad state for furnishing a constant supply of water to the inhabitants. They had been originally constructed for the then existing population, seemingly without any estimate or calculation for an increase. When the plans were decided upon, in 1836, the city contained about 8000 inhabitants. In 1849, they numbered above 20,000. To supply this increased number, nearly twice the contents of the reservoir were uired each 24 hours, and it was necessary to run the engine from 16 to 24 hours each day. It was difficult to find time to make even the necessary and usual repairs to the engine; and, in case of any extensive repairs being required, the supply would be stopped, and an unforeseen accident could for weeks deprive the citizens of all the benefits intended to be con- ferred. The committee recommended to the council the purchase and putting up of a new engine; and, in accordance with their recommendation, early in the fall of 1849, a contract was made with De Gratf and Kendrick, of Detroit, for constructing and erecting, in complete running order, the large horizontal engine, unes power) and pump now in use, the plans of which were ished by Van Schoick, Kellog, and Co. Contracts were also made with Joseph Granger for building a new engine-house, and with Walcott and Hammond for furnish- ue inlet and pumping pipes. he inlet pipe, from the river to the engine, and the pumping pipe, from the engine to the reservoir, were laid, under the superintendence of Benjamin B. Moore. Several difficulties were encountered in this work, which were successfully overcome by Mr. Moore. Among these were, the raising from the ground and lowering into the tank of the valve-seat (weighing nearly a ton) and valve, and the setting of them, and the sinking of the river part of the inlet pipe. For several years there had been many complaints in different prs of the city, of an irregular and insufficient supply of water. ese complaints became more frequent as the population increased, and ter demands were made upon the works. Persons who had previously been well supplied found themselves obliged to draw at night the water for the following day; and there were large districts where a supply could not be obtained Lern midnight, and then it was anal in quantity, and of poor quality. ; The new engine was somewhat of a relief, but had not accom- plished as much as had been anticipated. What had been done it was well to do. Relief for the duty of the engine-men and a reserve engine, in case of accident, had been provided, and but little else. That which was outside and which could be seen, was taken care of, and the subterranean was for once neglected. There was plenty of power for raising the water to the reservoir, but no means of distributing it. Joined to the 4$ miles of iron pipes, the largest having an interior diameter of 10 inches, were some 35 miles of wooden logs, principally of 2 inches bore, and those frequently connected with a 8-inch lead pipe. The Board of Water Commissioners was organised in May 1853. As each of the works were constructed, they were supposed to make ample provision for years; and much caution was exercised, lest the works should be constructed upon a scale larger than the demand would ever warrant. Especially was this the case with the present works, planned in 1836, and constructed and carried through against the bitter opposition that such projects always entail; and, though then supposed to be sufficient for many years to come, have thus quickly undeceived their own founders, and left them nearly as badly oif as they were at their commencement. Every city in America, where waterworks are established, has learned the same. Men of strong foresight have failed to estimate their progress, and, while visiting the most important works of the country during the past season, the lesson was fully taught. The advice constantly given by persons who have grown up with these different projects was, to “be sure and build large enough; you will find it difficult to over-estimate.” Professor Douglass, of the University of Michigan, has examined the water from the river and wells, and reporta that there is a very marked difference in their composition. He says; The large quantity of the chloride of sodium (common salt), chloride of potasaium and magnesium found in the former, clearly indicates its surface origin. The two last salts are cathartic in their properties, and the habitual use of water holding them in solution in any considerable quantities must prove injurious to health. 135 In addition to the above impurities, the wells of Detroit being dug in a clay soil, and usually in backyards, would be liable to contain organic matter in the process of decomposition. This would be particularly the case during the warm season, when sickness is most likely to prevail. The use of water containing this organic matter would pos to disease, and materially aid in the spread of epidemics. No doubt a careful examination would show that, during the prevalence of cholera, that disease was more fatal, and prevailed to a greater extent among those using the water of the wells than among those in the habitual use of river water. My limited acquaintance with the distribution of water in your city, and with the localities where the disease was most prevalent, does not enable me to furnish examples in confirmation of this position. I have also been informed by Protessor Palmer, of Chicago, that this disease has been observed to be most fatal in that city in those districst where well water was used, although the most high, and apparently the most healthy. The lower districts, containing such quantities of surface water and filth as entirely to preclude the use of well water, were supplied with water from the lake by carts, and were comparatively free from this disease. Again, the city of Sandusky is situated on a clay soil, underlaid by a limestone, and is supplied with water mostly from wells dug in this tenacious clay. The water must not only be highly charged with lime and other earthy salts, but likewise contain large quantities of decaying organic matter, derived from surface drainage. I am fully of the opinion that the fearful ravages of cholera in that city may be, in a great measure, attributed to the use of impure water. It is à well established fact, that in the city of Cincinnati, of all persons who used the water of certain springs during the prevalence of cholera, not one escaped fatal attacks of the disease. Other examples might be given, drawn both from this country and Europe, illustrating the effect of water on the spread of epidemics, as a predisposing cause; but this is not the place for a lengthy discussion of this subject. The chemical analysis of the river water leads to the following useful conclusions: lst. The carbonates are found in very small quantities. As very little precipitate is formed on boiling, the water cannot be improved as to its ‘hardness,’ by the application of heat. 2nd. The sulphates and phosphates are the most abundant salts held in solution. The presence of the former, for reasons already stated, would forbid the use of wood conducting-logs. That hydro-sulphuric acid is formed by the spontaneous decomposition of the sulphates, is shown by the presence of this noxious compound in the water taken from the logs. 8rd. The analysis, from the iron pipe, shows it to be water superior to that of most other cities.” The Professor was requested to direct particular attention to the propriety of using lead service-pipes in the conveyance of river water. As the water of Detroit river contains less solid matter than is considered necessary to effectually protect lead from dissolving, he discourages the use of lead service-pipe. Block tin service-pipes, or lead pipe lined with tin would not be liable to the same corrosion. He therefore recommends it as a substitute for the lead pipe. Annual Report of the Board of Water Commissioners to the Com- mon Council of the City of Detroit, U.S.; together with the Reports of the Superintendent and Engineer, and Secretary, Jor the year ending December 31,1854. Dedroit: Daily Inquirer Press. 1855. Evo. pp. 63. To this date the works have cost the sum of $495,463:25. Mr. Jacob Houghton, jun., the engineer, reports that in 1852, when the works were need in the commissioners’ hands in conse- quence of the repairs not being properly kept up, a vast amount of water was continually running to waste. The leaks in the low-grounds were so numerous as to destroy the effective head and consequent supply to almost the entire portion of the city, north and west, but now the consumers have a much better and more constant supply, which has been brought about by a diligent examination for leaks, and a prompt stoppage of them when found, which has lessened the quantity of water required to be pumped in 1853. In January 1854, in consequence of the intense cold, the frost was found to have penetrated to a depth of 3 feet; different lines of logs which had not been laid at sufti- cient depth were at once frozen, and entire districts were thus deprived. of water for the winter. Innumerable service-pipes were frozen and burst, and hundreds of taps were left open and running to prevent freezing. A most extravagant waste and loss of water occurred; there was an actual waste each night ot over 100,000 gallons; which, added to an equal amount of waste by day, gives a total of 200,000 gallons per day, and equivalent to one-quarter of the entire quantity pumped. A strong police 136 force was immediately put on day and night, and every tap and hydrant examined; this resulted in the supply being restored in the early part of March. At Detroit the supply is far from being unlimited. New works are now being constructed; they are designed to be capable of supplying 3,000,000 imperial gallons in 12 hours; and although provision will be made for a complete duplication of the works, a further extension will be necessary. The cylinder of engine No. 2, erected in 1850, has been bored, and a new piston-head with composition nuts put in. This cylinder was originally cast from a ‘short heat, and the side of one end was full of sand-holes. The sand had all been forced out by the steam, and quan- tities of lead had been run in, but to little purpose, as the steam con- tinued to escape at every stroke. These holes were completely cleared out and re-filled by running in Babbit-metal, and inside of the cylinder the iron was cut out to a depth -inch over a surface of 6 inches by 16, and a copper patch set in and riveted through. This course was adopted to save the expense of à new cylinder, and has succeeded very well. During the late cold weather, however, a slight escape of steam has taken place, owing to the different rates of contraction of the different metals. While the cylinder was off its bed, the opportunity was taken to line the space between the bed-plates with a trough or pan of boiler iron, running from the pump under and past the cylinder and well down in the fly-wheel pit. Sufficient space being left between this and the bottom of the cylinder, all the grease and water from it, from the con- necting-rod to the pump and from the slides, runs into the pit, from which it is discharged into the river through the drain laid down in 1853." The engineer recommends the covering of the new engine-room and the boiler-rooms with iron roofs. An iron roof would probably cost about twice the price of a well-built mortar and shingle roof. I recom- mend such a roof however, as furnishing a protection to the engines and boilers from damage by fire. In the burning of timber roofs which cover machinery of any kind, it is very rarely that the machinery escapes destruction from the falling timber and walls. As there will be no upper floors in the proposed engine-house, the roof, if of timber, the windows and doors and their frames, would be the only parts liable to destruction by fire. If the roof is made fireproof, the burning of the others can do but little damage. A new chimney is also required to be built. This should be outside the engine-house at the centre of the west end, and should be 120 feet high. The flues from the furnaces in the two boiler-rooms would pass underground into the chimney. In the event of either setting up a new engine, or obtaining a pair of new high-pressure boilers, the chimney will be needed." ** New Reservoir.—About one-third of the work upon the new reser- voir has been accomplished. The earth embankments to form this reservoir are to be raised to a height of 30 feet. At the base, the reservoir covers an area of 530 feet by 320, being a surface of nearly four acres. The slopes, both inside and outside, are 1 and 14 feet horizontal to 1 foot perpendicular. The gravelled terrace at top will be 15 feet in width, and will be reached by a flight of stone steps. For additional strength, a puddle wall of clay 16 feet wide at the bottom and 8 feet wide at the top, is carried up to a height of 28 feet in the centre of the embankments. The slopes of the embankments on the outside will be sodded. The inside slopes will first be lined with concrete 3 inches in thickness, thoroughly worked and rammed to a solid bed. The concrete will be composed of four parts of broken Btone, one and one-half parts of gravel, one and one-half parts of sand, and one part of water lime. Upon the concrete a pavement of hard burned brick will be laid. On the slopes the bricks will be laid on edge, and on the bottom will be laid flat. A flight of stone steps will be built on the inside slope of either basin leading from the terrace to the bottom. The interior will be divided into two basins of equal capacity, by a cross embankment 10 feet in width at the top. Either basin will be 200 feet square at the top and 1144 feet square at the bottom, and 284 feet deep. The top water line will be within 3 feet of the top of the embankments, a waste weir being provided at that height. The top water line will be 50 feet above the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward avenues, and about 774 feet above the surface of the river at its present stage. The total storage of the two basins will be, 7,592,704 imperial gallons, equivalent for the present to about one week's supply. The inlet pipe or pump main from the engine-house, is 24 inches in diameter and branches into both basins. Stop-cocks are so placed in it that either basin can be pumped into separately, or both can be pumped into at once, and provision for a second pump main is made. 24-inch outlets or distributing mains are provided from either basin and unite in one at the base of the outside 39 From this point the distributing main starts, and thus feeding all the pipes in the streets running at right angles to the river, that it may intersect. It is not intended that this pipe shall be laid at present, but it will be extended as occasion and necessity may demand. Provision is also made for dupli- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL cating this main, should it be required. There is also an 8-inch outlet from the reservoir, which will materially aid the distribution in the eastern part of the city. A pipe is laid through the division embankment, thus connecting the two basins, and will serve to equalise the height of water in them. A waste pipe, a cleaning pipe and a sewer, are built into the embankments, and are to be connected with the Russell-street, sewer, through which the water from the waste weir will be discharged into the river, and through which also the water can be drawn off from either basin, when- ever required, for the purpose of cleaning. Pipes are also extended through the embankments on the north side of the reservoir provisionary to a supply of water to an additional reser- voir should one hereafter be required to be constructed, and that portion of the lot still remaining unoccupied will furnish sufficient space upon which to construct another reservoir of a capacity of 20,623,806 imperial gallons. For the purpose of furnishing ready access to the stop-cocks in the connecting pipes, three circular vaults of stone are built around them, in the centre of the embankments. These rest on a foundation of con- crete 1 foot thick. Solid stone work is carried up to a level with the bottom of the reservoir, and upon this the pipes and stop-cocks rest. At this level the walls of each vault are commenced and carried up to & height of 8 feet. Over each vault a brick dome will be built, the key of which is to be cast-iron with a manhole in the centre, and from this, a brick chimney, 3 feet in diameter will be carried to the top of the em- bankment and provided with an iron cover. Iron steps will be bonded into the brick well, and an iron ladder will reach from the bottom of the well to the floor of the vault. A drain and ventilating pipe is laid from each vault. One of these vaults has an interior diameter of 14 feet, and the other two of 10 feet each. The lot is to be enclosed with a substantial picket-fence 8 feet high, and a light picket-fence 4 feet in height will enclose the basins. The detail of the work accomplished during the past season is as follows. About 30,000 cubic yards of earth have been put into the embankments, which have been raised to an average height of 6 feet. For the attainment of economy in hauling, and that the work might at all times be accessible with teams, a plank road was constructed with branches to the reservoir, in all 2625 feet. It was built with old planks taken from the roads that were being relaid. It was used duri the entire season, is now in good condition, and will undoubtedly last until the work on the reservoir is completed. The inlet, outlet, connecting, waste, and cleaning pipes, and the drain and ventilating pipes from the stop-cock vaults, have been put in. With the exception of the drain and ventilating pipes from the stop- cock vaults, which were laid upon puddle, all the pipes above the solid clay were bedded on concrete, thus effectually providing against the settlement and consequent breakage of the pipes. The total amount of concrete used was 105 cubic yards. 119 cubic yards of stonework have been put into the stop-cock vaults, which have been built up about 6 feet above the floors. That portion of the sewer under the embankment connected with the waste weir and cleaning pipe, has been built. It is 24 feet diameter, and 257 feet long. It is built with one ring of bricks, 5 inches in thick- ness. The mortar used in building the sewer, and also, in the stonework of the stop-cock vaults, was composed of two parts of sharp sand to one of water lime. Both basins of the new reservoir being connected with the old reser- voir, or tank through the 8-inch pipe in Orleans street, have been filled with water to their present height. The action of the water upon the embankments during the present winter, will undoubtedly have the effect of causing a settlement to a firm and solid state. Aninventory of materials, tools, &c., used at this work, are given.” During the winter much inconvenience has been caused by the freezing of the fire-plugs, and the remedy to prevent it, hereto- fore sought, has invariably failed from a misunderstanding of the cause. The mode of prevention usually adopted, was to pack the wooden box around the plug, with straw or hay. That this would be of no utility, the facts are strong to prove. In all the cases, the freezing has been, of water above the valve. In no case has the water below the valve been frozen. The waste-cock to draw the water from the plug, after the valve is closed, is generally from 3 to 33 feet below the surface of the street, and the wooden box which encloses the plug being open from the top to that depth, forms a well, which receives and retains al! the water that comes into it, either from the plug itself, or from the surface of the street, as the impermeable clay soil will neither absorb or conduct it away. Of course the water will rise through the waste-cock, inside of the plug, to the same elevation it is in the well, and when the cold weather comes it must freeze. Hay or straw will not prevent it. A system of levels, run over the city, is now completed. By this table the relative level of the intersection of every two streets in the city is shown, as referred to the top of the tank, and from THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. it the theoretic head, furnished by either the tank or the new reservoir, can be deduced. The Secretary reports: “The minimum price charged families for water, it is believed, is lower than that established by any other waterworks in the Union, and one-half less than that established in many much larger cities than ours. The minimum, which is $4 per annum, for a family of not exceeding in number four persons, over four years of age, is but a fraction over 1 cent. per day, a sum insufficient to hire the quantity of water ordinarily used, drawn from a well situated on their premises.” — Every Man his own Printer, or Lithography made Easy: being an Essay upon Lithography in all ite Branches, showing more particularly the advantages of the “Patent Autographic Press.” London: Waterlow and Sons. 1854. pp. 50. Plates. An invention under the name of the Autographic Press has been produced by Messrs. Waterlow, the object of which is to enable any person to perform the operations of the more simple forms of be phy, particularly that of multiplying copies of written documents or circular letters, plans, music, &c. It is very simple in construction, the pressure being obtained by the stone being passed under a revolving cylinder, instead of employing a fixed “scraper” as in the ordinary lithographic press. It can be also used for printing from type. Several specimens of the production of the press, both pictorial and in writing, as well as a full description of the materials em- ployed in the process, are contained in the above pamphlet, which we recommend to the perusal of any who are interested in the subject. We think the invention likely to prove of great utility, particularly in the colonies, where facilities for printing are not always at hand. The Year Book of Facts in Science and Art for 1854. By Joun TIMES, F.S.A. London: Bogue. 1855. pp. 288. The Volume for the year 1854 fully equals in value any of the preceding ones, and contains a large collection of facts interesting to all men of science. The work commences with a memoir of the Astronomer-Royal, Professor Airy, with a portrait. — Manuel des Amateurs. [Handbook for Amateurs of Engraving, with Observations on the History of Engraving, the different methods of procedure, the choice of Engravings, and the method of preserving them.| (A companion to BRuNET's ‘Handbook of the Librarian, Paris, imperial 8vo., 1852). Par C. Lg BLAxc, of the Imperial Library. Paris. 1855. As no student or investigator in any department of science or art can do without the expensive work of Brunet, it seems that M. Le Blanc intends to furnish the public with a similar book on engravings which still more bear on the pursuits of the theoretical and practical artist, the architect, &c. In the same proportion as the activity of our times constantly puts forth new facts and new materials, as private and public collections are increasing, the necessity for classifying and digesting such huge materials becomes imperative, because indispensable. Abstracting from the absolute value of engravings as such, it is they which make available to al the works of the painter, the architect, and scalptor, and which cannot be reproduced in any considerable number but by the tools of the engraver. M. Le Blanc’s work shows at every page, that he possesses all the qualifications fur a work like this, a great knowledge of lan e, and an experience and taste acqui 1 1 position in the print-room of the Paris Imperial Library. Le Blanc has availed himself largely of the labours of those art-inquirers who have preceded him Huber and Rost, Bartsch, Dumenil, Malespina, Virtue, Bryan, &c.; especially of the great art-dictionary of Pb a in nineteen volumes; lastly, of Heller’s ‘Handbook of Engravings’ (2nd edit. 1850). Still, in comparing M. Le Blanc’s work with the latter, we find that letter A occupies in the French work 114 ges, instead of the 22 of Heller's work; of Gérard Andrew, Hellers acknowledges but 20 engravings, while Le Blanc’s cata- logue has 113. he first part of the work goes as far as Bartoli—and contains the vast number of 6500 catalogued engravings. The monograms employed by the different engravers are mentioned in each article, the sizes of the plates calculated in millimètres have been ascertained in many cases from the specimens of the Imperi Library; the stute of preservation and the prices when saleable or 137 ever sold, are also added. Lastly, M. Le Blanc has made a happy 5 on all former catalogues of engravings hitherto published, by arranging the works of each artist in a certain methodic manner, which greatly expedites the researches of the student, as the number of subjects to be catalogued will probably amount to 80,000! M. Le Blanc has given a table showing the name of the printer, sculptor, architect, and a systematised table of all engravings which have been made; to which, in fine, will be added, a systematised table of all engravings described in his work. Thus, it might appear that M. [e Blanc’s handbook will by far outstrip all similar works hitherto published, and present a true cyclopædia of all engravings known up to this time. — Exploration Photographique de Jérusalem. [Photographic Explora- tion of Jerusalem.) Par M. Avausr SALZMANN. Paris: 1855. Fol. plates. M. Salzmann, the industrious and intelligent author of the above work, has resided several years in Palestine, and has col- lected (as he states) à number of novel and interesting facts; but instead of meeting with encouragement from the savans, he was much opposed and thwarted, “having deranged their theories and systems.” This assertion still more entitles the author to the attention of biblical archeologists and architects. Amongst ‘other interesting notices, we may cite, that according to holy writ, the stonecutters of the temple of Solomon were Pheenicians from Byblos.” Recent travellers, who have examined the ruins of the latter town, have recognised walls which bear all the lithotomic characteristics of Phoenician architecture, which, again, are quite analogous to the yet-standing walls of the Temple of Jerusalem. In corroboration, M. Salzmann has given us the exact photographic representation of a portion of a wall which, by traditions existing from times immemorial, is really a portion of that ancient edifice. This “structure of giants exhibits a character of grandeur and magnificence beyond conception.” Twenty-two plates of the Explorations relate to the ensemble of the temple, on which the author has also formed some new and interesting conjectures. The ancient temple formed what are now the exterior walls of the plateau on which rises the mosque of Omar. The cupola has been hitherto considered as a work of comparatively modern date, but it is the nucleus of a gigantic arch of a viaduct or bridge which connected the xystus (lower plateau) of mount Sion to the summit of mount Moriah or the temple; and its principal keystones, upwards of ten métres in Ap are really the work of the masons and stonecutters of lomon. — Pompeia. (Pompeii, Described and Delineated.) Par E. BRETON. Paris: 8vo. 1853. There are many authorities who prefer Pompeii to even Athens and the temples of Egypt. Although M. Breton has many predecessors, and among them Le Mazois and De Roux, still his merits are not to be overlooked. "The history of the excavations of Pompeii is very complete, and is brought down to 1853; and even the very moderate price of ten francs is a commendation of a good text and respectable plates. — — INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Feb. 27.—James Simpson, Esq., President, in the Chair. The Paper read was On Steam and Sailing Colliers, and the variuns modes of Ballasting, ete.” By E. E. ALLEN. The first section was devoted principally to a comparison of the original cost and working expenses of screw and sailing colliers. The details of their construction being a distinct subject for inquiry, was only so far noticed as they differed slightly in the case of screw vessels, according to the mode of ballasting. It appeared, however, to be generally agreed that they should be fully rigged and be capable of steaming full seven knots per hour; but a higher speed might be advan- tageous, under certain states of the tide at the various porta. ‘Tables were given of the quantity of coala im rted i into London by screw vessels, during 1853 and 1854; from which its that 123 arrivals in 1853, gave an average cargo of 572 tona, and a total quantity of 70,403 tons; and that 348 arrivals in 1854, gave an average cargo of 582 tons, and a total quantity of 202,607 tons; showing an increase of 10 tons in the average cargo, and that the total quantity was nearly trebled. The tables also gave the number of cargoos brought to London in each month, and the total number for the year by each vessel; from which it appeared, that the Wiliam Hutt made 31 voyages, and the 21 138 Hunwich 20 voyages (the vessels being in actual work for only about eight months during 1853); the former delivering 13,219 tons and the latter 9661 tons. In 1854, the return showed six vessels to have been at work during the entire year, making 33, 31, 29, 28, 27, and 25 voyages respectively, and the quantities carried ranging between 20,033 tons and 15,198 tons, the Northumberland being at the head of the list, and the Caroline second, the latter delivering 17,461 tons. The total quantity for 1854 9 about 7000 tons brought by screw vessels, not being colliers. t was stated, that sailing colliers made on the average 10 voyages per annum, but in a very few exceptional cases as many as I5 voyages were made; the average cargoes being about 278 tons in 1854; having gradually increased year by year. From these particulars it was concluded, that the screw colliers carried about double the average cargoes of sailing colliers, and were capable of making three times the number of voyages per annum. Ris screw collier being, therefore, equal in capability to six sailing colliers. Comparisons were then instituted, between the original cost and working expenses of six sailing colliers, each carrying an average cargo of 300 tons, and making ten voyages per annum, and a screw collier carrying 600 tons, and making 30 voyages per annum. As good wooden vessels, suitable for colliers, were always to be bought for 12008. to 1800/., and iron screw colliers, in ordinary times, at 9000. to 10,000L, the original cost might be taken as about equal. It was stated, from actual experience, that the working expenses of six sailing vessels would amount to 6420/., and for one screw collier to 50501. per annum, these sums including all expenses, and giving about 1s. 6d. per ton, or 20 per cent. in favour of the one screw collier, on the 18,000 tons supposed to be delivered in each case. t was next considered to what extent the cost of transit would be diminished, by increasing the number of voyages per annum, and a table was given, showing the additions to the working expenses for 12 and 14 voyages for sailing vessels, and 34 and 38 for screw colliers, and exhibiting a reduction of the costs of transit from 7s. 1d. to 6s. 8d. and 6s. 4d. per ton by the former, and from 5s. 7d. to bs. 2d. and 4s. 10d. in the latter case; still being a Baving of about 1s. 6d. per ton, and equal in the last case to 25 per cent. It was next shown, how the cost of transit by sailing vessels was varied, by their being insured at Lloyd's, or in Clubs;—by being ballasted in the ordinary way, or by water;—and by being discharged by coal whippers, or by steam cranes, —and tables were given, showing the saving effected by working both sailing and screw colliers, under all the different circumstances described, the various combinations resulting in eight systems of working. Tables were also given, combining the several systems of working with the varying number of voyages, and the result showed that miis Pai worked on the most improved plan, could bring coals from Newcastle to London at 5s. 3d. per ton, and screw colliers at 3s. 6d. per ton; being a saving of 33 per cent. The cost was taken at the present high rates both of wages, provisions, and stores, and might be considered aa being about 20 per cent. above the average prices. The paper then described the various modes of ballasting now in use; —ordinary sand-ballast; bag water-ballast; bottom water-ballast; hold water-ballast; and tank water-ballast. The three first only were at present employed in colliers. The fourth plan, of having a water-hold, was described as being adopted in two colliers now building by Messrs. J. Scott Russell and Co., and had been already used with success in the Pioneer and Imperial screw steamers. In reviewiug these methods, both the cost and the time occupied in working them were considered. Vessels took about one-sixth of their average cargoes in ballast, and the cost of sand ballasting was usually estimated at 3s. per ton in sailing vessels, and if used in screw vessels would be 5s. per ton; this, however, included allowance for loss of time. The bag water-ballast, invented by Dr. D. B. White, of Newcastle, was then described, and samples were shown of the materials used and the mode of joining, &c. The first cost was stated to be about 50s. per ton, and the saving by its adoption about 6d. per ton on the quantity of coals delivered. The first cost would be saved in one year, or a year-and-a-half, regular working. The bags were described as being arranged on the floor of the vessel, and connected with a canvas hose, communicating through the side of the vessel, by & large stop cock, with the external water, which ran in and filled them when required. In discharging them, the water waa let into the hold, and then pumped out with the bilge water, by the ordinary pumps, or by a pump especially designed by Dr. White for the purpose. A model of the latter was shown, and it appeared that the water was always delivered at the level of the water outside the vessel, instead of being raised to the deck as by ordinary pumps;—thus saving on the average three-fifths of the labour in lifting. Bottom water-ballast was described as the method of adding a second bottom or ceiling to iron vessels, and filling the intermediate space with water;— the first cost was stated to be about 2/. per ton on a vessel (builder's measurement), which for vessels carrying 600 tons of cargo, would amount to about 1000/. to 1200/.; this giving about 6l. per ton of ‘ballast. Hold water-ballast was described as consisting of an iron water-hold, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. placed amidships, and capable of containing from 200 to 250 tons of water. The 3 of iron plating being fitted with an iron hatch, with awater- tight cover, the ing being decked over; the hatch was made large enough to allow of the hold being used for cargo. On this lan from 30 to 40 tons of water was carried under the forecastle, which a caulked ceiling, and an iron manhole arranged for the purpose. The first cost of this plan would probably not exceed 2/. per ton of ballast, where this quantity was required. A comparison was instituted between the first and yearly cost of 100 tons bag and 100 tons of bottom water-ballast applied to an iron vessel; and the result was, that bag- ballast fitted under flaps, as tried in the Northumberland, cost yearly about 100l., or 1l. per ton per annum; and bottom water-ballast 1/. 10s. per ton; the double bottom giving, how- ever, great additional security, and compensating for the increased cost, a reduction of 10s. per cent on the insurance (if made) being sufficient to cover it. The advantages likely to result from extending the use of screw colliers in coaling such a station at St. Vincent, one of the Cape de Verde Islands, were then discussed; and it was urged, as an interesting and important matter, to determine whether coals for the out and home voyages between England and Australia, could be advanta reously carried in a very large and peculiarly constructed vessel, at the rate of 15 knots per hour, or whether the capital expended in the part of the vessel intended for the coals, could not be better employed in the construction of screw colliers, calculated to make, either by sail or steam, about 7 or 8 knots per hour. It was calculated, that a complete and efficient coaling station could be established at St. Vincent's, and vessels constructed for delivering 8000 tone per annum, for about 50, 0001; the vessels not being nearly fully employed. The cost of coals at St. Vincent being thus reduced to about 30s. T ton, and probably, by a similar arrangement at the Cape of Good Hope, to 50s. per ton. , It was urged, that the additional cargo room given by coaling on the way out and home, instead of taking a large stock from England, was of vital importance, and it was argued that shipping only 6000 tons of coal in England, and making up at St. Vincent and at the Cape, the saving on 24 voyages of a very large steamer for the year, would be about 100, 0002. ;—this calculation supposed the coaling stations to be properly established, and a full cargo of goods to be obtainable. The cuse of the Cresus was cited, as having taken 1000 tons of coal for her outward voyage, and 400 tons of patent fuel for the return, and the fallacy of the saving said to have been effected by this arrangement was pointed out; all notice of the loss of freightage being omitted, shipments being good at the time, and the freight being 7/. per ton. It was argued, that with proper stations established, a gain of 3000/. on the voyage would have resulted from her shipping only 500 tons of coal at Southampton. A table was given, showing the profit which would result from coaling 2000 tons on different plans, either wholly in England at 15s. per ton, down to 500 tons in England at 15s., and 500 tons respectively at St. Vincent, the Cape, and Australia; freights being from 15s. to 120s., with the object of demonstrating that until freights were down to 154. per ton, nothing could justify coaling entirely in England;—supposing that the coal could be obtained at the other places, at 302., 50s., and 100s. per ton respectively; for simplicity the quantities required to be taken at the different stations were taken at 500 tons. The extent of the coal trade, particularly that of London, was then examined, and tables were given of the areas of the coal formations of the different countries of the world, and the annual production in 1852. The annual produce of England waa stated to be estimated at 35,000,000 tons, and the quantity exported about 8 per cent. of the quantity raised. The areas of the coal fields in the United Kingdom gave a grand total of nearly 8000 square miles. The eoals imported into London during the last three years was shown by the following table :— Coastwise. Railway and Canal, &c. Totals. 1852 3,330, 428 411,821 8,742,249 1853 3,373,256 653,729 4,026,985 Excess 42,828 241,908 284,736 — 1:28 per cent. z 58 per cent. = 7°60 per cent. 1853 8,373,256 653,729 4,026,995 1854 3,399,561 979,170 4,378,731 Excess 26,305 325,441 351,746 = 78 per cent. = 50 per cent. = 8°73 per cent. The l increase, particularly in the trade by railway, was pointed out. Tables were also given of the kinds of coals imported into London, stating the ports whence they were shipped, as also the charges of the port of London on colliers. The Paper concluded by directing attention to the chief subjects for discussion:—1st. Whether the comparative cost of transit by screw vessels and sailing colliers had been fairly shown !—2nd. What was the best system of ballasting for colliers'—3rd. Whether the use of screw colliers could be advantageously extended for supplying distant stations !— 4th. Whether it was commercially desirable that proper coaling stations should be established between England and Australia. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 189 March 6.— The dioussien was renewed on the above Paper, and was continued throughout the evening. The bag-ballast was admitted to be convenient in some cases, but it was better adapted for long than for short voyages, and the wear and tear of the bags, when in constant use, was considerable item of expense. The system of ballasting with water was now generally preferred; the plan of hold water-ballast appeared at the first, view to be the simplest, but there might be a doubt whether in heavy weather & vessel, with such & weight concentrated in one part, would not labour and strain. This objection might to a certain extent be overcome by having several bulkheads, but it was considered objection- able to divide the hold of a collier ship. Unless, also, the central water- hold was carefully filled and kept up, to provide against any leakage, the mass of water beeling over," might capsize a vessel. system of double bottom water-ballast with a timber ceiling, was objected to, on account of the extra original cost, the apparent impossibilty of keeping it tight, and the trouble arising from the air. These objections had now caused the system to be regarded as a failure, and it had been superseded by a system consisting of a series of fore-and-aft tanks, supplied with and t of water from a tank in the fore peak, the discharge being accomplished by pumps worked by a small auxiliary engine. No difficulty had been experienced with this system,—there was spare space for extra light cargo, and the ship was easier on account of the elevation of the centre of gravity. The objections to the bag-ballast were reiterated; especially when, as in short voyages, the bags required to be frequently moved; instances were given, when in cases of cy, the working and weeping of these bags had been watched with intense anxiety; on board the Northumberland their term of duration did not exceed nine months. The mid-ship tank, or compartment of the hold, waa objected to on account of the prejudicial effect of such a weight in the centre of the ship, and the division of the hold into three parta. It was contended, that a double bottom of iron, with a ceiling of timber laid on the iron, was superior to any of the other systems;—the water only occupied space which was not available for cargo; the increased depth of the floors gave stability at sea, and strength when taking the ground in harbour, or accidentally ;—the space being sufficient, in all cases, for examination, painting, and repair. The extra expense of the double bottom was urged as the chief objection to the last system described; the working advantages being admitted. It was evident that a timber ceiling could never be kept tight; the rolling of the ship produced a partial vacuum, and the oakum was forced inwards by the atmospheric pressure, and the formation of a partial vacuum below. It was contended, that it was preferable to place the weight and bulk of water-ballast in the centre of the vessel, than to have the weight at the extremities; inasmuch as it was better to have the butts of the planks of the deck and upper works in compressioa, and the timber of the keel in extension. i It was explained, that the fiat tanks were so placed in either wing of the hold, that on their being filled with water, the ship was exactly in ballast-trim. With respect to the double iron bottom, it was stated that the cost would not be more than five per cent. in excess over that of either tank or hold-ballast, while the construction insured a safer and more weatherly ship. At the Monthly Ballot the following candidates were duly elected :— Messrs. Charles Rammell, and Francis Croughton Stileman, as Members; Octavius Cockayne, Edward Loysel, Robert Francis Reed, Benjamin Prior Stockman, Thomas Mercer Vigors, and Henry Wrigg, as Associates. March 13.—The discussion being renewed on the above Paper, details were given of the construction, etc., of the Arthur Gordon, the [ron Age, the Anne, and the Augusta Louise, vessela constructed for carrying iron ore—a cargo of great specific gravity; fore-and-aft tanks were used in these ships in conjunction with bag-ballast, and the results obtained induced the conviction that the tank-ballast would soon be superseded by either bottom-ballast or hold-ballast, —that it was disadvantageous to build vessels exclusively for one class of cargo, as tempting offers of charter, in emergencies, could not be accepted,—and that bag-ballast certain advantages in being applicable to either wood or iron vessela, whether sailing or steaming, and that when the duration of the was increased by improvements in manufacturing the material, the system would doubtless be more generally employed. It was contended, that a system of construction applicable to the iron- ore trade would not be adapted for screw colliers, and that tanks were more expensive than either hold-ballast or the double bottom. The chief disadvantage of the hold-ballast was its causing ‘‘breaks” in the cargo; which were objectionable, inasmuch as every time a shoot of coal was commenced, there occured additional breakage in the coal from ita falling a greater depth in loading. It was better to shoot the entire cargo by one hatchway, as the coal soon formed an incline for itself, and leas breakage occurred. On behalf of sailing colliers it was urged, that the capebilities of the steam colliers had been overstated, and the number of vo which sailing colliers were capable of making were understated. There were no valid reasons why small engines should not be used for unloading iling oolliers, and if the system of long detention in the Thames was abolished, they might do fifty per cent. more work than at present. Then, if one screw collier cost as much as six sailing colliers, and with all the advantages it the former only made three times the number of voyages of the latter, all improvements of system would tend to reduce this difference of result, and it was stil uncertain what amount of wear and tear there really was in screw colliers, duri a series of years. If this proved to very considerable, the alleged advantages of this newly introduced class of vessels would be seriously diminished. It was shown, that the Hunwich, screw vessel, whioh had been mentioned in the Paper, was found, after running four as a collier, to have worked with such small advantage as to induce her being devoted to other purposes. The necessity for the formation of the larger and more commodious collier docks, in the North and in the Thames, as well as harbours on the East coast, was forcibly represented; unless this was done, there would at some period occur a more frightful list of casualties among this new class of screw steamers than ever been experienced by the old sailing ships. It was argued that the system of rotation in discharging in the Pool, and the frequent long detention there, unduly enhanced the expenses of the sailing colliers, and combined with the irregularity of supply caused by the prevalence of certain winds, induced the fluctuations of price on the exchange. The only effectual remedy for this was a powerful fleet of screw colliers, constantly and punctually running, with commodious havens at each end, like the Victoria Dock now in course of construction; with every means for facilitating the rapid discharge of the cargoes into the trucks, to be conveyed by the railways to the various depéts. This alone could insure a constant supply of coal, at an uniform price, in the London market, and this could only be accomplished by screw colliers. At present, there were frequently vast numbers of sailing colliers detained in the Tyne by adverse winds, or by want of water on the bar; on a change of weather they all got away, and a cloud of them arrived at the mouth of the Thames, up which river they had to beat for upwards of 100 miles against a contrary wind, and on their arrival caused a glut in the market, instead of merely supplying the regular demand; whereas the screw colliers made their passages regularly, and the only disadvantages they had to contend with were those incidental to the navigation of long ships with deep keels up a tortuous and crowded river. It was well known that in the pe year, during the prevalence of adverse winds, the total extinction of the gas lights of the metropolis had only been prevented by the punctuality and rapidity of the screw colliers. That class of vessels had, in reality, scarcely yet been introduced into the coal trade, inasmuch as the services of the few screw vessels yet built had been secured for the gas companies and the railways. The details were given of the working expenses of a sailing collier brig, of 227 tons register, which had made, in the last year, nine voyages from the North to London, delivering on an average 335 tons per voyage, at 9s. 44d. per ton freight. The gross receipts were 1416/. 3s. Id., and the expenditure 1149/. 138. 1d., leaving a nett profit of 2661. 10s. = 18} per cent. upon the receipts, or 264 per cent on the original capital. The brig was twelve years old, and had cost 10004. It was contended, that the wear and tear of the screw colliers should be estimated upon the duty performed, rather than upon the number of years duration; and that sufficient time had not elapsed to enable experience to be acquired of the actual amount of depreciation of screw colliers in constant use, during all seasons. Their rate of profit must evidently depend not only on the fitness of their original construction, but on the system of working them. Screw veesels had been put into the coal trade, for which they had not been originally intended, and to which it was scarcely possible to adapt them advantageously; although with a ' miscellaneous cargo, or with passengers, they might have done well. It appeared that peculiar lines, and certain capabilities, were indispensable for good screw colliers, and the knowledge of what these points of excel- lence were could only be obtained by long experience. Maximum capacity for cargo, at only a given cost, —light draught of water, to suit the harbours, bars, and rivers,—stability, both loaded and light, —given limits of length, breadth, and depth, must not be exceeded, — strength to permit grounding without injury to hull or machinery, —and requiring a minimum quantity of ballast, —were the chief considerations in the construction of screw colliers: and experience had already demonstrated, by several notorious failures, how difficult of attainment these qualities really were. As to the various systems of ballasting, the bag-ballast was generally approved for its convenience, and the only serious objection to it was ita comparative want of durability. Bottom-ballast was objectionable, on account of the non-accessibility, in original construction for painting and for repairs, unless the floor space was very deep. Tank-ballast occupied so much useful space as to reduce the bulk of the cargo, and thus diminish the amount of the freight. "Therefore it was, tbat the hold- ballast had been introduced, and hitherto it had proved very serviceable. The space was available for cargo, the water was easily introduced and discharged, and the weight was so high up as to make the vessel very easy and weatherly when in ballast. For these practical reasons, as well as on account of the comparative smallness of the cost, hold-ballast was contended to be the best system. 21* 140 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. March 20.—The discussion being renewed on Mr. Allen’s Paper, it it was contended, in spite of counter-assertions, that not more than ten voyages per annum were generally made by the large class of sailing colliers, a few vessels only having reached twelve or fifteen voyages. The advantages of small engine power for unloading these vessels had not been overlooked; but in the tables of comparative cost it had been presumed that whippers would be used in both cases, and thus no undue reduction had been shown in favour of the screw colliers. The want of success of the Hunwich was stated probably to have arisen from her being too small, and it was now submitted that screw colliers should not be less than 600 tons burthen. The actual cost of ‘filling and discharging’ by steam power in London, was stated to be 5d. per ton, exclusive of any consideration of wear and tear and of interest on the first cost of the engine. In the Paper the saving had been taken at 6d. per ton when discharging by steam, as that would be presumed to include allowance for time gained by greater promptitude. The average freight taken in the Paper had been 8s. per ton, instead of 93. 44d., as stated in the discussion; this would account, in part, for the apparent discrepancy in the results, and the rest would be supplied by some difference as to the victualling, and a lower rate of insurance, by which the stated profit was increased. It was contended, that the advantages of the system of bag-ballast had been admitted by all the practical seamen who had used it, and their testimony was very disinterested and reliable. The case of the Temperance, trading from Maryport to Belfast, was especially mentioned as having been enabled to make three voyages more, within a given time, than could have been accomplished with ordinary ballast; the saving of time in ballasting and emptying was also considerable, and the entire cost of the bags, etc., was saved in less than one year and a-half, and in that time there was not any appearance of wear in the bags. The fact of the captain being part owner might, from the extra care bestowed, account in some degree for this durability. The term of three years for steamers and six years for sailing colliers, might be taken as a fair average duration for the bag - ballast. Particulars were given of the construction and voyages of the North- «mberland steam collier; her registered tonnage was 438 tons—she made 33 voyages in 12 months, delivering 20,033 tons of coal—the average direct distance per single voyage was equal to 344 miles, and the might be taken at 7:08 miles per hour, which was generally admitted to be the greatest speed at which coal could be advantageously conveyed. It was stated, that in the John Bowes, a double-bottom of iron was first tried, —then a ceiling of timber was substituted,—but both were found to leak; bag-ballast waa then substituted, but it did not answer in an eoonomioal point of view. Subsequently flat iron tanks, running from stem to stern, had been tried successfully, and if they were large enough to permit access inside, and so placed as to allow them to be examined and painted externally, they would prove very durable. Side tanks had been also tried in the John Bowes, but they were found to be liable to strain the ship. The arguments against hold-ballast, as causing Ee waste and breakage of the coal in loading, were forcibly reiterated. t was stated, that the average cost of conveying coal to London by steam colliers, if well managed, did not exceed 4s. per ton. Some prejudice existed in the North against screw colliers, because they caused some trouble in the harbours, by the rapidity of their move- ments; and their diverging from the usual routine; but where hydraulic or steam power was used, with double gangs of whippers, and new dock facilities were afforded, there could be no doubt of the ultimate success of the system. The calculation of the cost of tank-ballast was verified, and, from the experience of seven ships, was shown not to exceed 4. per ton of ballast, including all connecting-pipes, &c. It was shown, that the alleged disadvantage of the double-bottom not affording free access for painting and repair, did not exist, as in order to hold a sufficient quantity of water for ballast, the space must be from 21 feet to 3 feet deep, which was fully sufficient for all purposes of access. There could be no doubt of the system adding considerably to the strength of theship. Theextra cost of thus providing for 160 tons of ballast did not exceed 3201. It was contended, that the discussion had hardly done justice either to the importance of the subject, or to the Paper, which possessed very considerable merit; it contained very useful information and careful calculations, and when it was reduced within readable limits would be a valuable document, and great credit was due to the author for its production. It was to be regretted that the main question, of the extent to which steam power could be economically substituted for sailing colliers, had not been fully eliminated in the discussion. The figures on both sides had no doubt been honestly stated, and as far as the experience of a limited period went, conclusions might be drawn; but the mere cost did not constitute the entire question;—the regularity of the supply of the metropolis was equally important; if that could be insured, the fluctua- tions in the price of coal would to a great extent be obviated; under the present arrangement, the sailing colliers were frequently wind-bound, and then arrived in such immense fleets, as to derange all the provisions of the trade; casual speculators were enabled to gamble, whilst the rogular merchants and coal-owners received no benefit, and the legitimate intereste of the trade suffered; the working colliers, the seamen, and the coal whippers, all participated in the suffering, being alternately starved, by want of employment, and then having their strength and endurance taxed beyond their natural aie It was only when the supply of the metropolis was conducted by screw colliers that these irregularities would cease, and the price of coal would be kept at an uniform rate throughout the year. The abstract of the preceding discussion had omitted any notice of a discursive , describing chiefly the aspect of screw colliers, when viewed, under peculiarly pleasant circumstances, from Greenwich and Blackwall It was to be regretted that the time had not rather been occupied in giving more positive information, as to requisites in the construction of screw colliers, and in giving the results of the experience of the failures which almost inevitably occurred in the commencement of every great innovation. A Paper of that nature would be a very valuable document. It was evident that much improvement still remained to be effected, not only in the construction of the vessels, the machinery, the mode of ballasting, and the system of loading, unloading, and working, but also in fixing the most remunerative rate of speed; there could be no doubt of the expense, and wear and tear, being in the ratio of the speed attained. It was generally thought, by good autho- rities, that only as much steam power as would attain 7 or 8 knots per hour was requisite, and it was a question whether even a lower rate of speed, say about 5 knots, would not be more economical. One of the most important practical points, was the selection of com- petent commanders for steam colliers, or rather the education of a special class of mariners and of engineers, for the purpose of accom- plishing the voyages rapidly and economically; perhaps very few seamen yet understood all the peculiarities of the steam colliers, and the time would be requisite for ascertaining them. It waa further observed, with regard to tank-ballast, that no available space was occupied by the empty tanks, asthe large screw colliers were, from the great specific gravity of coal as a cargo, rarely quite filled, lest they should be too deeply laden for safety during a sea voyage. In closing the discussion, a warm eulogium was passed on Mr. Allen's Paper, both with respect to the facts narrated, and the industry and care exhibited in their collection. The contest now in progress between wind and steam was most interesting, and though it might^be pre- mature to form any decided opinion, from such short experience of the effect of the application of steam power to colliers, yet enough appeared to be known to induce sanguine expectations of ultimate commercial success. It was not at all astonishing that great difference of opinion as to cost had been expressed; each speaker only giving the result of his own experience. Viewing the question as one of steam versus manual labour, the ultimate result might be confidently anticipated. The united exertions, and cost of wages, &c., of the crews of six sailing colliers, were stated only to effect as much work as the crew and steam power of one screw collier. Wherever similar struggles had occurred, success had invariably attended on steam. The questions of larger capital invested, — greater wear and tear, &c.,—entered into the commercial considerations, and hinging upon them, also, were those of a slower speed than 7 or 8 knota, —and the advantages or regularity of supply for the metropolitan market, the latter being the most important consideration. The ques- lion of expenditure of fuel, for the purpose of attaining great speeds, rather regarded voyages in those regions where coal cost 2l. to 3l. per ton, than the voyage from Newcastle to London; on the latter route it was the alternative of expenditure of fuel and wear and tear of ship and machinery, against a saving of time and of wages of the crew As to the question of the relative merits of the various kinds of ballast, it appeared that whether by the double-bottom or by tanks, it was most advisable to spread the water-ballast over the entire floor of the vessel. Now a ship at sea should be considered as a beam; viewing itin that light, it was easy to perceive the difficulty in keeping the double-bottom water-tight. A beam required a top as well as a bottom, the upper part being in compression and the lower part in tension. So, also, & vessel; and until more care was devoted to the formation and staying of the deck, and to connecting it adequately with the sides and the bottom, the construction of vessels would be imperfect. It was not an uncommon occurrence to find the seams opening, and even the deck parting from the sides, when vessels got into heavy seas; hence the cabins became uninhabitable, and this, no doubt, also occasioned the leakage of the ceiling of the double-bottom. The only remedy would be, to attach all the parta together, until the entire hull of & vessel became & beam. An iron deck, planked over would, in a great measure, pro- duce this result. It appeared to be injurious to a vessel to place such a weight amidships as was contemplated in the use of hold-ballast, and there was some danger of a vessel being rendered crank, and being strained, when encountering heavy seas. The subject was as full of interest for nautical men as for engineers, and a hope was expressed, that in the course of ensuing sessions, the results of longer experience would be laid before the Institution. March 20 and 27.— These evenings were devoted to a Paper On the Application of the Screw Propellor to the larger clase of Sailing Ships, for long voyages." By R. A. RoBINSON, Assoc. Inst. C.E. The discus- sion was again adjourned until April 3rd, and will be given in a com- plete form in our next number. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. NOTES OF THE MONTH. A general meeting of the subscribers of the Architects’ Bene- volent Society took place on the 7th ult., in the rooms of the Royal Institute of British Architects. The sum of 1877. 10s. has been distributed to applicants during the year. The balance at the bankers is 107/. ls., and the sum invested is 535l. 6s. 5d. The students of London University College gave a soirée on the 14th inst. to the members of gs College, and a select circle of men distinguished in science and art. The Professor of British History and Archeology in the Royal Society of Literature has commenced a course of public lectures on the * Domestic Life of our Ancestors." Dr. George Wilson, of Edinburgh, has been appointed Director of the Industrial Museum of Scotland. The museum is to be erected in the immediate vicinity of the University, Edinburgh. The ground has been purchased by government. On the 14th ult, Mr. Edward Matthew Ward was elected a Royal Academician, in the room of Mr. J. J. Chalon, RA, deceased. The eighth Exhibition of the National Institution of Fine Arts is now being held in London. It is conducted by a “ pro- prietary” among which we notice many names distinguished in ind several of whom are themselves first-class exhibitors— Mr. A. Gilbert, Mr. M'Ian, and Mr. Williams, sen. We full with the opinion that this is more than an average-merit exhibition, and we heartily congratulate the members upon their success. At our last visit to the Polytechnic Institution we were much tified with a lecture by Dr. Bachhoffner on the “ New Bank ote.” The learned doctor p us its “ parentage, birth, and death,” in his usual lucid and popular style. Our readers will probably be as astonished as ourselves when dnformed that 30,000 noter are manufactured daily by the Bank; and that one of them will bear the extraordinary strain of about 70 lb.! However, these are merely curious circumstances connected with it; the practical knowledge to be derived therefrom is the manner of detecting a forgery. A bank note is an article in which we are all more or less concerned—for who does not regard that appa- rently simple, unadorned slip of paper with interest—not to mention affection? We are all desirous of cultivating an intimate alliance with it, and although a visit to this Institution will not produce so desirable a result, yet it will cause a much better acquaintanceship. On the 16th ult., the Colosseum, Regents Park, was offered for sale under the hammer by Messrs. Winstanley, at the Mart. The ground and building are held under the crown for 69 years to come, at a ground rent of 263/. It was stated that, including the erection of the building, upwards of 200,000/. had been expended by Messrs. Horner, Braham and Yates, and Turner, the respective successive owners. The sale was by order of the Court of Chancery, to repay the mortgagee, but the only offer was 20,000/., which the auctioneer stated was below the reserve, and the property was bought in. Loughcooter Castle, County Clare, Ireland, the property of General Lord Viscount Gough, is now undergoing vast altera- tions and improvements. There is a new tower at present in a state of progression; there have been large numbers of artizans and labourers employed during the last four months, and from the extensive works about to be executed, are likely to be constantly employed for the next two years. A new bridge is to be constructed over the Rhine at Cologne ]t will be built between the Frankenplatz and the terminus of the Cologne and Minden Railway at Deutz. The s between the supports on the banks will be 1290 feet, and its entire length 1650 feet. The structure will be placed on three pillars built in the stream, forming four passages of 313 feet each. The iron framework will consist of bars of 4 inches by 14 inch, which are placed at an angle of 45°, and form meshes or openings of 13 inches square. The height of the framework is 26 feet, and the total breadth of the bridge 60 feet; of which 42 feet are occupied by three roadways, formed by two internal partitions being constructed the entire length of the bridge; 10 feet is devoted to two paths constructed outside the framework, and 8 feet is occupied by the framework itself. Of the three road ways, one is to be for a line of rails to connect the two railways, the other two being for the ordinary traffic. At each end of the bridge, on the 141 banks of the Rhine, are two towers, 67 feet high, carrying gates for the three road ways. The height of roadway of bridge is to be 45 feet above ordinary high tides, thus allowing the passage of steamers during the greatest floods by merely lowering their chimne The expense of the bridge will exceed 2,500,000 thalers (375,000/.), which will be borne partially by the city of Cologne, but in greater part by the Cologne and Minden Railway Company. The municipal authorities of Paris continue the embellishments of the fine Bois de Boulogne, to convert it into a resort of public amusement. The latest improvement consists in the erection of a Swiss chalet, that class of wooden houses which the builders and carpenters of the Bernese Oberland know how to cut and carve with such exquisite delicacy and taste. 'The beautiful specimen now erected and which will be occupied as a café- restaurant, has been executed in Switzerland at the atéliers of Messrs. Seiler, Mühleman, and Co., who have now begun also to establish branch manufactories of these fancy houses in Germany and France. This firm now produces massive wooden parquets, which being composed of various kinds of wood, present by their clever designs and manner of colouring, a highly pleasing appearance. The Louvre and the Palais d’Industrie have also possessed themselves of some of these fine Swiss parqueterie. On the 13th of March, the birthday of Schinkel, the ceremony of n the statue erected to his memory took place in the great hall of the Berlin Museum. The figure is of Carrara marble, placed on a block of grey Silesian marble. At the feet of the architect is the capital of an Ionic column, similar to those supporting the surrounding hall, which was erected by him. The inscription informs us that the statue was commenced in 1850, by Prof. Tieck, and finished by his pupil, theable statuary, M. Wittich. At the opposite end of the ball, another pedestal of similar material is placed, intended to receive the statue of Gottfried Schadow. The following is a list of lectures intended to be delivered during the course of the ensuing summer semestre, at the Royal Wirtemberg University of Heidelberg: Prof. Walz: History of Religion, Mythology, and Art in the Middle Ages. Prof. Vischer: On the Dramas of Shaks ;» “History of Painting in Italy since the middle of the 16th Century.”—Prof. Keller: “On Goethe."—Prof. E. Meyer: “Explanation of Selected Pieces from the Poetic and Prophetic Books of the Old Testament.“ Prof. Schwelger: “Mythology of Art.” Besides these, and other similar lectures, there is an especial professor for architecture, an institution for drawing, painting, &c. The restoration of the interesting German castle of Wartburg is rapid] progressing, and the main building, the so-called I aus, is nearly completed, with the exception of the roposed staircase for the fagade of the wing facing the court. Luther Chapel has lately received some richly carved wood ornaments, made by Kerferstein, of Coburg. O ite the entrance is a little window in the form of a cross, filled-in with stained glass, by Ffeifer, of Weimar; and the Minnesünger-saal has some sculpture, by Knoll, of Munich; which, together with the frescoes of Schwind, in the Landgrafensaal, impart to the whole renovated pile an aspect of exceeding neatness and liveli- ness. The theatre of Dessau, in the Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, and one of the largest in Germany, was lately destroyed by tire, with the decorations, costumes, and the valuable library of the house, consisting of modern operas and other musical works. Among the musical instruments which fell a prey to the flames are four Italian basses, very old and of great value. A correspondent of the ‘Nautical ine’ says: “The town of Revel is the prettiest I have seen, though chiefly inhabited by fishermen. The Russian and Lutheran churches and a few public buildings, intermixed with some fine trees, produce a most pleasing effect. Rago Island, opposite, is the most uninterestin place I ever landed at. It only one redeeming point, an that was a most extraordinary erection in the shape of a pier; which the natives say was intended for a roadway across to the town, the*distance being a mile and a-quarter and the depth fourteen fathoms. The work, after going on for seven years, was then given up. About 250 yards remain on one side, and they inted over to the intended terminus on the other near the ttery, but which our convention prevented me from examininy. Seven or eight acres of land have been lowered six feet for filling in the roadway, and an enormous quarry for stone for facing it. 142 | COMPETITIONS. The Burial Board of the parish of Soham, Cambridgeshire, offer a premium of 10/. for designs for new burial ground Papel and entrance lodge. The last day for receiving designs, is the 11th inst. A Committee offer 20 guineas for plans for completing and eomm. the parish church at Leamington. The Commission for the erection of the new Hôtel de Ville and Senate-House, Hamburg, have awarded the first premium to Mr. G. G. Scott, of Spring-gardens, London; the second to Mr. A. Meuron, of Hamburg; and the third to Mr. Ludwig F. C. Bohnstedt, St. Peterab h. The designs of Mr. Barry of Liverpool have been accepted for the chapels and lodges for the Toxteth Park cemetery. The designs of Messrs. Hay of Liverpool have been selected for the erection of a new free church at Brechin. The competition for the chapels, &c., for the new burial ground of St. Margaret’s parish, King’s Lynn, has been decided in favour of 1 Aickin and Capes, of Furnivals- inn, London. e remium for the People’s Institute, 2 has been awarded to Messrs. Mason and Layland, Liverpoo The designs of Messrs. Lockwood and Mawson of Bradford have been accepted for the North Brierley union workhouse. The designs of Messrs. Parker and Hall of Chelsea, are accepted for the new chapel at Pimlico. Twenty-nine projects were sent in. — — OBITUARY. On the 2rd ult, Mr. Copley Fielding, artist, President of the Water Colour Society. 5 14th ult, Mr. George Papworth, Dublin, architect, Lately, at Malines, aged 46, M. P. P. A. Hunin, artist. He distinguished himself by the correctness of his designs, and by a sound and tasteful con arora en His prototype was the Cologne water-colour painter, M. Gisbert Fliggen. Several of his pictures have been engraved; others embellish public and private collec- tions. On the 4th ult, M. Duchesne, after being employed sixty years at the Library of Paris, as conservator of the Department of Prints and Plans. He had written numerous works and essays, amongst which is a history of playing cards, a critique on the engravings deposited in the Royal Library, and a notice of the principal engravings of the French school under the Empire, which contains some interesting details on the pictures, statues, and bas-reliefs exhibited at Paris for the decennial prizes, — RAILWAY WORKS. The ina tion of the Calcutta Railway took place on the 3rd Feb. The line is now completed for 122 miles to the collieries at Raneegunge, but Burdwan, a town of importance, about 65 miles from Calcutta, was selected for the ceremonies of the day in order to suit the convenience of all parties. Two trains were appointed to convey 600 passengers from Calcutta to that station. The terminus at Howrah, opposite Calcutta, was deco- rated for the occasion. The train reached Burdwan in about three hours. It wasa proud day for Mr. Stephenson, who has laboured at this enterprise for 10 years with unflinching courage and zeal, and carried 1t triumphantly through a host of anxieties and disappuintments and discouragements, under which any other man would have sunk. Contracts have been made for the com- pletion of more than 600 miles from Burdwan to Cawnpore, and Mr. Stephenson is pushing forward the operations with all his characteristic energy, and is so sanguine as to expect that the works will be accomplished in three years. There can be no doubt that all the earthwork and masonry may be completed within that period; but we have four bridges to construct as large as London Bridge, and one of them of a depth of 70 feet. The several stations and warehouses on the Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Junction Railway are in a forward state, and will shortly be completed; the delay in the construction of the intended new station at Bradford had prevented its being used for 1 traffic, but the progress of the works has been accelerated. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. The construction of the Horncastle branch line of railway, con- necting Horncastle, Lincolnshire, with the Great Northern Railway at Kirkstead station, a distance of about eight miles, Herapath says, will commence in two or three days, as soon as the contractor arrives. The works, we understand, are to be pushed forward with all speed, the contractors being under penalties to have the line ready for traffic by the Ist of August next; the directors having wisely made this arrangement to secure the traffic from the great annual horse mart held at Horncastle in August. The works will be commenced at the Kirkstead end. A number of navvies are already employed on the earthworks. The Peebles Railway is expected to be opened this month. To the directors of the East Kent railway Mr. Joseph Cubitt, the engineer, reports the following :—During the past half-year, the engineering operations have been confined to the work of tting in the foundations of the bridge over the Medway at hester. The work, although attended by some 1 85 has made considerable progress; and he has no doubt that by the time of the general meeting the foundations of the intended ship passage at the Strood end of the bridge will be completed ys the level of low water, and ready to receive the stone-work. e foundations of both abutments are in a forward state, and a large proportion of the castings are on the ground ready for sinking; 80 that no delay on that score need be anticipated. The work is thus far satisfactorily executed; and judging from the proportion that is done, he sees no reason to expect that the entire founda- tions of the structure will exceed the amount of their estimated cost, and he is of opinion that eight or nine months more will complete them. The sum of 7200/. had been expended on the works up to the 31st December last; and since that period, a further sum of 3000/. has been paid to the contractors, making a total of 10,2007. laid out on the bridge foundations up to the resent time. The directors anticipate that the foundations will completed fdr the sum originally named of 26, 000“. r NEW PATENTS. DMENT ACT. Dated January 10. 67. H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, New Cannon-street—Improvements in the con- struction and manufacture of ordnance Dated January 13. 92. J. Britten, Birmingham—An improvement or improvements ln the means of filter- ing liquids Dated January 20. 161. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-field3—Improvements in the construction of seats aud similar articles of furinture. (A communication from P. Scholtus, Paris) Dated January 24. 182. J. Livesey, New Lenton, Nottingham—Improvements in lace machinery Dated January 26. 197. W. Binns, Claremont-villa, Brompton, and J. Haughton, Bankside, New Mill, Oldham—Improvements in valves for stopping, retarding, and regulating the flow of steam, water, or other fluids Dated January 27, 207. J. Hutchinson, Longroyd-bridge, Hudderstield — Improvements in apparatus to econoinise steam 210. E. Davis, Aldgate—Improvements in rendering paper waterproof Dated January 30. 231. H. D. Pochin, Salford—Improvements in the treatment of certain compounds of alumina, and the application of the sume in printing, dyeing, tawing, paper-making, aud such like purposes PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW Dated February 8. 253. F. S. Thomas, Cornhill, and W. E Tilley, Kirby-street, Holborn—Improvements in plating or coating metals 254. P. M. Crane, Athy, Kildare Improvements in the manufacture of producta from at 253. J. T. Chance, Birmingham —Improvements in the manufacture of pipes or tubes of glass or other vitreous matters 257. J. Patterson, Beverley, York—Improvementa in machinery or apparatus for wash- ing, wringing, and mangling or pressing, clothes or textile fabrics 259. I. Lippmann, Rue Geoffroy St. Hilare, Paris—An improved method of dyeing or colouring the hides and skins of animals 261. T. Allan, Adelphi-terrace, Westiniuster—Improvementa in obtaining and trans- mitting motive power Dated February 5. 263. G. Pattison, Glasgow—Improvements in machinery for dressing and finishing woven goods or fabries, (A communication) 265. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-ficlds—Improvements in the manufacture or con- struction of steam boilers or generators, aud in the application of materials to such manufacture. (A communication from Jackson Brothers, Petin, Gaudet, and Co., Rive de Gier, France! 267. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—An improved mode of preserving railway and other ticketa. (A communication) 269. E. Hartnall, St. Mary-axe—lmprovements in preserving animal and vegetable substances for food 211. J. Gibbous, Oxford-street—lmprovements in fixing the spindles of door-locks to their knobs 213. T. B. Daft, Isle of Man—Improvements in the manufacture of beds or surfaces to recline or lie on — — — ee THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL or stereoscopic proofs or portraits. (A communication from J. E. Pointeau, us and means for drivers or conductors 219. A. Warner, New Broad-street—Improvements in coating or combining sheet iron E steel, with sheet lead, xinc, tin, copper, or alloys of such metals : . P. Smith, w—Improvemen' or f KS and thar sar p machinery or apparatus for printing textile . G. Audemars, Lausanne, Switserland—Improvements in obtaining and treating vegetable fibres í 185. P. A. Lecomte de Fontain South siren Finsbary provement in . P. mte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, —An im the mode of applying as motive power heated air, combined with the vapour of ether, or of other liquid easily vaporised. (A communication) 286. W. Warbrick, Dukinfield, and J. Walker, Com -bridge, near Stockport— Improvements in machines for preparing, spinning, doubling, warping, and dressing cotton, wool, and other fibrous substances l 287. J. G. Johnson, Basinghall-street—Improvementa in surgical bandages 288. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—Improvements in steam ploughing machines. (A communication from O. se 289. E. Davies, Live An improvement in the manufacture of an oil and paraffin, from a material not hitherto used for such purposes 290. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—Improvements in looms for weaving ornamental figured fabrics, and in the construction of the rollers to be used upon the pattern chains of such looms. (A communication) 291. R. D. Chatterton, Coburg, Canada West—Improvementa in propelling vessels . 292. A. J. Hoffstadt, Albion-place, Blackfriars, and 8. Blackwell, Oxford-street—An 5 in powder flasks and shot belts or pouches 293. G. Briggs, Wigmore-street—An improved spring for carriages "s A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved construction of spur. (A communi- on 295. A. v. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved mode of oonstructing dry docks. (A communication) 296. W. Hartfield, Prospect-row, Bermondsey—Making book covers in tortoiseshell, inlaid or not with pear! or ivory, and for improvements in machinery for embossing, 5 and inlaying book covers with pearl and ivory, and for Maing mrm joints by which such books may be widely opened; the said improvements to be app to inlaying pianofortes Dated Fi 8. 297. J. Wilson, Manchester—Improveinenta in the manufacture of rollers for printing and embossing calico and other fabrics 298. A. A Pertuis, department of Vaucluse, France — Improvements in extin- guishing fires 299. F. Puls, Soho-square—Improvements in apparatus to be used in smoking tobacco 300. J. Armstrong, Normanton Station, Wakefield—Improvements in certain parts of the Penran way of railways ee . F. Wilson and G. Payne, Belmont, Vauxhall—Improvements in treating ycerine 302. F. Ransome, Ipswich—Improvements in drying articles made of plastic materials 303. R. J. Maryon, York-road, Lambeth—Improvement or improvements in the con- struction of, and manufacture of, ordnance; part or section of hia said invention he applies for improvement in the coustruction of fire-arms of every claas Dated February 9. 304. C. Armsdell, Fenchurch-street —An improved sifter or shovel 805. J. Martin, Liverpool—Improvements in machinery for treating wheat and other grain 306. W. B. Adams, Adam-street, Adelphi—Improvements in the construction and application of elastic springs for sustaining loads or moderating concussion in fixing or moving machines or carriages 307. J. Lees, Park Bridge Ironworks, and W. Heap, Ashton-under-Lyne—A new or improved machine or apparatus for cutting and straightening bars of metal 308. W. B. Johnson, Manchester—Improvements in steam boilers and engines 309. B. Pont, Rue Bourdaloue, Paris—A process of autographic engraving 310. F. Parker, Waterloo, Northampton—An improvement in the manufactare of paper $11. J. Langman, Plymouth—Improvements in portable buildings specially adapted to campaigning purposes Dated February 10. 312. C. Barnard and J. Bishop, Norwich—Improvements in apparatus for cutting vegetable substances 313. E. Sparkhall, Cheapside—Improvements in the exhibition of pictorial representa- tions of various subjects $14. G. H. Ingall, Throgmorton-street-—Lmprovements in telegraphic communication and apparatus connected therewith 3 S. Russell, Porter-street, Sheffield —Improvements in projectiles for fire-arms and ordnance 316. G. H. Cottam and H. R. Cottam, St. Pancras Ironworks, Old St. Pancras-road— Improveinents in the construction of iron buildings $17. W. Balk, Ipawich—Improvements in machinery for crushing grain and other substances $13. A. Sands, Liverpool—An improved fastening or detainer, to be employed as a substitute ſor clothes pegs,” or for other similar purposes. (A communication) 819. L. A. F. Besuard, Paris—An improved composition for fixing lithographs and engravinga on canvas after being tranaposed or reproduced by & printing preas 320. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Certain materials to be used for cementing and painting, and also applicable to printing and dressing or finishing fabrics. (A com- munication from Prof. F. Kuhlmann, Lille, nce) 321. G. Rennie, Holland-street— lin provements in marine steam-engines Dated February 12. 322. J. Ramabottom, Longsight, near Manchester—Improvements in the construction of certain metallic pistons 23. S. Smith, Manchester—Improvements in machinery for winding cotton and other yarns or threads ; 324. G. Lucas, Hulme, Manchester—Improvementa in machinery for preparing, spin- ning, doubling, and twisting cotton, wool, silk, and other fibrous materi 325. b. Barr, Dale End, Birmingham—A new or improved tap for hot and cold fluids, steam, and gases 326. R. Kerr, Coleman-street—Improvemente in preparing loaf sugar for use, and certain apparatus fur the same $27. R. S. is, Leicester—Improvements in the manufacture of looped fabrics us . Foster, Long Eaton, Derby —Improvements in machinery for the manufacture of Dated February 18. 329. 3. Smith, Manchester, and M. Morris, Swinton, near Manchester—An improved machine for spinning cotton and other fibrous materials 330. J. L. Lambot, Carces, Department of Var, France—An improved building mate- rial, to be used as a substitute for wood Dated February 6. 315. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South—Improvements in frames suitable for photo- ) NT. T. Aston, Compton-street, Regent's-square—Improved AE persons conveyed in carriages to communicate with 143 831. A. Vallery, Rouen, Franco—An improved machinery for the preparation of flar, hemp, and other textile materials $33. K. P. Comfield, Upper Holloway—Improvements in the electro coating of iron and other metals with sinc and other metals. (Partly a communication) 838. G. Dalton, Lymington—Improvements in reverberatory furnaces Dated February 14. | 884. T. Metcalfe, W. Slaiding, and J. Metcalfe, Clitheroe, Lancaster—An improve- ment in the machines for p ing cotton, known as Dyer's tube frames 835. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fielda—Improvements in governors or regulators for 5 other prime movers. (A communication from H. E. Branche and *. Coste, Paris 836. J. R. Isaac, Liverpool—Improvements in the construction of portable buildings 887. J. Nichol, Edinb 5 in bookbinding 858. H. L. Pattinson, Stotes Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—An improvement in the man of iron iage- wheels 839. F. B. Blanchard, Maine, U. 8.—A new and useful apparatus for generating motive power from heated air, steam, and the products of combustion of coal or other fuel Dated February 15. 840. W. Blythe, Oswaldtwistle, Lancaster, and E. Kopp, Accrington, Lancaster—Im- provements in the manufacture of soda ash and sulphuric acid 841. R. Molesworth, Half Moon-street, Bishopsgate- street Improvements in the con- struction of brushes 842. J. Leadbeater, Halifax —Improvements in the mode or method of applying breaks to railway and other carriages ight, Lancaster— 1 . Mason, Yee epe 8. 1 S. Sawyer, rovements in ing or polishing an g yarns or t $45. H. Spencer, Rochdale—Improvements in machinery for preparing and spinning cotton and other fibrous substances 846. C. F. Delabarre, Paris—Improved apparatus to be used in propelling gases and forcing liquids Dated February 16. 347. W. Spence, Chancery-lane—Improvements in substitutes for glass for ornamental . (A communication from E. L. Rapaccioli, Turin 848. E. Carless, Stepney—Improvements in the manufacture of paper-cloth, known as artificial] leather, and in coating or covering the surface thereof with colouring matter, saie colouring process being also adapted to the colouring or staining of paper 849. W. Abbott, Landsdown-place, Richmond—A boot shoe cleaning i 850. W. C. S. Percy and W. Craven, Vauxhall Ironworks, Manchester — Improve- menta in the manufacture and in machinery and apparatus used in the manufactare of bricks, tiles, pipes, and other articles made from plastic materials $52. H. L. Pattinson, jun., Stotes Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne— An improvement in the manufacture of wrought. iron tubes $53. F. G. P. M. V. Maneglia, of the Turin and Genoa Railway—Improvements in rage «de eap $54. R. Blackburn, Wandsworth Taper Mills, and W. L. Duncan, Bridgefield-terrace, Wandsworth—Improvements in bleaching 855. 8. B. Wright, Parkfields, Stone, Staffordshire, and H. T. Green, Moreton, Stafford- shire—Improvements in the manufacture of encaustic tiles 856. A. H. Ward, jun., Massachusetts—A new and useful or improved loom temple. (A communication from J. C. Tilton, New Hampshire, U. 8.) Dated February 11. 851. J. Wright, Park-street, Kennington — Improvements in the construction of furnaces for the purpose of consuming more effectually than heretofore the smoke contained e therein 859. s 3 5 and eri per odor or fabrics for the manufacture of um „ AD ttons, and for purposes 860. J. Hackett, Derby An improved leather cloth, and the employment thereef for various useful p 861. J. Oxley, Beverley, York—Im provements in machinery for making wheels, or the various of which wheels are composed 362. reo F in the masts and spars of ships and vesse $63. R. J. Maryon, York-road, Lambeth—Improvement or improvements in the construction of and application of steam engines for the better means of transmitting motion and conversioa of motion, and of applying motive power Dated February 19. 864. G. R. Chittenden, London—Improved apparatus for measuring fluids. munication 865. R. A. cosa: Fleet-street—Improvemente in the manufacture of capsules for stopping or covering bottles, jars, and other similar vessels, and in the machinery employed therein. (A communication) Dated February 20. 866. G. Tillet, Clapham, Surrey—Improvements in the construction of bedsteads 367. D. Hulett, Holborn—Improvements in apparatus for heating, cooking, and light- ing by gas. (Partly a communication) 368. S. Bellamy, Torquay—-Improvements in fire-arms and ordnance 869. C. R. Mead, "Langdale-road, Peckham — An improved construction of gas tor 110. A. l. Thirion, Asche en Refail, Namur, Belgium —Improvements in pumps 371. H. Schottlander, Paris—Improvements in ornamenting looking - glasses $12. S. Kershaw and J. Taylor, Heywood, Lancaster — Improvements in carding engines 373. J. H. Brown, Trafalgar-square—Improvements in the construction of ball cart- ri for facilitating the loading and lubricating of fire-arms 815. J. Wothly, Zoffingen, Switserlabd —lunpeoromenté in ‘he preservation of meat Dated February 21. 876. J. Kidd, Kildwick, near Bradford —Improvements in machinery or apparatus for sewing and stitching cloth and other fabrics 877. R. Laming, ton-villas, Maida-vale—An improved process for combining the purification of gas with tae obtaining of certain valuable products $78. B. Goodfellow, Hyde, Chester—Improvements in machinery for pumping, whieh improvements are wwe to the air-pumpe of steam engines and to other purposes 880. T. Organ and G. Pitt, PIDE m new or improved drees e | 381. G. Nasmyth, Kennington—linprovementa in preserving animal und vegetable matters $82. G. Heppel, Preston—An improved rotary pump and engine. (A communication from J. M. Heppel, Coire, Switzerland) 383. F. W. Norton, Edinburgh—Iwprovemente in the manufacture of printed or coloured warp fabrics 884. J. H. Pidcock, Leighton Buzzard—An improved method of Propelling and steering vessels, which is also applicable to the forcing and directing of liquids and fluids 886. F. Prince, South Parade, Chelsea—Improvements in fire-arms and ordnance 387, W. Maynes, Stockport—Improvements in self-acting temples to be used in weaving 888. G. Noble, Sunderland—Improvements in the man re of fire-bricks 889. P. Prince, Derby—An improvement in the patterns employed in making moulds for railway chairs 890. C. Low, Bowoden, Dolgely, North Wales—lmprovements in the extraction of gold from ite ores (A com- 2 144 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dated February 22. BEL HA ONG ima ia composition for covering and protecting the bottoms of and vesse 393. W. Kirrage, Edmund-street, Camberwell—Consumin or burning smoke 393. R. McConnell, Glasgow—Improvementa in finishin 05 dressing tertile fabrics 394. J. Bunten and G. Lamb, Glasgow Improvements in cutting and shaping wood 395. P. Clarke, Manchester Improvements applicable to locomotive steam- engines. * AS S RODICAHOR, VW. Neilson, Glasgow—Improvements in locomotive engines i EN Eam, Déc mondes streel, Southwark, and J. "Mills, William-street, Old en —mprovemente in destroying the noxious vapours arising from iling oi , bones, and other matters in the open a i ü P : Dated February 23. xi^ W. Hartcliffe, Salford, and J. Waterhouse, Manchester—Improvements in looms or weavin . 899. A. Taylor, Duke-street, Manchester-square — Self-acting railway signals, and apparatus connected therewith, for im ikea 755 the means of communication between porso here 5 of, and the drivers of trains „ and to render collisions leas frequent 401. W. J. M. Rankine, and J. Thomson, 8t. Vincent-street, Glasgow—Improvements in machinery for laying subaqueous electrical conductors for telegraphic communica- tion 402. 11000 H. Zahn, Norfolk-street, Strand—Improvements in windmills. (A communi- cation 403. N. Bennett, Furnival’s-inn, Holborn—A substitute for the scaffolding at present employed in, and for the 7 and repairing of buildings, which is also applicable in to the ventilation of buildings. (A communication) 404. J. E. Gardner, Strand—Improvemente in portable cooking apparatus and in uw lamps 405. S. M. Allaire, Paris—Improvements in hats, caps, and bonnets saat ens jun., Kingston-apon-Thames—Improvements in Ventilating stables and other gs 407. N. Thompson, jun., New York—Improvementa in constructing life-boata . Dated February 34. 408. V. J. Lebel, J. Fourniol, and J. B. Remyon, Paris—Improvementa in typographic presses 409. B. A. Murray, Dublin—Improvements in windi , dou i i E DE 7 0 flbrous substances ding wren alag ilk, 10. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds Im rovements in fountain - nication from N. A. Prince, New York, U. 3.) c P ee nhe H. White, Manchester—An improvement in the method of applying artificial 412. J. Player, J. P. Player, and L. D. Jackson, Winchester-buildings— Machinery or 1 I an peat, one such like substances 2 . J. S, Russell, -wall— vement in th i i facilitate the use of water as ballast o Eee cetera ARpA (f eee Dated February 26. 414. w Brown, Albany-road, Old Kent-road — Improvements in machinery for printing 415. H. 97 is J. 1 Guide Bridge Ironworks, near Manchester Im- provements in the construction of fences or for shafta, parts pr machinery casings for pulleys, and other 416. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in the a licati reaks railways. (A communication from W. ughridge, Weverton U.S) adi a 417. P. André, Paris—Improvements in grinding-mills 418. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in the manufacture of soda. (A 9. J. W. Spurway, Monmonth place, N 419. J. W. Spurway, Monmouth-place, New Cross, Deptford—aA travelling pass 420. A. Brown, Tarbet, Dumbarton— Improvements in th in the production of textile materials i VVV 421. C. H. Roberts, Cornwall-road, Lambeth— An improvement in the manufacture of at a feros and others 422. T. Nash, jun., Great Dover-road, Newington—Im ro ta ing- à applicable also 0 to other brushes and to brooms 7 23. W. A. , South-street, Finsbury—An improved process uring alcohol from the stem aud ear of 1 (d communication e , Dated February 27. 424. W. A. Gilbee, South- street, Finsbury—An improved soap to which he gives the , xs Ele eae 115 communication) 25. J. ie, Bow of Fife Improvements in, and applicabl i and ea Sek instruments : T i . 426. A. J. Berchtold. Paris Iinprovements in applying the hotographi metals or other materials d Pears 5 Du CARTOANE o 427. H. Gardner, Arthur-street, Old Kent-road—Improvementa in the construction of horge-ahoea, and in shoes used for the shoeing of hoofed animals 428. J. Cooper, Lionel-street, Birmingham—Improvements in joiners’ brace, and in the mode of forming or partially forming the various bits to be used with such or any other 50 of brace 429. B. Fothergill and W. Weild, Manchester Improvementa in machinery f. ing cotton, wool, flax, silk, and other fibrous materiala ' iud 430. W. Campion, Nottingham—Improvementa in knitting machinery 431. A. T. Blakely, Little Ryder-street, St. J ames's—Iinprovementa in ordnance Dated February 98. 433. A. Symona, Strand—An egg-cooking apparatus. (A communication) 435. F. Allarton, e Southwark —Improvementa in the method of administer- ing iron as a reine dy 436. J. Brickles, T. Thorpe, and J. Lille, Manchester—Improvements in the manufac- ture of plain and ornamental woven fabrics 437. J. Higgin, Manchester—Improvements in treating certain waste soap liquors, and obtainiug therefrom certain products a plicable to purposes not hitherto known i 438. W. Holroyd, Queen’s Head, near Halifax—An improved method of fencing hori- zontal and otber shafts in factories and other places where such fencing may be g a x 5 pupae ol reventing accidents 9. C. F. Stansbury, Cornhill—An improved mode of ri . i- cation from C. G. Page, Washington, U. 8.) — (A oimai 440. J. Gedge, Wellingtun-street South—Improvements in apparatus or machinery for stopping or retarding vehicles used on railways, (A communication from 8. Richter Gorlitz, Prussia; ' 411. G. M. Miller and J. Wakefield, Inchicore, Dublin—Improvements in pistons for engines driven by steam or other elastic fluid, which improvements are also applic- able to the pistons or iungere of reciprocating pumps 442. B. W. Goode and N. Brough, Birmingham A new or improved fire-arm ue A. e in closing and uncloxing bottles, and other vessels used for containing liquids, in the mode serting i liberating liquids therein and therefrom oo Mae ge ee 444. E. T. Bellhouse and T. Cowburn, Eagle Foundry, Manchester— Improvements in vacuuin valves and safety valvea 445. H. C. Jennings, Great Tower-street —An improvement in the manufacture of 308p 446. T. Cooke, Addiscombe, Surrey—Improvements in working punkas and apparatus for agitating air in churches, hospitals, and other buildings 447. G. Ritchie, New Cross, Deptford—An improvement in the manufacture of linings for articles of dress 448. H. Penney, York-place, Baker-street, Portman-square—An improved mode of "iru vulcanised or cured india-rubber 449. B. Blackburn, Clapham-common—Improvements in the manufacture of pipes Dated March 1. 450. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street—An improvement in rollers used in spinning. (A communication) 452. 8. Vigoureux, Rheims—Improvements in printing, ornamenting, and dressing woven and textile fabrica 453. T. Sadlier, Mulla, Tullamore—An improved apparatus and method of manufac- turing charcoal, which can also 1 to cooking and other purposes 454. G. M. Miller, Inchicore, Dublin— Improvements in axles and axle-boxes of engines and carriages in use on railways ges 5 Glasgow—Improvements in marine compasses, and in apparatus applic- able thereto 457. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for rolling and shaping metals. (A communication) Dated March 2. 458. J. Lewis, Abergavenny—Improvements in stench-trape 459. T. Dodds and R. Leake, Horseshoe-court, Ludgate-hill, and W. Fletcher, St. James- street, Old Kent-road—Improvements in the construction of a machine for "Wis ees kinds and description of furnaces with coal or other gases 460. G. Lowry, Manchester—Improvements in machinery for preparing and spinning flax, hemp, and other fibrous materials 461. C. J. Duméry, Rue due Cháteau d'Eau, Paris—Improvements in alarm and safety whistles for steam generators 462. C. F. Stansbury, Cornhill—An improved drill and bit-cock. (A communication: 463. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fielda—Improvementa in slide-valves for steam- engines. (A communication from E. D. Leavitt, jun., Lowell, U. S.) 464. W. Hodges, Stafford —Improvements in boot and shoes 465. J. Johnson, Bow—Improvements in temporary rudders ats HE G. H. Taunton, Liverpool—Improvements in pumps, pump-gear, and pump- ckets 467. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improvements in the construction of printing- presses. (A communication) 468. J. Coney, Newhall-hill, Birmingham—An improved construction of gun-lock Dated March 8. 469. J. Woodley and H. H. Swinford, Limehouse—Improvements in apparatus for acetate and 881 alarm in cases of flre 470. A. B. Vabre, St. Thomas' s-street East, Surrey —Improvements in floors and roofs. (A communication) 471. B. Dickinson and J. Platts, Clough House Mill, near Huddersfield — Improvement in machinery or apparatus used in finishing woollen and other textile fabrics 472. W. Hunt. Tipton, Stafford—Improvements in utilising certain compounds pro- duced in the process of galvanising iron, and in the application of the same and similar compounds to certain useful pu 473. T. H. oe Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in the manufac- ture of neck and dress-chains, bracelets, and other ornamental articles of dress. and in links used in the manufacture of the said chains and other ornamental articles of 474. W. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in cleansing and g fibrous materials. (A communication fron 8. W. Brown, Lowell, Massachusetts, 475. J. . Chester Improvements in machinery or apparatus for pro- ing vesse 476. J. 6. Williams, Torquay—Improvements in camp stoves and cooking apparatus 477. T. Metcalfe, High-street, Camden-town—Improvements in window-sashes 478. R. Boby and T. C. Bridgman, Bury St. Edmunds Improvemelts in corn-dreesing and winnowing machines 479. T. W. Carter, Massachusetts, U. 8.—New and useful improvements in repeating fire-arms. (A communication from J. Stephens, Massachusetts) 480. C. Iles, Peel Works, Birmingham—Improvements in apparatus for cutting, burnishing, and polishing cylindrical surfaces of metal and other subetances 481. C. Iles, Peel Works, Binningham—Improvements in the manufacture of tubes, knobs, and handles of doors, rollera of castors, and reels for cotton and thread Dated March 5. : 483. L. J. Paine, Camberwell, and J. Ryan, Hatcham—Improved portable utensils, such as buckets, canteens, baths, and other similar waterproof articles for containing liquids, also applicable for portable life-boats, buoys, or d-marks, and other com- pressible articles 485. J. Dawson, Northwich, Chester—An improvement in saddles 487. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street—Improvements in projectiles. (A communication) 489. J. Lewis, Elizabethtown, New Jersey, U.S. — Improvements in rigging and sparring Vessels 493. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improveinents in the oscillating steam engine. (A communication from J. A. Reed, New York, U. 8.) Dated March 6. 495. W. Jenkins, Neath Abbey, Glamorgan—An improved method of casting copper cylinders, copper vessels, and other copper forms 497. G. W. Bowlaby, Castle Hotel, Oxfurd-street—An improvement in eloming the windage when discharging cannon 499. A. J. Burr, Alfred-road, N in gas- meters $01. E. Tardif, Brussels An improved construction of numbering apparatus PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 481. J. Reddie, Anstruther, Fife—An improved metal shovel—February 28 ee NOTICES OF APPLICATION FOR PROLONGATION OF PATENTS. The application of A. R. le Mire de Normandy for a prolongation of the patent granted to him for ** Improvements in the manufacture of soap,” is to be made on the 2nd of April next, instead of the 12th March, as previously stated The application for prolongation of J. Juckes' patents isto be made on the 13th of April next, instead of the 79th March, as previously stated NOTICES OF APPLICATION FOR LEAVE TO ENTER DISCLAIMER. W. Thomas, Cheapside, for leave to enter a disclaimer of part of the spectfieation of letters patent granted to him for “ Improvements in machinery for sewing or stitehing various fabrics— December 1, 1846 —— —.»——— — MR aa o ERR RR ————— M — IG PEE ERE — -- — — - — o — liim Pl. 17. STAGE. LANDING CORPORATION Part Plan of South End of Sta O L PO ge. . of Decks 294 Deck Beam ; ' S * ‘ + U CO Meus herd iat M PN Les ad : anc di — — — - 2 0 9 7 2 LIVERPOOL CORPORATION LANDING STAGE. & S / / " x f EK | N Hd N — / i : * f; Vect Deck of Stage 4 8 D. ST TL NINNDS — r — f 2 N 122... A» 4 > " > Y > NYY Deck Beam S | $ V/74 E A]. Section of Bridge and Stage thro A.B. „ NZ E Wess Boat Deck RDI” N33) —— TRAE ²⁵˙ AAA C 49 Bear | N | : d \ | 51. Hinged Flap over Bridge Joint. ' Pt Plan of Upper Surface Fun, Under Surface. 7 (Google ~~ i a Sey 5i d d | ‘ E. 8 N° 42. Front View of Bridge Joint. P? le, of Joint C E Pè Longitudinal Secon 12222 . a e e 3 x ^. Dn EN * - EX ee Sort . DO — a ee eon ſ :! T PETNI" 43. Plan of Axle * 46. Section thro A.B. UU ETERS LT ̃ « WM a ATE Y 4 44. Plan of Bed Plate and Pivet. © © — 8 jum mgate W* [ron 49 . Cont? Inter* Bearing at C. of Underside Shore end of Bridge thro ad. 53. Guard rail on Bridge Sections. Jor Scales see PL. 16. PLAS. J.R Jobbins. 1 1 Google THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. LIVERPOOL CORPORATION LANDING-STAGE. Sir WiLLIAM Cunrrr, F.R.S., Engineer. (With Engravings, Plates X VI. XVII. and XVIIL)* SPECIFICATION OF WORKS. Subject of Contract.—The contract of which this is a specifica- tion is for constructing and delivering complete in place a float- ing landing-stage, which is to be moored off and to the Prince’s Parade at Liverpool, in the position shown in fig. 1. General description —This stage will consist of a substructure of wrought-iron puntoons supporting five hollow beams or kel- sons of wrought-iron, on which will rest a wooden deck. The stage will be connected with the shore by four bridges, and by mooring chains. The masonry work connected with the founda- tions of the shore-ends of these bridges, and with the land- attachments of the mooring-chains, will be done by the cor- poration finance committee; but all other materials and labour neceasary for the completion of the stage and fixing it in place, as described in this specification and the accompanying engrav- ings, up to the opening of the stage for public use, is to be pro- vided by the contractor. L—Tue Pontoons. Number and Size of Pontoons.—The pontoons are sixty-three in number, arranged as shown in the half-plan, fig. 1; all rectangu- lar, of two lengths, viz. 12 of 96 feet long and 51 of 80 teet, of a uniform depth of 5 feet, and a uniform breadth of 10 feet, except the extreme pontoon at each end, which will be 12 feet wide. Bulkheads, —'The pontoons are to be fitted with water-tight bulkheads, as in figs. 3, 5, 6. The 96 feet pontoons to have 4 whole bulkheads and 5 half ditto, and the 80 feet pontoons to have 3 whole bulkheads and 4 half ditto. ANote.—Any of the bulkheads may be moved from the positions shown in the engravings by any space not ex- ceeding 6 inches, if the convenience of plating require it. Angle-iron Frames.—The decks, bottoms, sides, ends, and bulk- heads are to be connected together by means of the very best 3 inch angle-iron, 4-inch in thickness; the frames for the ends and bulkheads to be welded into the complete rectangular form, and at least 6 inches of the longitudinal angle-iron to be soundl riveted or welded, as may he directed, to each corner of eac rectangular frame. The angle-iron frames for the half-bulkheads to be complete rectangles extending round the pontoon, as for the whole bulkheads. Plates.—The plates are to be of the best plate-iron, well rolled and truly flattened, not less than 43-inch in thickness in any part. Each plate when cut and squared for punching, is to be in length ] inch less than the complete breadth of the side to which it is to be applied, and 3 feet in breadth. The joints to be butt joints, with a covering slip 3 inches wide and }-inch in thickness, riveted on the outside with two rows of rivets (figs. 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 19). No cross-joints will be allowed on either the deck, bottom, ends, or sides of any pontoon. The plates for the two extreme pontoons to be ;°,-inch thick, or as the engineer may direct. Method of Plating.—The ends and whole bulkheads are to be lated horizontally, and to be made up of not more than two readths in the whole depth of 5 feet (fig. 7). The half-bulk- heads to be 3 feet deep, in one breadth, and in one length from aide to side. The top and bottom of the 80 feet pontoons are to begin with a 2 ft. Gin. plate, and the sides with a 1 foot plate at each end. The sides of the 96 feet pontoons to begin with a 1 ft. 6 in. plate at each end. All the rest to be 3 feet plates. By these arrange- ments the adjacent sides will everywhere break joint at the angles (figs. 2, 4, 6, 8, 9). ANote.—The methods of plating the various parts here specified may be modified for the convenience of the contractor, by permission (in writing) of the engineer- in-chief. Riveting.—The rivet-holes to be 3-inch diameter, 14 inch from centre to centre, amd not less than $-inch from the edge of plate, or such other diameter, piteh, and distance as may be directed (figs. 7, 8, 9, 19). The rivet-holes punched in the angle-iron to be f-inch from the edge, and the rivet-holes in the plates corresponding to these to be 14 inch from edge of plate (fig. 18). * Plate XVIII. we are compelled to postponc until next month. No. 254.— Vol. XVIIIL—Mar, 1855. 14⁵ The rivet-holes both of plates and angle-iron are to be engine- punched in the best manner, so that any part of plate or angle- Iron will fit on to any other similar part throughout the work. The rivets to be of the very best and toughest scrap-iron, button-headed, well filling the holes, and neatly dressed off to a circular head at least twice the diameter of the rivet. The making and riveting to be done by hand, or by machinery, or part by hand and part by machinery, at the discretion of the engineer. The joints to be well closed quite across, so as to be perfectly water-tight without any caulking or upsetting the edges. T-iron on Bulkheads.—Three pieces of T-iron, 4 inches by 3 inches, and à-inch in thickness, are to be riveted vertically on each end and bulkhead, as shown in figs. 3, 7, 20. Those on the half-bulkheads to be of the whole height, and to be riveted at to to the angle-iron frames. The rivets to be 3 inches apart in cách row, and set alternately (fig. 7). Ears.— Ears of 6 inch angle-iron, j-inch thick, and each 14 inches long, are to be firmly riveted on the pontoons, a pair on each side at the crossing of each kelson, as shown in figs. 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 16. The horizontal flange of each ear is to be flush with the upper surface of the pontoon, and to be pierced with & hole for a 12 i inch bolt, by which the pontoon is to be fastened to the flange of the kelson at the crossing. At the ends of the pon- toons those flanges of the ears which would by the above arrange- ment project, are to be turned down and secured in the manner shown in figs. 7, 8, 9, 17. The outermost corner ears on the end pontoons are to be moved 1 foot nearer the middle. Bearing-Plates.—Between the opposite pairs of ears there is to be fastened, in the middle of the pontoon and on its upper surface, a bearing-plate 3 feet long, 6 inches wide, and 4-inch thick, held down by bolts having countersunk heads (figs. 2, 4, 6, 8). T-iron on Long Pontoons.—Strips of T-iron, as shown in figs. 23, 32, are to be fastened on the outer sides and ends of the projections of the pontoons beneath the bridges, to support the fender of the boat-decks, and to be pierced with bolt-holes, as specified under the head of Boat-decks." Manholes, &c.—Four manholes, 18 inches by 12 inches or thereabouts, with frames and covers complete, according to drawings to be furnished to the contractor, are to fixed on the top of each pontoon, one between each pair of kelsons. Con- venient openings are also to be left, if desired, in each whole bulkhead—to enable workmen to pass from one compartment to another for purposes of examination, &c. Pump-holes 4 inches diameter or thereabouts are also to be cut in the tops of the pon- toons, one nearly over each half-bulkhead—these are to have water-tight stoppers, in accordance with drawings which will be furnished to the contractor. Proving —All pontoons are to be of the very best boiler-work, and the contractor is to prove them before painting, under the inspection of the engineer, or his deputy, by filling them with water at a pressure of not less than llb. on the square inch on any part, the pontoon being supported in such a frame or cradle that every joint may be seen and closely inspected as to its soundness. Weight.—The total weight of pontoons will be about 1162 tons. II.— TRE KE sons. General Description—The kelsons are five in number, of a uniform length of 1000 feet, and a uniform breadth of 3 feet across the top and bottom plates, and 2 feet from out to out of the side plates. The heights vary; there is one kelson 6 feet in height placed in the middle of the stage, two of 4 ft. 9 in. in height, one on each side of the centre, and two of 4 feet high, one along each edge of the stage. These heights are diminished towards each end in the manner shown in fig. 15. The general construction, which is the same in all, may be seen from figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14. Method of Plating Top and Bottom.—The top and bottom plates are to in two thicknesses of half-an-inch each, each thick- ness to be in two breadths of 1 ft. 9 in. and 1 ft. 3 in. respectively, 80 placed as to break joint, as shown in the engravings. All these plates shall be in 16 feet lengths, so arranged that the joints of the lowermost plate shall always fall between the ntoons; and the others so that the distance between any two Joints shall be the greatest possible. The joints to be butt-jointb, covered by scarfing-plates of the same thickness, 3 feet wide when towards the outside of the kelson, and 1 ft. 11 in. when towards the inside, to extend 1 foot on each side of the joint, and to be riveted as shown in figs. 10, 11. 22 146 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Method of Plating Sides The sides to be of quarter-inch pla each 2 feet wide, and of the full height between the top bottom plates of the kelson. The joints to be butt-joints, riveted to vertical pieces of T-iron, 4 inches by 3 inches, and j-inch thick, p internally, and covering-selips of -inch thick and 4 inches wide, placed externally (figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 22). Every Jont z one i is to fall opposite the middle of a plate on the er (fig. 11). Angle-iron.—The top, bottom, and sides are connected together (as shown in figs. 10—14, 21) by 6-inch angle-iron, }-inch thick, in lengths of not less than 16 ft. 6 in., to have lap-joints of 6 inches at a end, and always to break joint between the plates, if ible. P Riveting. —The rivet-holes in the T-iron and side-plates to be 4-inch diameter, 1 inch to the centre from the edge of the plate and of the T-iron respectively, and not more than 2 inches from centre to centre of row (figs. 12, 14). The rivet-holes in the upright flange of the 6-inch angle-iron and in the side plates corresponding to be $-inch diameter, in a double row, the rows being 2 inches from centre to centre, and the outer row 1} inch from edge of hole to edge of flange. The rivet-holes in each row to be 3 inches from centre to centre, and arranged alternately; but where the vertical slips of T-iron occur, the intervals are to be adapted to them, as shown in figs. 12,14. The horizontal flange of the angle-iron is to be connected with the top or bottom plate by a double row of #-inch rivets passing through all; these rows to be of 4-inch pitch and 2-inch centre to centre, and the rivets to alternate with each other. The double plates of the top and bottom are also to be connected by four rows of #-inch rivets arranged at 3 inches distance from each other, two on each side the centre, and the rivets in each row 4 inches apart, set alternately (figa. 10, 11, 13, 21). The rivets to be of the very best and toughest scrap-iron, button-headed, well filling the holes, and neatly dressed off toa circular rivet head at least twice the diameter of the holes; but at those of the underside of the kelsons which come in contact with the bearing plates and ears on the pontoons, and on the upper side beneath the bed-plates of the bridge-jointa, the diri bons to be counter-sunk. All rivet-holes to be engine- un E Ears for Fender-poste.—On the lower flange of the outer kelson along the whole river side of the stage, and on the inner side for 48 feet at each end, also on the ends of the kelsons, are to be riveted at intervals of about 4 feet, pieces of 6-inch angle-iron for the attachment of the fender-posts; each piece to be 10 inches long, and riveted to the kelson with five rivets; and the upright flange, which shall project 1 inch beyond the flange of the kelson, shall be pierced in the middle for a 1}-inch bolt, the centres of such holes to be accurately 4 feet apart, as shown in . 24, 96. 0, between Kelsons.—Cheeks of 6-inch angle-iron, in pairs 15 inches apart, and each about 2 ft. 4 in. deep, will be riveted on the sides of the kelsons nearly beneath the break of deck, to receive the ends of the cross-beam to which the ends of the lower deck-beam are secured (fig. 31). Strenghtening under Bed-plates of Bridges.—At the points where the inner 4-feet kelson sustains the bed-plates of bridge-joints, it is to be strengthened with thicker side-plates and cross-partitions, as shown in fig. 50. The centre of the strengthened part is to be as nearly beneath the centre of the bed-plate as the spacing of the side-plates will allow. Apertures are to be left in these partitions to allow them to be entered at the bottom. Bolt-holes and Collars.—The lower flanges are to be pierced with holes for 14-inch bolts, corresponding to those specified in the ears on the pontoons. But between the ear and the kelson is to be inserted a round flat collar, 6 inches diameter, cut out of }-inch plate, and having a hole 17e inches in diameter punched in its centre; this and the bearing-plates will prevent the rivet- heads of the pontoon and kelson from interfering with each other. Also at the end of the kelson the bottom Pisis will project 6 inches beyond the kelson, to be fastened to the ears on the outer side of the last pontoon. The upper flanges are also to be ierced with poe for IT inch bolts to fasten the deck-beams, as low specifi End plates and Manholes—The ends of the kelsons are to be closed with 4-inch plates 3 feet wide. Manholes are to be provided at convenient p three in each kelson, or more if directed. Weight.—The total weight of the kelsons will be about 1185 tons. III.— TRR Deck. General Construction—The length of the deck of the stage is 1002 ft. 2 in. over all, and the extreme breadth is 81 ft. 4 in. for the greater part of its length, and 82 ft. 2 in. for the remainder. It consists of the following divisions—a main deck, a lower or * tender" deck at each end, four boat-decks under the bridges, and „ and apron-planking. Ist. THE Main Decx.—This is 905 feet long, and 81 ft. 4 in. wide; its construction is clearly shown by the upper part of fig. 25. The deck-beams, 4 feet centre to centre, are to consist of two balks one on the other, notched out at least an inch where they cross the kelsons, and to be at those points accurately 2 feet deep, and not less in any part. The balks are to be fastened to each other, and to the dures of the kelsons where they cross, with 1]-inch bolts let in flush above, and arranged as shown in the engraving. The abutting faces and the upper surface are to be carefully dressed, the sides and bottom to be neatly dubbed. On the river-side of the stage each deck-beam will be sawn square off one inch beyond the edge of kelson, on the shore-side it will be dove-tailed into and bolted to a similar double beam running lengthways of the stage. The centre of this beam will be over the centre of the outer flange of the kelson, to which it will be bolted by 14-inch bolts let in flush, one between each pair of deck- beams (fig. 29). The bolts which fasten the cross-beams to this will be l-inch bolts, 18 inches long, let in flush, two to each m. Scarfing.—The balks of which the cross and longitudinal beams are composed shall be in long lengths, nowhere more than three pieces in the width of the stage. The joints to be scarfed as shown in fig. 30, tightened with oak keys, and secured with four l-inch bolts. Every scarf to be over a kelson, and no two scarfs over each other. Camber of Deck. — The beams will take a camber from the varying heights of the kelsons; this is to be dressed into a true curve on the upper surface, rising 1 foot in the middle. Planking.—U pon these beams will be laid the deck, in two thicknesses. lst. 4$-inch planking, running lengthways of the stage, in 6-inch widths, and lengths of not less than 24 feet, and as much longer as possible. No butts in two adjoining planks to be within 12 feet of each other. They are to be fastened to the deck-beams with 12-inch spikes, one at each crossing, 2 inches from each side of the lank alternately, and two at each end of a plank. All end-joints to be over the middle of beams. 2nd. 14-inch planking, crossing the former, also in 6-inch widths, and lengths not less than 20 feet, no two butts coming within 12 feet of each other. Along each side of the deck will run a plank length ways, only 4 inches wide. This upper planking is fastened to the lower planking with i-inch compressed oak trenails, 6 inches long, 2 feet apart, and 2 inches from each side of the plank alternately, two trenails at each end of a plank. The edges of these planks are to be bevelled in the manner shown in fig. 34, to assist the rain-water to run off. Deck-beams opposite Bridges.—The arrangement of the deck- beams opposite the ends of the bridges is shown in fig. 52, and the planking over these is to be fitted as closely to the bridges as is consistent with their free motion to the full extent intended And. Tue Lower Decks, one at each end of the stage.— Each is 48 ft. 7 in. long, and 82 ft. 2 in. wide, supported on beams arranged as shown in figs. 25, 27. The beams are nearly 48 feet long, 1 foot wide, 2 feet deep at the outer end, and 2 ft. 6 in. at the other, or such depth as to give the deck the rise below specified. Each is to be composed of two balks, fitted and bolted to each other, as specified for the main-deck beams. "They lie in the direction of the length of the stage, and rest on the pontoons, but are not fastened to them. The outer ends are to be sawn otf an inch beyond the pontoon; the inner ends are to be dovetailed and joggled into and bolted into a beam 2 ft. 6 in. deep by 15 inches wide, stretching from kelson to kelson below the break of deck, resting on their lower flanges, and tightly wedged at each end between two cheeks of 6-inch angle-iron, riveted vertically on the kelson, as specified (ie: 31). Planking.—The planking is to be in two thicknesses, as that of the main-deck, iid in all dimensions and fastenings the same. Where it crosses a kelson it is to rest on but not to be fastened to it, but to the uppermost fender-beam. Where the planking abuts against the side of a kelson it is to be neatly fitted to it. The deck is to be every where at the edge 2 ft. 6 in. above the bottom of the kelsons, and to rise 6 inches to the back in every direction, the upper planking to be channelled as specified for the main- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL. 147 between the upper and lower eck will be by uter edge of the stage; he planking will be ‘fied for the decks, t at about 3 inches second running u inch thick, but so bevelled on each side of the slope. for the accomm outer sides is to the whole, and bolted from end to e The horizontal holes for the bolts fastenin anks, 45-inches t ide to side, fasten tersection, and to re is to be an flanges are to be pun deck. Across these in 6-inch widths, an T-iron with two with trenails or ill be laid the deck-pl eck there is to be a stair the deck above, draw- —To each boat-d ished hereafter. AND APRON-PLANKING. ide and ends of the 8 each end to th Ath. FenpER-Posts —These will extend tage, and along the Along the upper to centre, abutting e lower deck they 20, 27. Every alternate 2 inches x 6 inches, to e deck; the rest will All will be fastened to ced, as shown 1n rovided on the kelson middle of each heads sunk flush. alternately trimmed on the lower plank- ith 12 inch-spikes, to the lower planking These knees and straps secured to that an and into bollards 18 inches hi be cut off level with the e timbers to reach wi h e of the apron; and to be bevelled off as oot of the bottoms in the engravings. of the pontoons, is to be 6 inches thick, in ereabouts, to reach from be fastened to each in one whole fen th two 10-inch spikes, the manner sho same way to the h whole balk 1 foot sq fastened like the rest. of the pontoon; f either posts or 8p half fender-post, and to extend 1 ft. 74 in below gide of the lower decks below the tops of the to be provided (su as shown in fig. 36) for working on spindles he corner ears of th bolts which connect out removing an & toons to the kelson, be one fender- n the shore-side no is to be of the best Baltic fir; main deck, tona aa paths leadi thereto from the bridges (as shown by otted lines in fig. 1), and any oth directed er parts by the engineer, will be of sabicu, or such other hard wood, British or foreign, as the engineer may termine. All timber, of whatever kind, is to be perfectly sound and thoroughly seasoned, and free from and shakes, large and loose knots, or any other defects, and shall hold when finished the fall ecantlings shown on the engraving" or named in this specifi- on. ing. Both the u per and lower planking of all the decks is to be well caulked, pai and cleaned, and the joints thoroughly filled, those of the 44-i ch planks with well-tarred oakum, those of the 14-inch planks in the same way, or with marine glue, as the engineer may direct. All faces of timber not exposed to view, except the underside of the I Finch planking, are to be dressed with pitch and tar in the best manner in use for the outside of ships bottoms. Trenails —All trenails to he of oak compressed by Ransome and May’s patent process, to be of the diameter ed after com- completely through the parts they are to unite. Tronwork.—All bolts to be of the best S. C. iron, with well-cut screws, and of such e that two threads of the screw project beyond the head when screwed up. All heads and nuts to be in thickness once and in width twice the diameter of the bolt, and where acrewed into wood to have washers twice their own diameter punched out of }inch boiler-plate. All ironwork before use is to be heated to a blue heat, and rubbed over with raw linseed oil or black varnish. Hatchways, &c—Hatchways are to be provided in the deck over all the manholes in the pontoons, and openings, suitably stopped, over all pump-holes. IV. - BR ORS. Number and Size—The bridges connecti the landing-stage with the shore are four in number, arranged as shown in fig. 1. They are all similar, and on the same principle as those of the resent ferry-stage. The extreme length as shown on the engrav- ings is 113 feet, which may be increased or diminished at the discretion of the engineer. Conatruction of Beums.—Each bridge consists of two parallel wrought-iron beams, supporting à way between them: these beams are 16 feet apart, centre to centre. Each beam is 113 feet long, 5 feet deep at each end, and 10 feet in the middle; the bottom to have a camber of 4 inches, the top to be the arc of a circle (fig. 37). The top consists of a square tube 2 ft. 6 in. wide by 18 inches deep, divided in two by à partition in the middle; all the plates of this tube to be §-inch thick. The sides of the beam will be of Finch plate, 2 feet, apart (out to out), each plate 2 feet wide, and of the height of the side of the beam between the tube and the bottom plate, the top to be cut to the correct bevel. The joints of these plates to be butt-joints, connected by internal T-iron and external covering-slips, of the same dimensions a8 on the sides of the kelsons. The joints of the two sides are to fall alternately, as in the kelsons. The bottom of the beam will be composed of two Finch plates 2 ft. 6 in. wide, breaking joint, and connected by a row of rivets along the middle, besides those through the angle-iron at the sides. All joints but those at the aides to be lap-joints 6 inches wide, or butt-joints with scarfing- plates, as shown and described for the kelsons, if so directed by the engineer. All plates to be in the longest practicable lengths not less than 6 feet), and to break joint as much as possible. he top, bottom, and sides of the beam will be connected with 3-inch angle-iron as used in the pontoons, the pieces to have lap- joints of 6 inches. In the middle of the bridge the two beams will be connected by an arched stay, as shown in figs. 37, 38, 39, and of the cross-section shown in fig. 40. The ends of the beams will be closed with -inch plates, in which doors or other means of entrance are to be rovided. All rivets to be )-inch diameter; and at distances of 2 inches centre to centre. The aggregate weight of the beams of the four bridges will be about 260 tons. T-iron Supporting Roadway.—The roadway between the beams will be supported by cross-girders of T- iron 6 inches by 6 inches and j-inch thick, laced 6 feet apart centre to centre, and bolted to the flanges of the bottom plates with four J-inch bolts on each side. The extreme T-iron at each end will be 5 ft. 6 in. from the ends of the beams; beyond this will be a Iich plate 1 ft. 9 in. wide passing from beam to beam in like manner—the outer edge of this will be 1 ft. 14 in. from the ends of the beams (figs. 37 —42). 22* 148 Planking.—The planking will be in two thicknesses:—First. 4 inch planking of Baltic fir in 6 inch widths, lengthways of the bridge, secured to the T-iron by two 3-inch bolts at each crossing, and two at each end of a plank (figs. 38, 42). These planks to be in lengths not less than 18 feet. Second. 2 inch hard wood planking in 6 inch widths crossing the above, and either trenailed to it as specified for the upper planking, or spiked, as the engineer may direct. And upon this, for a width of 4 feet in the middle, will be fastened in a similar manner hard-wood cleats, 3 inches wide, 14 inch thick, having a rounded upper surface, and 6 inches pu centre to centre (figs. 38, 39, 41). At 3 feet on each side of the centre will be a guard rail fastened to the lower planking and the T-iron with spikes and bolts, but pro- jecting 4 inches above the upper planking (figs. 38, 40, 53). Joints.—The bridges will be so connected with the stage and the shore as to permit the stage to move freely vertically to such extent as the tides may require, and horizontally as far as the mooring-chains will allow. The means by which this is etfected is fully shown in figs. 42—49. It consists of three principal parts:—viz. First. A cast-iron bed-plate, having a pivot in the middle, to be fixed on the quay at the shore-end of the bridge, and on the inner kelson at the stage-end. It will be bolted to the flanges and top plate of the kelson with 2 inch bolts as shown, and to the masonry on the quay as may be directed. Second. An axle of cast-iron, working horizontally at the centre upon the pivot above-mentioned. and towards each extremity turned to a cylindrical form. Third. Wrought-iron hooks or saddles, bolted to the under surface of the bridge-beams (two under each beam at each end), and hanging on the cylindrical of the axle without any attachment to it. Besides these there are two intermediate bearings, fastened to the wrought-iron plate between the beams mentioned above, and resting on the upper part of axle. All these parts to be of the forms and dimensions shown in the engravings (unless varied by order of the engineer), and all working parts to be truly turned and fitted to each other. Oil-channels are to be provided in each saddle and over the pivot, and to be stopped with screw stoppers. Hinged Flaps.—The openings of the joints will be covered by a flap reaching from side to side of the bridge, and working on a hinge in the manner of a common butt-hinge (figs. 38, 41). It will be of cast-iron, according to the engravings, with grooves on ita upper surface, into which hard-wood slips will be let and bolted through. The meeting parts will be carefully fitted to each other, and the hole for the wrought-iron pin bored truly straight from end to end. The narrow flap will be bolted firmly to the planking and the iron plate below it with 1 inch bolts, and the broad flap will move freely on the quay or stage. 'V.—MooniNa-CHAINS. Number and Size.—The chains with which the stage is to be moored to the Prince's Quay are six in number, arranged as shown in fig. 1. They are to be of the best 2 inch round iron, in links 12 inches long by 8 inches wide, without studs, and of quality equal in all respects to the best bower cables of the largest men-of-war. They are to be proved by a strain of 60 tons, and to the satisfaction of the engineer. The total length will be about 2190 feet, and the weight about 30 tons. Drawings of the attachments to the deck of the stage, and to the masonry of the quay, will be furnished to the contractor. General Conditions. The plates, angle and T—iron, for the pontoons, kelsons, and bridge-beams, are to be of the very best Staffordshire or Coal- brookdale iron, or other approved by the engineer as equally suitable. All rivets to be of the best and toughest scrap-iron, and the mooring-chains, bolts, and spikes, of the best S. C. iron. All cast-iron to be of the best quality of cold-blast grey cast-iron, correctly of the sizes as shown, and with the meeting surfaces accurately turned and faced. All materials to be the best of their respective kinds, and free from all defects whatsoever; and the resident engineer shall have power to reject any materials or workmanship which he may deem not in accordance with the true intent of this specification. The pontoons and kelsons having been completed, and the former proved, are to be put temporarily together on a suitable piece of ground provided by the contractor, upon bearings or foundations approved by the engineer. They are then to be con- veyed to Liverpool and permanently put together, and fixed in THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. ) front of the Prince's Parade. in the position shown; the decks bridges, and everything else requisite to the completion of the * are then to be added. . he pontoons, kelsons, bridge-beama, bridge-joints, and all other large pieces of iron-work, are to be four times painted in oil, inside and out. But no paint is to be applied to any of the pontoons till after they have been proved as specified, nor to any other parts till the resident engineer shall have inspected the soundness of the materials and work; and before painting all rust and moisture is to be thoroughly removed. The pontoons shall receive the last two coats of paint shortly before launching, and all other ironwork shortly before the opening of the stage to the public. The contractor shall erect, in a place agreed on between him and the resident engineer, & weighing machine, approved by the engineer; and there shall weigh, at his own expense, under the inspection and to the satisfaction of the resident engineer or his deputy, all ironwork (unpainted); and if for any reason the resident engineer, or his deputy, require any part to be weighed more than once, it shall be done without extra charge. i Immediately upon the contract being signed, the resident engineer, and the contractor shall agree, from the drawings, on the proper weight of each part of the ironwork; and if the weight of any shall exceed such agreed weight by more than in the proportion of 501b. to the ton, such excess shall not be paid for; and if it be less than the agreed weight, the exact weight only shall be paid for; but if it be less than the agreed weight by more than 50 b. per ton, that part may be rejected altogether by the resident engineer. The whole of the contract will be carried out under the super- vision of the resident engineer, Mr. John B. Hartley of Liver- pool; and should any difference arise between him and the contractor as to any matter arising under this specification or the construction hereof, or as to the way in which the contract is to be carried out, such difference shall be left to the decision of the engineer-in-chief, Sir William Cubitt, whose determination and award shall be final. The engineer shall have it in his power to alter any of the dimensions, form, or construction of any part of the works herein specified; and if any alteration shall increase or diminish the quantity of materials, the contract amount, as stated in the schedule of prices, shall be increased or diminished in proportion. The contract price is to include all materials and labour required for the completion of the contract, and also all sums, if any, to be paid on account of patent rights, should any such exist; and the corporation will not allow any extras except for extra works ordered by the engineer or resident engineer, by writing under his hand. The contractor to be entitled to payment for his work as follows; viz., a payment equal to 50 per cent. on the value of the amount of work then in progress will be made by the corporation every three months, computed from the date of the contract; a further payment equal to 25 per cent. on the value of the amount of the work executed will be made when the stage is fixed in ita place; and the balance will be paid within three months after the stage has been opened for public use and is certified by the engineer-in-chief to be satisfactorily completed. But no sum ill be considered to be due, nor will the contractor be entitled to make any claim upon the corporation, for or on account of any work in progress or executed by him unless the resident engineer shall certify the amount thereof, and that the contractor is rea- sonably entitled to such payments or balance respectively, which certificate must be countersigned by the engineer-in-chief, nor unless such certificate shall have been presented to the town clerk of the said borough, nor shall any such sum or sums of money be considered payable to the contractor until the expira- tion of seven days after such certificate shall have been so pre- sented. The pontoons, timber, iron, and all other materials, together with the plant used in, upon, or about the construction of the said landing-stage from time to time until the same shall be moored and fixed ready for public use and delivered'to the corporation, shall stand charged with, and be a security to them for, any sum or sums of money which shall be paid to the con- iractor under the terms of his contract, and the said corporation may at any time take possession of the same (but not so as to ‘interfere with the completion of the contract unless the contractor Shall have committed some breach thereof) to the intent that the said pontoons, timber, iron, and other materials, together with the said plant, shall not become liable or subject to the debts, | de S = = "a (UU HUNAN AR UE a —— om ee s — SDS a rr er te 1 ' j T — — — — — — --— - — — nili Fie. 8. and railroad purposes. It is especially suitable for strong bri of long span, by combining the suspension and common bri together. t From the ‘Scientific American. 24 162 CONSTANTINOPLE. We extract the following from the letter of an officer on the staff at Constantinople :— “The Turks are a most indolent race of people; they dream their actual existence away in smoke, and have no energy of any kind. Streets are without names, houses without numbers;—by the way, in asking a Turk how it was that they did not name their streets, and number their houses, he quietly said that it was unnecessary here, where every one knew his own house; but that the English were obliged to number their houses, or else when they went out at night they would not be able to find them again. I suppose he meant that we returned drunk. Gas or oil lamps are unknown in the streets, —the pavement appears as if you had tumbled a heap of stones into the street. llars are left open, and pitfalls of every kind abound at every step. Woe to the unlucky wight who stirs out without a light after dark! If fires occur, which they constantly do, streets of houses are again built on the same plan as before, without any improvement. The streets are built up and down precipices, and are so narrow, and the houses overhang so much, that they nearly or perhaps quite meet at the top. A system of robbery and bri prevails through every 5 public and private, from the highest to the lowest; and they cannot think why Englishmen will not do the same. On a business of the nature and importance on which I am now employed, a Turk would et 1000“. There is no rousing them — they are all asleep; and the only thing they seem to be able to do is to try and cheat vou in their dealings. They always ask at least twice as much as they expect to get, and they would stare with astonishment if you were to give them what they first demanded. The other day there was a large fire, and a cry of ‘ Jangheir var]! (‘There is a fire,) was going in all directions; I saw a crowd of men hurrying with something on their shoulders, which, as they passed, proved to be the fire-engine, about the size of a small garden-pump. In the streets you meet with people of every nation in the world.. Men being appointed in this country to offices of which they know nothing, all the internal administration of the country is defective, and bribery is its ruin. The Turk looks on all Franks as infidels, and that he is so completely superior to them, that he notices with disdain all the improvements of science, and goes on in the old way of his fore- fathers. It is time they gave place to others. Constantinople, from its natural advantages and position, might be the finest city in the world. If the English or French had it for fifty years, what would it not be! As it is, a person should not step on shore, the gay delusion vanishes in wretched houses and streets, and filthy pavements. How soon would all these things change under other hands! “The Turk is never in a h : when walking the streets or on business, he goes sauntering idly about, smoking the everlasting chibouk. They do not know what to make of their lively friends the French, who have almost taken Pera from them. lety or liveliness with them is a crime. The only time a Turk appears in a hurry is when he is carrying a corpse to the grave, and then you always see them hurrying away as fast as they can; and the reason is, that they think the spirit is in torment until the body is buried, which is therefore done as quickly as possible after death; and they consider death merely a release from this life and entrance to a happier world, where they shall enjoy a perpetuity of sensual delights, and hence they express no signs of grief at burials. Fate rules everything with the Turks; so the commonest remedies are frequently neglected, and sanitary precautions are deemed useless." — m SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. Another correspondent, writing from Constantinople, describes his structure in the following lively manner :— *'To tell you of the glories of Santa Sophia would occupy es, and to carefully examine its beauties would occupy days. A few months since it required a special firman to be enabled to gee it, but now the English and French do as they like in Constantinople, and the poor Turks are like a conquered people; they never attempt to interfere with an Englishman or a Pind man, and let them do what they please. A firman used to cost 20ʃ.; as it was, I put on regimentals, and thrusting a pair of alippers in my pocket, I inveigled out my good friend ——, and THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL having mounted two nags, with our Armenian guide, Elijah, by our side riding another horse, away we sallied - We paid a small fee at the door, and donned our slippers. The building is of the most superb description. There are I think eight domes, rising one above another, and six minarets; the centre dome is of great magnificence, and of extraordinary width. The pe glory of the place consists in the countless pillars of every kind, of the most costly marbles, brought from all the most celebrated temples of the world. The roof is the most beautiful you can conceive; it is all worked in mosaic and profusely gilded, consisti of minute portions of coloured stone and glass in every beautif pattern you can imagine, and the labour of which must have been wonderful. The patterns are groups of flowers or geometrical as the likeness of any animate being is disallowed by the oran. Nothing can equal the beauty of the varied marbles which strike the eye in all directions—pillars of enormous size, of rphyry and scagliola. In the apse may stil be traced the place where the figure of our Saviour stood, showing the stretched- out arms, &c., the surrounding still consisting of the fretted work of mosaic. In various parte of the roof, also, the cross may still be distinguished in the mosaic as an emblem, although over- looked by the Turks. The apse is situated, of course, to the east, as in our churches, but the Turks look towards Mecca, to the holy stone, which has an oblique direction; so that the people do not look towards the apse, but obliquely across the church. "The great dome roof is beautifully painted with groupe of flowers; at the four corners the four great angels, Michael, &c., are named in colossal Turkish letters, and above them are four figures of winged birds—I suppose angels, or what they fancy to be such. In descending to the floor of the great building we were struck by the extreme simplicity and beauty of the edifice. There was nothing to catch the eye—no monument, no figure of anything in particular but one harmonious whole; everything was simple, but grand. The splendidly variegated marble hall was covered with the richest carpet, so that the unshod footfall of the passer-by should not disturb the prayers of the faithful. The beautiful pillars, of the most costly marbles, stood out in the boldest relief. Some of them were presented by the wife of the Emperor Aurelian, and were her dowry; they came from the Temple of the Sun, at Balbec. I have heard that every temple in the world contributed its finest marbles to adorn the building. As we sauntered along, all kinds of objects met the view: here there were crowds of young people undergoing instruction in the Koran, under the care of a hadji; there you might see a man on the ground prostrated, praying and reading the Koran fervently aloud; in fact, every variety of devotion seemed to be carried on; and although we walked among the people, they did not seem disconcerted, but continued more fervently to vociferate, ‘Allah il Allah! lullah resoul Mohammed! until the roof reverberated the call—‘ There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet!’ * Near the apse was the sultan’s throne, of plain white marble; and on the opposite side was a stone pulpit ascended by steps, the 5 where the reader or expounder of the Koran ascended every day, armed, as is the in variable custom, with a wooden sword in his band, to show that those who were opposed to them must be conquered by the sword. There was a hole in one of the marble pillars, which —— perceived, and nothing would do but he must poke his fingers into it, and I could perceive the people looking very sharp at him, and we were beckoned away. I learned afterwards that this hole had been worn by its bein constantly kissed by the faithful, as it was considered a Nim stone. It is only to be hoped that we derived some good by handling it so profanely. The outside of the building is very fine, with dome rising above dome, supporting the great centre dome, and all painted in light colours. The patterns of the splendid mosaic work in the ceilings are so beautiful, that you might take many visits and still return with a lingering for another look; and the variety of the splendid marble pillars can never be forgotten. We naturally have a feeling of pride and sorrow, on returning through the beautiful porch, in knowing that this was once the greatest glory of Christianity, and that now, alas! it is debased by infidels. We must hope the day is soon about to dawn, when this glorious building, and many others almost equally beautiful, will again become the temples of Chris- tianity. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. THE ANCIENT CISTERNS OF CONSTANTINOPLE.* Tux cisterns of Constantinople are buildings of a higher order, and not less interesting, than the aqueducts, bends, and takssims, which constitute the hydraulic works for the supply of water to the Turkish metropolis.t The ancient Greeks and Romans devoted much care and attention to the construction of their cisterns, and they constructed piscine for purifying the water destined for their consumption. The cisterns of Constantinople, however, did not possess that advantage; they were simple reservoirs, either covered or entirely open, the latter now termed Tshokur-Bostan, or deep gardens, as their bottom has been really converted into gardens for growing vegetables. If we examine the soil of these spots, we find it to consist of the silt gradually deposited by the waters brought down from the surroundin hills. It is not to be supposed that the cisterns were suppli merely by rain water, as the annual fall in those countries would not be nearly sufficient to fill these excavations. The Cistern of Jereh-Batan-Serai (or the subterranean palace), which yet exists in its original condition, contains running water brought from a great distance; and we may thus conjecture that the other cisterns were supplied in the same manner. The cistern above alluded to was formerly called Cisterna Basilica, the imperial cistern. It consists of a great underground tunnel, the arches of which are formed of brick and Khorassan mortar, supported by marble columns, having capitals mostly of different orders and sizes; in other instances the capitals are smooth blocks. The bricks are inscribed with a monogram, the meaning of which is undeciphered; yet the cross which they contain places the building about the period of the middle ages. The bricks are 0°362 metre square and 0'039 mètre thick, and are composed of a reddish substance, very fine and compact; they appear to have been much burnt, and their specific gravity is greater than that of modern bricks. The nature of the structure requiring great solidity in the arch, the Khorassan mortar between the bricks is of equal thickness to their own, and all the cisterns and subterranean conduits are built of the same component parts. The cistern Jereh-Batan receives its supply of water from the Dshebedshe-Kibi. It served as a reservoir for times of drought, and is the only one which retains its former destination, owing probably to its vicinity to the Seraglio, which it supplies with an additional quantity of water for six months subsequent to May. It is impossible to obtain an accurate idea of this cistern and its vast extent, as it js filled the entire year with a considerable depth of water and silt, but it is believed to extend as far as Sta. Sophia, the mosque of Sultan Achmet, and to the Hippo- drome. The Cistern of Bign-Bis-Dirck, or the thousand-and-one columns, was formerly called Philoxene, in opposition to the Basilica, which was exclusively for the use of the Emperor, while the former was intended to supply the public. It is situated to the rear of the Hippodrome, on its western side, and consists of a wide, square vault of unequal sides, one being 29:23 mètres and the other 51:97 métres long. Its roof, constructed in brick, is supported oy three corresponding tiers of white marble columns; a tambour serves as a base to the upper column, and for a capital to the lower one. Each row has 224 columns, placed at equal distances of 316 metres, and making in all 672 columns. Those of the upper tier which support the vault, alone exhibit their whole height, which is 4°39 mètres; the middle row show only a height of 2:46 métres, the remainder, as also the entire of the lower tier, being buried in the deposit of silt and earth. A well, 4:87 métres in depth, sunk in this accumulation, and which is supposed to reach the original bottom of the cistern, confirms the opinion as to its having three rows of columns; and con- sequently it would have contained 42,461 cubic métres of water. As, therefore, the total quantity of water required for the daily use of Constantinople amounts to 9181 cubic mètres, it would need the whole of the water which runs in the interior of the city during a space of five days, to fill the cistern, and would form a reserve of nearly sixty days’ supply for the use of the district to which it belongs. ri the capitals of the columns are smooth, and of similar diameter and size; it would thus appear that this monument was constructed from a carefully designed plan. Some of the capitals have also crosses incised on them. The history of the cisterns of Constantinople rests on the * From the ' Algemeine Bauzeitung.' t A description of the aqueducts and fountains of 1 rene 7 derived from the same source as the above, will be found in Vol. XVII. (1854) pp. 84, 167. 163 history of that capital itself. Constantine having fixed the seat of his xad in a barbarian country, whose people he did not conquer, the erection of such works as we are now describing was rendered necessary. 'The Turks, on the contrary, having sub- jugated the entire country, they were no more anxious about the supply of water being intercepted by enemies, and therefore neglected the cisterns previously constructed, and permitted their application to other uses, as the washing and spinning of silk, &c., or the growing of vegetables in their ancient beds. Near to the cistern of Bign-Bis-Dirck is another of smaller dimensions, but a very handsome structure. Its vault, of circular form, is supported by thirty-two columns of white marble, of the Corinthian order, arranged in four rows. The diameter of the column in the middle is 0°81 métre, whence its length may be assumed as from 8:12 to 844 mètres, as their lower port on and bases are buried in the soil accumulated from the eposit of the water. Each column has a double capital, of which the upper is smooth; and are placed at a distance of 3:94 mètres apart. In the centre of the smaller vaults had been openin for admitting light and air, but they are now walled up, as in all buildings of the same kind. A stone staircase, as old as the cistern itself, leads into the interior, by which the measurements, now made for the first time, have been much facilitated, showin a length of 449 mètres, and a breadth of 22:9 mètres. Situa in the southern part of Constantinople, this cistern had to supply the district of the mosque of Sultan Achmet, &c. Between the mosque and the street of Sultan Selim there is a Tchokour-Bostan, 152:02 métres square; its walls have a thick- ness of 5'20 mètres, and rise 8'21 mètres above ground. The breadth of the base of this cistern is 1:95 mètres. Supposing, therefore, that the water occupied a height of only 9:8 métres, it will be seen that its volume must have been at least 196,551 cubic métres. The base walls, like those surrounding Constanti- nople, consist of alternate layers of brick and rubble. The bricks, 0°38 mètre square, and 0:054 mètre thick, are laid horizontally, and their interstices of 0:054 mètre are filled with a layer of concrete, consisting of lime, sand, coarse pebbles, and Khorassan. The thickness of the layer of brick is 0'6 mètre, and that of the rubble 1:14 métre. The dressing consists of alternate layers of bricks and stone; the former are somewhat thinner than those of the foundation; the stones are 0'46 mètre long, and 0:19 mètre high, and are divided by layers of Khorassan mortar one inch thick. It is supposed by many that what have hitherto been considered uncove reservoirs or cisterns are, in reality, naumachiæ or basins, in which naval combats were represented. Julius Cæsar was the first who exhibited such a spectacle to the Romans. The naumachia under the Emperor Clodius was performed on the lake of Fucinus, in which two fleets, each of fifty galliots, were engaged in combat. It is doubtful whether the emperors of Greece ever patronised these public spectacles; the quantity of water, also, which was brought into Constantinople was scarcely sufficient to allow it to be wasted in such a manner. Procopius, in his work on ‘Buildings,’ says: “I have now to state what Justinian did for providing the inhabitants with good water. Generally, there was a scarcity of supply in summer, although plentiful in other seasons. At the entrance of the palace, where the solicitors were waiting 2 80 the es were reparing their pleadings, was a very long and broad space Ed with alumas ani surrounded by four galleries, and underneath one of these (the northern) Justinian caused a t excavation to be made to serve the purpose of a reservoir. With this, conduits were connected, for supplying the wants of the r. If we leave the Propontis, and proceed westward, we find near the Budrum-Dshamissi a cistern in that hollowed out terrain which forms the centre of Constantinople. Some authors pi pose this to be the Cistern Asparis, which had eighty columns, whereas the one now under notice has but sixty-four. These columns, of white marble, belong to different orders, and some even to no order of architecture, exhibiting very faulty proportions, &.,— E that it is an erection of later date than the Cistern of Bige- is-Dirck, and probably belon to the age of the Emperor Leo, in whose reign art began to fall into decay. Near Imbros-Dshamissi, the mosque of the Court, is a cistern which formerly supplied the district of the Seven Hills. Ite length extends to 22:74 metres and its breadth to 18:52 metres. Its circular vaults are supported by twenty-three granite columns 164 of the Corinthian order, arranged in four rows. Their diameter is 0°57 metre, and the distance apart 3:25 metres. In one of the bends of the structure, forming an oblique angle, and where masonry occupies the place of a column, a stone staircase is met with, which leads to the bottom of the cistern. Here may be perceived, 1 metre above ground, the mouth of the old conduit which formerly brought the water to the cistern. Similarly, also, the spot where the water entered the conduit has been discovered near the commencement of the vaulted structure. At the other end of the conduit, where the water emptied itself, is a kind of hall consisting of six small domes, supported in the centre by two ite lonic columns. An opening at the bottom of this hall eads, by means of a ladder, to the old aqueduct. It now forms an Agiasma, containing water which the people consider as consecrated and holy. At a short distance from an open cistern which bears only the general name of Dshokur-Bostan, there is towards the harbour another, which is called Dshin-Ali-Kioshi Its domed vaults are supported by two rows of gre ite columns, twenty-eight in number, of the Corinthian, Dorie, and Ionic orders; but the capitals are very irregular, and some even in a barbaric style, not even belonging to the h of decaying Roman art. Its length is 26°64 metres, and breadth 16°57 metres. There are also several smaller cisterns in the Turkish capital, which however, being of inferior character, do not require any especial notice. In conclusion, if we consider the situation of the ancient cisterns of Constantinople, we find that the terrain, the inequality of surface, and other circumstances, have been most cleverly made use of to achieve the great object—the supply of water for the requirements of a large population, an object which is still a desideratum in many of the more modern cities of Europe. rpg. EARLY HISTORY OF LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS.* THis seemingly modern invention of Franklin and Francisco Roma, is merely an enlargement and warming-up of the know- ledge of times long past. The name which was given to the sun in the ancient mysteries of Egypt and Rome was “Elector” —the all-eliciting and animating principle. They worshipped Jupiter under the name of “Elicius”—the forthcalling, eliciting (eicere) and vivifying power of nature. To the moderns, who have lost all sense of mysticism and ideality, electricity has become one of the mere A B C principles of physics. The priests of Etruria knew long ago how to draw the lightning from the clouds, and to force it downward to the earth. Numa was one of their initiated, and his superior knowledge made him appear a friend and confidant of the gods. Lucius Pison, cited by Pliny, states a fact of great evidence on this score: “King Tullius, having found in the commentaries of Numa the indica- tion of certain mysterious sacrifices to Jupiter Elicius, performed by this lawgiver, shut himself up in a solitary place for the pur- pose of trying these sacred experiments; but as he did not observe strictly the prescribed rites, be it at the beginning or the end of the operation, he and his whole house were consumed by thunder and lightning.” With the Celtes, the ancestors of the Etruscans, the practice to conjure lightning had been always known. According to the writings of the ancient alchymists, this nation not only knew how to preserve their dwellings and fields, but by forcing the divine fire to bury itself in their lakes and fountains, they converted these thunderbolts into so many blocks of gold. The cabalist Halfengen says in this respect: “The pieces of gold found in the lakes of the Gauls are nothing else but concrete thunder and lightning bolts. During storms, the Eduans and Tholorians laid down near spri and wells, after baving lighted a torch and planted near dem a sword with the point upward. It often happened that the thunder struck the point of the weapon, but without injuring the warrior, and glided Rare into the water, where it became liquid, but again became solid during the heat of summer.“ It is also said that the Jews were not ignorant of lightning conductors. Eusebius Salvert says in his work on the occult sciences, that if the temple of Jerusalem was never, during the long period of its existence, struck by the fire of heaven, it was owing to the numerous gilded iron spikes with which, according to Josephus, its roof had been protected. a Abridged from the ‘Journal des Debats.’ THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. During all the middle ages, the tradition of this knowledge, descended from the Jews and Etruscans, had been preserved in the north of Italy. From time immemorial, the highest point of the castle of Duino, on the shores of the Adriatic, was furnished with a long rod of iron, serving in the summer time as an indicator of approaching storms. A soldier was constantly at watch on this spot, and when the air portended a sudden change, he approached the indicator with another rod called bramdisticco. If, on the contact of the two bars, electric sparks were given off, or should a ball of fire ap around the fixed rod, he sounded a bell, which being heard by the fishermen at sea and the people in the fields, warned them to return homeward. Gerbert, also, the savant who subsequently became , took care, by a very ingenious contrivance, to protect the harvests of the peasants of the Romagna. For this purpose, long wooden stakes armed with iron points, were placed at intervals along the fields. The light- ning was thus suspended on this succession of iron conductors, and was carried through the stake into the earth, leaving the harvest uninjured. During the middle of the past century the experiments made at Mary-le-Ville, in France, were much spoken of; still, they were upon a similar plan to the conductors of Gerbert, d around fields. Our northern climate, and the milder effects of storms and electricity, render these field pre- cautions less urgent and necessary than in the south of Europe. — IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENT ON THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. A discovery is said to have been recently made at Stockholm, which, if it can be ised and practically applied, will tend greatly to facilitate telegraphic communications. The discovery to which we allude is the means of transmitting two messages at the same time along a single wire. It is evident that if at the same instant a message is sent along & wire in one direction, another message could be speeding its way through the same wire in the opposite course, one the number of wires would be sufficient, and there would consequently be a great saving in the cost of forming new telegraph lines, and that those already laid down would be enabled. to transact double the amount of business they are now capable of doing. To those who are not acquainted with the modes of transmitting electric telegraph signals, it may appear at first sight impossible to send messages in opposite directions at the same time along a single wire, as one current of electricity, it might be supposed, must necessarily clash with and counteract the transmission of another current in the opposite direction. But, in point of fact, not two only, but hundreds of electric currents in differing directions are frequently passing through the same medium, without the slightest interference. The difficulty to be overcome is altogether of a practical kind, and that it does not arise from any limited capacity in the wire may be shown by actual practice in existing telegraphs. In the early days of the electric telegraph, before the conduct- ing power of the earth was well known, a single wire only was employed for the return current, though several were required to transmit messages, and through that single wire different currents were often passing at the same instant. When the conducting power of the earth was applied to complete one half the circuit, the moist ground became the transmitter of currenta from every electric telegraph that was established, and through that medium there are now passing messages of all kinds, which, though mingled together in mother , become separated at the poles of their respective voltaic batteries, and are delivered without any interference with one another. Thus in constructing & telegraphic line, a wire insulated from connection with the ground, by being supported on posts, is extended between the towns to be placed in communication, and at each end the wire is connected with a copper plate buried in the earth, to IRA the voltaic circuit. These plates of copper, technically called “earth plates” or more commonly “earths,” conduct the electricity from one to the other through the moisture of the earth much more readily than any artificial metallic conductors that could be laid down; the resistance thus offered to the transmission of electricity being so small as to be scarcely appreciable. These earth connections are so convenient that they have been formed at all the stations where telegraphs have been established, which are thus voltaically connected together. Suppose, for instance, that the zinc end of a voltaic battery is connected with the earth, and that the copper THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. end is connected with a needle instrument in London, and that that is connected with the telegraph wire supported on posts and extended to Edinburgh, where after passing through a corre- sponding instrument it is connected with a metal plate buried in the ground. The electric current will then pass through the instrument in London, along the wire to Edinburgh, where it will deflect the needle, and passing on to “earth” will there come into instantaneous connection with the zinc end of the battery from which be current Pap and will return to that battery regardless o interposing electric currents that may be passin through the earth at the x time. A slight 0 of the nature of a voltaic battery will be sufficient to prove that it could not be otherwise. No excitement of voltaic electricity can take lace unless there be a connection between the two poles of the baen So long, therefore, as the wire at Edinburgh continues detached from the earth plate, the battery in London remains inactive, provided the wire be perfectly insulated. It is by the act of bringing the two poles into connection by means of the wire and earth plate at Edinburgh that the electricity is excited, and the current is sent in that direction alone. The action of all other batteries that may be connected with the earth cannot affect the electric current thus established between London and Edinburgh, because they do not contribute in any way to complete the circuit by which alone the electricity is at once excited and transmitted. A metallic conductor, in the same manner, wll connect the opposite poles of any number of batteries, and will thus serve to transmit several differing electric currents without their interfering. It would not be difficult, indeed, to make a single wire form part of the circuits of one hundred different batteries, each one of which might be transmitting distinct tele- graphic me rom this consideration of the facility with which a single wire can conduct ditferent electric currents, it might be supposed that there would be no difficulty in completing such an arrangement as is now said to have been effected in Sweden, and that one wire might be made to serve the purpose of the thirteen that are supported on posts near London, in addition to others that are buried underground. It is nevertheless one of those things which, though often attempted, has not yet been practically accomplished; nor do the accounts of the discovery by Prof. E. Edlund of Stockholm, represent him to have che more than send two currents along the same wire, and those in opposite directions. The great difficulty to be overcome in endeavouring to effect such an arrangement is, to prevent the electric current from the transmitting battery from making a short circuit through the adjoining instrument, instead of traversing the wire to the corre- sponding instrument at the distant station. The accompanying diagram will serve to show the direction which the electric current would take, if there were no special provision to break contact with the near instrument. A = DA L 0 B 0 66 m |. [rmm ——————— — ——————-—--—-.---cT—--TÉ Fie. 1. Let d, f, represent two telegraph instruments at the station A, the upper one of which d, is intended to receive messages trans- mitted from the instrument g, at the station B; and the lower one f, is the instrument connected with the voltaic battery cz, from which wine i are to be transmitted to h, along the line- wire L, to the earth plate E', and through the earth, back to the battery. It will be perceived, however, that as the instrument d, is also connected with the line-wire, and with the earth plate E, that a short passage is Open for the transmission of electricity from c to z, in the direction of the arrows, without traversing the line-wire, consequently there would be no electric current sent to the instrument h. The same effect would attend the arrangement at B, where a short circuit would be also established through the second instrument, and no communication could be made between the distant stations. If, again, it were attempted to send several messages along a single wire in the same direction, by having separate batteries and instruments, the electric cur- rents might be transmitted to the distant instruments, but they would pass through all of them indiscriminately, producing an 165 ensible medley of signals. The problem then to be is to make an arrangement by means of which the electric current from the battery at A, may be sent along the line-wire, without being diverted through the instrument d, and yet at the same time to maintain such a connection between the instrument d, and the line-wire, and the earth, that it may be always in a state to indicate the signals that may be transmitted to it from the corresponding station. No description has yet been received of the mode by which Prof. Edlund proposes to overcome the difficulty, but we can fully understand the principle on which such an arrangement may be made, and we may venture to point out the means by which it might be successfully accomplished. ree gees the arrangement of the instruments and batteries to be the same as in the preceding diagram, let there be introduced at the points of junction with the line-wire, small instruments for making and breaking contact, R and S, fig. 2. incom solv Fie. 2. z The cross-lines in the contact-wheels represent strips of metal inlaid in wood, and when in the position shown in the diagram, the instrument h would be connected with one end of the line- wire, and the instrument f would be connected with the other end, whilst the two instruments d and g, would be out of contact. Under these circumstances an electric current would pass from the battery at the station A, through f, to the instrument 4, whence it would be transmitted to the earth, and by thus com- pleting the circuit those two instruments might communicate with each other as perfectly as if there were no other instruments connected with the wire. If the wheels R, and S, make the eighth part of a revolution, the positions of the wires forming connection with the instruments would be reversed, and then fand h, would be thrown out of contact, and the current would be transmitted from the voltaic 3 at B, through g and d, and those two instruments would be able to communicate. It is evident, if the two contact-wheels could be made to rotate exactly together, that independent signals might be transmitted through at least two instruments at the same station at the same time, through a single wire. The synchronous movement of two instruments at distant stations has been accomplished in Mr. Bakewell’s copying telegraph; therefore, it is quite possible to effect such an arrangement as the one we have indicated. But it may be said that this would not solve the problem, because not more than one electric current would be transmitted along the wire at the same instant. The currents would indeed be transmitted alternately, but for practical purposes the effect would be the same as if they were pan the same instant, for the alternations might be made so quickly as 1 to be continuous, and to answer the same purpose as ift ey were. Suppose, for example, the wheels R, and 8, to be rotating ten times in a second, then as contact would be made and broken four times each revolution, the corresponding instruments might be placed in connection with each other forty times in a second. The greatest number of beats by the needle telegraph during the rapid transmission of a message does not exceed five per second; therefore, with a much smaller number of alternations than we have supposed, each instrument might be simultaneously sending and receiving messages along the same wire; nor need the number be limited to two instruments and two different stations. It might be possible to arrange on the same principle many instruments connected with others at several stations, and thus all the telegraph communications of an extended line might be maintained with one or two wires, and each station might have a separate means of communication independent of the other stations beyond it, with which it would not interfere, and from which it would be just as distinct as if separate wires were laid down to each station. For the purpose of sending messages in opposite directions by the same wire between only two communi- cating stations, it would not indeed be necessary that the contact- wheels should rotate synchronously. If one of them was rotating rather faster than the other, the number of times that connection 25 166 would be made and broken with the corresponding instruments during a second would be so great, compared with the number of signals transmitted, that the electric current would not be per- ceptibly interrupted during the transmission of a message. It would indeed be far better that a synchronous movement of the wheels should be arranged, which we believe might be effected at any number of stations along an extended line of communi- cation by means of an additional wire, for then not only could messages be sent and received at two stations at the same time by one transmitting wire, but several instruments at all the stations might be receiving and transmitting messages with that same wire. By this means two wires might serve the purpose of many, and as those only would be required they might be made thicker and be more carefully insulated than is economically racticable when many are wanted for doing the same amount of sineas; and thus telegraphic communications might be rendered more free from the interruptions caused by imperfect insulation and by accidents to the wires, as well as much cheaper. Whether the arrangement we have suggested similar to that which is said to have been successfully made by Prof. Edlund we have no present means of knowing. We wish to show that such a plan is practicable, and that it might even be extended far beyond the limits to which the accounts yet pub- lished state that it has been carried. REVIEWS. A Treatise on the Calculus of Operations, designed to facilitate the processes of the Differential and Integral Calculus, gar the Cal- culus of Finite Differences. By the Rev. RoBgRT CARMICHAEL, A.M. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, &. London: Long- mans. 1855. 8vo. pp. 170. There seem to be two distinct stages in the progress of eve mathematical science—the making new Paths ant the pat ing them. In the first of these stages the minds of mathe- maticians are chiefly bent on discovering new resulta, often by purely tentative processes. Methods which suggest, but do not rigorously establish valuable conclusions, are accepted for present use, until better methods can be supplied. In the eagerness of discovery many an unproved assumption, many an ambiguous expression, receive allowance. And rightly; for the evil arising from them is far more than counterbalanced by the benefit of poe forward rapidly in the path of discovery;—just as in a new colony, the rough and y axe of a vigorous pioneer is more useful than the most delicate and ingenious implements of agricultural engineering. In the second stage of a mathematical science, many difficulties have to be overcome which were scarcely discerned in the first; especially with respect to the terminology of the science. It is an almost certain characteristic of a new science, that its tech- nical language is imperfect. In establishing its propositions with the distinctness, and arranging them with the systematic order, which are required for elementary study, the necessity is for the first time perceived of carefully limiting the propositions, and conveying them in language which does not express too much. Heretofore generalisation has been the great aim of the mathema- tician. Now, on the contrary, language too general is what he has most reason to avoid. So that we may almoet say that the elementary teacher requires for success, qualifications directly the reverse of those on which the discoverer's success depends, requires the scrupulous method, cautiousness of lan , and timidity of speculation which would be the most fatal obstacles to the progress of discovery. The treatise before us combines the characters of an elementary treatise for the use of students, and a work exhibiting new results. The subject is that usually known in mathematics as “the separation of symbols of operation from those of quantity,” and is defined by Mr. Carmichael as follows: The Calculus of Operations, in the greatest extension of the phrase, may be regarded as that science which treats of the combinations of symbols of operation, conformably to certain given laws, and of the relations by which these symbols are connected with the subjects on which they operate." p. 1. This definition is not satisfactory, for it would include the whole of analysis. What else is treated of in the rules of signs in a 2 750 but “the combination of symbols of operation conformably to certain given laws”? This objection is taken, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. not hypercritically, bat from a feeling that the distinction between the Calculus of Operations as our author understands it, and the laws of algebraical symbols, is by no means so broad as seems to be frequently implied by writers on the former subject. It is often discussed as if there were something novel in con- sidering laws of operation apart from their effects upon quantities, —something illogical or dangerous in the separation. Whereas it occurs in the very commencement of algebra. The laws of the rations (+) and (—) are considered thus separately. We say t the operation (—) twice performed is equivalent to the 5 (+) performed once; and we say so without regard to e quantities operated upon. It does not therefore seem judicious to represent the Calculus of Operations as introducing altogether new methods. If there be any tangible distinction between that Calculus and the Calculi with which the Calculus of Operations is chiefly connected, the distinction probably is that the latter considers collectively the effects of congeries of operations, whereas the others, for the most part, consider such operations singly and successively. Mr. Carmichael has ably collected the best known and simplest results of the science he treats of, and added several interesting applications of his own. Of the results of the Calculus of Opera- tions dispersed through a great number of treatises and memoirs, we have here the first xe to make in a separate treatise a gelection suitable for the use of students. Of the copious materials before him the author has made good use, and produced a work which will be useful not only on account of its intrinsic merita, but because it is the only one of its kind. We would, however, have willingly seen the elementary principles of this Calculus more 5 and rigorously disc ; and we can imagine many a very apt student, or even an experienced mathematician, rising from the study of these investigations hoping them to be right, but rather wondering how they En U to be so. Of the want of rigour here alluded to, the following remark is a notable example. After the statement that the principal laws which occur in the practical employment of the Calculus of Operations are—1. The law of commutation [syu = wou); 2. The law of distribution [o(u+ v) = pu T Qv]; 3. The law of indices [p* q^ u = ght uj,—it is added: ‘We may at once observe that whatever theorem is true for any one symbol which satisfies these laws, is true for every symbol which satisfies them. Now the symbols of numbers satisfy them, &0. p. 9. This is, we are aware, very common ADI UMS on the subject; but it is not correct. At the best it would be a leap into the dark, to jump at the conclusion that because the laws were satisfied in some instances, they must be in all. The conclusion would be very unsatisfactory, even if it were true universally. But we goa step further, and assert that it is easy to multiply instances which disprove the rule here laid down. Taking the words quoted in their literal sense, it would follow that because for a certain value of 6, cos (0 + 0) = cos 6 ＋ cos 6, the function cosine is distributive. Mr. Carmichael, of course, intends his proposition to be used in & more limited sense. Probably he intends either, firstly, that if the laws in question hold for a particular range of quantities, they would hold for all; or secondly, that if the laws hold for positive integers, they will hold for fractions and quantities affected with the negative sign. But neither of these more limited propositions is strictly true. The expansions of the Binomial Theorem, or of Taylor's theorem, for instance, may be true for quantities within one range, and fail when that range is exceeded, by reason of the series becomin divergent. Again, it would not be difficult to suggest functional forms which would satisfy one or other of these laws for positive integers, and not for fractional quantities or those affected by the negative sign. Clearly to demonstrate the proposition, it would be necessary to show either, firstly, that the operations are such as to follow the same laws, whatever the magnitude of the quan- tities operated on; or secondly, that the laws are irrespective of distinctions of signs, &c. There is some difficulty in the use of the word “true” in refer- ence to this subject. We are told that certain propositions which are not capable of arithmetical interpretation are “symbolically true." What is meant by this statement usually is, that the result is arrived at by the conibination of symbols according to methods which, though arbitrary, are consistent with themselves. It is clear, however, that in so far as the methods are arbitrary, their results must be not reckoned among nece truths—they are correct much in the same sense as certain positions at chess are correctly arrived at by observance of the rules of the game. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL It is not, however, because unarithmetical or symbolical results nave not the character of necessary truths (using that phrase in its common sense), that therefore they are useless for arithmetical purposes. On the contrary, there is between investigations purely arithmetical and those which are unarithmetical, an inter- mediate class of those in which unarithmetical steps are employed to lead to arithmetical conclusions. A question here arises, which has a most important bearing in determining the position which the Calcalus of Operations ought to occupy, namely, are the conclusions so arrived av arithmetically correct We know that in other branches of mathematics, the inter- mediate use of unarithmetical expressions leads to right con- clusions. The quantity (— a) is altogether unarithmetical, stand- ing by itself, or with & quantity less than it. It, in fact, ought not be spoken of as a quantity, but as a quantity and an operation y to be performed. But one of the very earliest steps in the improvement of analysis was the free use of the so-called “nega- tive quantities" Another similar step was the employment for arithmetical purposes of the so-called *impossible" quantities. We know that in De Moivre's Theorem, for instance, valuable arithmetical rules are arrived at by means of the symbol (-); and we believe that all difficulty as to the logical use of that symbol, may be removed by considering it merely as a symbol of opera- tion, and discarding all reference to “impossible quantities.” In the cases just mentioned, the difficulties respecting the use of the symbols are overcome by precise definition and separate investigation of their laws of combination; and we apprehend that before the Calculus of Operations be completely established, its symbols must be defined, and their combinations investigated with equal precision. Moreover, as those symbols almost always involve series of operations, the convergency of the series must be considered. Perhaps the most important step which could now be taken, in establishing the elementary principles of the Calculus of Operations, would be a satisfactory investigation of the convergeucy of the series which it involves. We hoped to have found some notice in Mr. Carmichael's work of this subject, but he totally avoids it; and in some cases enunciates propositions incorrectly, from neglect of considerations of convergency. Thus the proposition F ¢ (u + €) = F ¢u+ F ov, which was correctly roved by Mr. Murphy, where e is a distributive and F an alge- raic function, Mr. Carmichael assumes (p. 12) to be true “for any indirect function," i. e. for a function which may be equivalent to an infinite divergent series. The same objection applies to a proposition similarly extended, p. 14. Some of the applications to mechanics and geometry, in Mr. Carmichael’s work, are remarkably elegant and interesting. Foucault's problem of the pendulum (for instance) is investigated with great clearness and conciseness; though, by-the-bye, some ambiguity arises from one of the quantities (k) not being defined. We suppose it to be the angular velocity of the earth. The treatise is well arranged, the analysis (considering the nature of the subject) is simple, and the explanations though brief are generally clear. These merits and the nature of the work will probably secure for it numerous readers among students; but there are many results of the science—for instance, some im- p theorems of Mr. Boole in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ or February 1847, and Mr. Hargreave in his paper read before the Royal Society, June 17, 1847—which we think ought to have been incorporated. We are also constrained to add, that the fundamental principles of the Calculus are very inadequately and sometimes incorrectly explained. The Harmonic Law of Nature applied to Architectural Design: By D. R. Hay, F. R. S. E. Edinburgh: Blackwood. 1855. 8vo. Controversies respecting the principles of the Sublime and Beautiful, like all other controversies, must be interminable, until the terms employed in them be defined. It is a trite saying, that controversies usually end where they should begin— by definition of the subjects of discussion. It is easy to account for this experienced result; for controversies are almost always produced by vagueness of expression, and the most effectual way to put an end to them is to speak with precision. There is often, indeed, a notion that it is undesirable to terminate controversy because it is a powerful means of eliciting truth. But this should be remembered—that science begins where controversy ends—that science, being in its nature precisely ascertained, is necessarily beyond the region of debate. 167 These considerations apply with icular force to discussions of the Laws of Art. We suppose that a large library might be collected of works on this subject only. The English writers on the subject are outnumbered by those of the continent, and yet we enumerate, besides Addison, Burke, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Price, Alison, Payne Knight, Dugald Stewart, and Ruskin, a host of writers who, in periodicals, pamphlets, or formal treatises, have more or less elaborately investigated the subject. It is noticeable that most frequently the discussions assume a contro- versial tone, and we take the principal cause of this to be that the disputants use the same words in different senses; so that half their strength is wasted in overthrowing positions which their antagonists never intended to raise. By what means is the beautiful felt by the mind —By means of a separate innate faculty /—by the reason by a combination of faculties ?—or by habit? We know that the answers to these questions are innumerable. Again, in what does the beautiful consist; is there a certain criterion that it exists; may we hope to find some certain rule of distinction between good taste and bad? How endless the diversity of the replies! Sir Joshua Reynolds thought the sentiment of beauty to be a mere habit, and arrives at the astonishing conclusion, “that if we were more used to deformity than beauty, deformity would then lose the idea that is now annexed to it, and take that of beauty.” With Reynolds, then, the essence of beauty was familiarity. Hogarth thought this essence was something quite different—a line with a particular flexure. Every new writer says, *Lo, here! it is I who have found out this essence.” The author of the paper under review says so. Unfortunately, the number of these dis- coveries is too great. Now it appears reasonable that a writer, before attempting to establish sube laws of beauty, and to trace the complex workings of the mind respecting them, should give it to be distinctly under- stood in what sense he means to use the word “beautiful.” We speak of a beautiful statue, a beautiful poem, a beautiful mechanical contrivance, a beautiful colour, a beautiful musical tone, a beautiful melody. An architect speaks of a beautiful aera a lawyer of a beautiful argument, a philosopher of a beautiful principle, a mathematician of beautiful analysis. It is clear, therefore, that there is a diversity of meanings of the word beautiful. And what we are now complaining of is, that the various theorisers respecting beauty rarely specify the meaning in which they use the term. The first step towards exalting the principles of beauty into a science, would certainly be to classify different kinds of beauty. This task, we apprehend, would not be insuperably difficult. For instance, it seems positively certain from comparing the different meanings above referred to, that there are these two distinct classes of beauty—that which is sensuous, and that which is ideal or mental. For instance, a beautiful colour, such as the blue of lapis-lazuli, or the emerald green of some beetles, is simply a source of sensuous beauty,—that is gives pleasure to the sense of sight without appealing to the mind at all. So, also, the tones of an CEolian harp affect the mere sense of hearing with pleasure. On the other hand, the beauty of a mechanical contrivance is purely mental. The beauty of a work of art is almost always of a mixed kind; a fine building or picture, for instance, gratifies the senses by beauty of form and colour, the understanding by ingenuity of contri- vance, the imagination by boldness and grandeur of composition. This simple classification would be, however, but a tirst step. It would be necessary to classify further the different kinds of sensuous beauty—those arising from simple colours, tones, &c.; those arising from combinations of them, which in music are called harmonics; those arising from succession and variety of them, which in music are called melodies. The simplest combina- tions of form might be classified accordingly as their beauty was derived from proportion, or from symmetry, or from contrast. Again, the classes of mental sources of beauty are very numerous —for instance, Invention, Artistic Skill, Fitness, Grandeur, Simplicity, and Truth; of which the correlative mental sources of depraved taste are respectively, Grotesqueness, Inartistic Labour, Unfitness, Pomp, Meanness, and Falsehood. Mr. Hay disposes of all the difficulties of these subjects with uncommon brevity. According to him, you have but to draw lines at angles which bear certain ratios to each other, and the thing is done out of hand;—you may design Parthenons and Lincoln Cathedrals ad libitum. That we may not be supposed to overstate his estimate of the value of his invention, we will quote 25* 168 his own words: “This mathematical law of harmony is so simple that the most elementary rules of arithmetic are quite sufficient to enable any one to understand it, and to apply it in practice.” So that henceforth an architect need not rely on his own genius for design, but simply on the carefulness of a competent draughts- man! Moreover, not ony is his system an infallible method of manu- facturing the beautiful, but he will not recognise beauty in any- thing that does not conform to it. Like all promulgators of new c he will have it that not only is his right, but the rest totally wrong. Our poor speculations about the sources of beauty, he would dispose of with the brevity and decisiveness of an inquisitor. He begs to assure “all who may not have studied my system of harmonic proportion, that I am firmly convinced it not only includes ali the utiful and varied proportions of Gothic architecture, but ali that is beautiful in the proportions of any structure, whatever the atyle of its architecture.” His grounds for this conviction are: “lst. The law has been found to apply most accurately where it has been tested; and, 2ndly. If e mind is so constituted as to be satisfied with simplicity of proportion, and not otherwise,—and this I am firmly convinced is a fact, —then wherever harmonious architecture exists, the law of proportion will be found.” e second of these reasons amounts to this—that Mr. Hay has a “conviction” because he is “firmly convinced.” The first reason, to be conclusive, ought to be an induction from tests of his principle applied to “all that is beautiful in the proportions of any structure; world, he does not state that he has applied it to more than two —the Parthenon, and Lincoln Cathedral. We are familiar with the beauties of Lincoln Cathedral, have studied it many times for hours in succession, and would undertake to recognise instantly any tolerable representation of any considerable part of it—and we conscientiously affirm that we examined the Plate by which Mr. Hay represents Lincoln Cathedral on his method, without having the slightest suspicion that the plate represented that cathedral: or any other cathedral that exists or ever has existed. Were, however, the resemblance ever so exact, it is surely a large generalisation which deduces a universal law from two instances. It would probably be safer to consider those two instances as cases of mere coincidence, until more evidence were offered, especially as there is no a priori probability of the theory; for it is impossible to give any tangible reason, independent of observation, for supposing that the process of taking the right angle as a fundamental angle, and dividing it on the quadrant of a circle by the numbers 2, 3, 5, and 7,” can in any way tend to produce a beautiful architectural design. These considerations seem quite sufficient to show that the correctness of Mr. Hay’s system has not yet been demonstrated; we will now endeavour to show that it never can be. For this purpose, however, we must explain a little more in detail what the system is. i ; After giving a list of “simple elemen figures which ma be combined in an architectüral design," 3 “The bania of my theory being that the eye estimates proportion, not by distance, but by direction, it follows that each of these figures is governed in its individual proportions by a particular angle, and that their harmonic combina on in architecture is likewise governed by angles. This being the case, there must be a fundamental angle, to which all other angles so employed shall harmoniously relate as an integral part.” “Elementary scales of angles” are then given, “to which may be applied the nomenclature of the diatonic scale of musical notes, with which they correspond in their numerical relations.” These “scales” are lists of fractional of a right angle, which are supposed to have some harmonic effect on the human eye; though we apprehend that Mr. Hay gives too much credit to it for accu- racy, when he supposes it capable of recognising the #th, Jnd, Toth, 3th, &c., part of a right angle. That we may not be sus- pected of caricaturing the theory, we must state that these angles, and several similarly complex, are given in Mr. Hay’s list. "The angles “employed in 98 . of the Gothic pane are, 111); 1 y5 4 4 of the right angle (1). The Parthenon being, 3 . of a horizontal Seaton the 5 8 angles were made with the horizontal line. In the present case, the composition being vertical, the principal angles were made with the vertical line” Then follow three pages of description of the process of juxtaposition of these angles to construct the front of Lincoln Cathedral, We observe in the description the whereas, of all the beautiful structures in this. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. icious words, “It is, however, in perfect harmony not only with those between which it occurs, but with the other an lea employed in the process, for it is the angle of (D very nearly.’ hei 1 8 5 seem to have rebelled a little —just a little against e theory. The basis of the theory is, as we have said, that the eye “esti- mates proportion, not by distance, but by angular direction. What angular direction is here meant? It must be one that the eye recognises; and where, as in Mr. Hay’s diagram, part of a building is projected on paper, as a geometrical elevation, there is no difficulty in understanding what “angular direction” is meant. But when a building is represented in 5 18, according to its natural 5 y does not inform us how the angles are to be measured; nor is it possible to do so. This defect we take to be fatal to the theory. . To illustrate our meaning, we have given below diagrams in which the outline of Litchfield Cath is represented as it would appear standing against the sky. M l i (S i 0 Litchfield Cathedral West Front. Litchfield Cathedral—North-West. In the diagram of the west front, the great central spire appears uidistantly between the two others, and, on account of its greater distance, does not appear very much above them. In the north-west view the central spire appears to the left of both the others, and from the effect of perspective but little above them. i | i MB " TN Litchfield Cathedral—8outh-East. In the south-east view the central spire is far behind the others, and appears almost twice as high. The argument we deduce from this diversity of perspective appearance might have been equally well drawn from the instance of the three towers of Lincoln; but it seemed better to take three spires, because their summits are three points by which our author’s theory can be tested at once. Ac J North-West. South-East. If we imagine lines drawn joining these three points, we have for the sacrae view, an extrémely obtuse-angled N for the front view, an isosceles triangle; for the south-east view, a nearly right-angle triangle. Which of these is correct on Mr. Hay’s principles? It is to be remembered, that as the observer passes round from one point of view to another, the triangle in uestion changes from one form to another by continual grada- tion; so that, unless Mr. Hay’s scale were infinite—that is, con- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. tained every possible fraction of two right-angles—it could not conform to the appearance of the building in all cases. Yet though we have surveyed Lichfield Cathedral often, we never yet discovered the point from which it did not appear beautiful. It does not seem necessary to test the theory further: else it would be easy enough to entangle it with hopeless difficulties, by applying it to the beautiful proportions of the human frame, flowers, 5 na which is beautiful in form. It seemed worth while, however, to expose the theory thus far, not for its own sake, but because it is one of a class. ere have been endless endeavours to supply the want of ponina by the measuring-tape and drawing instruments, and this is among them. These theories are not merely absurd—they are pernicious. We have no hope of the men who indulge in them, that they can ever produce anything worthy of the name of art; for the mere 5 to manufacture it, argues a total insensibility to its uence. Cultur wissens shaft. | History of Man's Material Civilisation. | By. Dr. G. Kiem. Leipsic: 1854. The author of this work, or rather cyclopsedia, is chief librarian of the Royal Collection of Dresden, and well might he have required such a post, to be enabled to compile a work of the magnitude contemplated. He has published the second volume before the production of the first, which is to be devoted to a his- tory and description of nutriments, food, narcotics, fire, &c. The second volume, now before us, treats of utensils, tools, weapons, &c. The catalogue raisonné of knives and hatchets is very inte- resting, as is that of fishhooks and other angling instruments. The history of the plough is well treated, after the works of Rou, Bodier, and Hamm; and our author proves how sacred it was considered by the Etruscans and Germans when employed for determining the limits of new cities The three remaini volumes will treat of ents, costumes, and ornament; o dwellings, furniture, vehicles, and boats, which forms the last of the various vessels, &c. It is a work well deserving the attention of all engaged iu any material pursuit. Bericht der Commission, [Report of the Commission for the Uni- versal Exhibition of the German Zollverein, 1854.) Munich: . 1855. Imperial 8vo. This is a very important document relative to the present state of German industry, which we can but cursorily point out to those interested. The last number contains the report on earthern and glass ware; on type-founding; printing of books and engravings; on paper and other writing and drawing ma- terials. These reports are all written by men distinguished in their respective departments. — ——— äAꝛiFͤ— — — THE ROYAL ALBERT BRIDGE, SALTASH. Tue works of this ach Og on the Cornwall Railway, at Saltash, are proceeding successfully, and without any untoward circum- stance, although the precaution to which their safe and successful is mainly due has caused a less rapid advance than had he intended. The works may, however, still be completed before those of the line from Saltash to Liskeard; and therefore the delay—if it can be called such—in the completion of the bridge will cause no ultimate postponement in the opening of the line. For the erection of the centre pier the cylinder has been sunk to the full depth, and a foundation obtained everywhere. Mr. Brunel, the engineer, made & third inspection on the 7th A pril, remaining in the cylinder one hour and a-quarter, on which occasion the foundation stone was laid. The workmen remain below, a depth of 86 feet, from two to three hours at a time. The building under water by means of the cylinder, as here employed, is looked forward to with great interest. The foundations of the river pier, on the west side, have been built. The land piers are built, and the girders fixed in place. The work of the first of the main spans or arches is in an advanced state, and it will be ready for floating as soon as the pier is ready to receive it; and the iron- work for the second span is commenced. — ea ]o9 INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. March 20.—-Jauxs Simpson, Esq., President, in the Chair. The Paper read was On the Application of the Screw Propellor to the larger class of Sailing Ships for long voyages.” By R. A. ROBINSON, Assoc. Inst. C. E. The introduction of screw propulsion in 1839, by Mr. F. P. Smith, and the success he attained with the Archimedes, directed attention to that syetem for commercial vessels;—the Great Britain was an early instance of the application, and then followed the fleet of screw steamers estab- lished by Mr. Laming, for the trade between London and the porta of Holland. Thence the progress was so rapid that at the beginning of 1854, above two hundred commercial screw ships were registered in the united kingdom. Meanwhile many attempts had been made for using large powerful screw ships on the long sea route to India and Australia, but uniformly without success. The author's object was to investigate the causes of this failure, and to suggest the means of attaining success. It was observed, that hitherto the screw steamers attempting these long voyages had been large vessels, with powerful engines, and depending chiefly upon their steam power, had taken more direct routes, indepen- dent of wind, and thus, although fully rigged, they had not been able to take full advantage of their sails, but had only used them in favourable winds, or in cases of casualty, or falling short of fuel; and when they had been so tried, their sailing powers were not found to be so good as they might have been. Some of these ships had been obliged, by want of fuel, to run back for very considerable distances, because they were out of the usual sailing track; for instance, the Great Britatn ran 1300 miles back to repleta her stock, and thus materially extended a voyage which at its outset promised to be one of the fastest on record. Casualties had so frequently occurred, that an impression was given of their being inseparable from the system; this, however, it was contended, was not the case if the machinery was properly constructed and able to work for long periods consecutively. The Great Britain was an ex- ample of what might be accomplished, by due attention to originally od engines and machinery, such as those adapted to this vessel by essrs. Penn and Son. Out of three voyages to Australia and one to New York, she had never been detained an hour by any derangement of her machinery, which had worked consecutively on one occasion for as long as forty-two days without stopping. In the account of her voyages to and from New York in 1852, Mr. F. P. Smith recorded, that under ordinarily favourable circumstances, the ship advanced 5:16 miles per ton of coals, with the slight negative slip of screw = 0°69, and that during three days of strong contrary winds the ship only ran 2:92 miles per ton of coals, and the slip of the screw was as much as 30 per cent. The distance from Southampton to Port Philip, via the Cape, stemmin everything, as a paddle- wheel steamer would do, being 12,030 miles, d the routes of the sailing clipper ships in the favourable wind track being upwards of 13,800 miles, their relative lengths of voyages were from 60 to 100 days for the former, and 70 to 120 days for the latter. The quickest recorded runs of screw ships were those of the Argo of 1800 tons and 300 horse-power, between Southampton and Port Philip, in 64 days; and the Victoria, of 1853 tons and 450 horse-power, between d and Adelaide, in 59 days 224 hours, including detentions for ng. After examining the records of numerous experiments on screw vessels, under steam and canvas,—steam alone,—and canvas alone, — the author argued that one of the principal obstructions to enabling a ‘‘minimum-powered” screw ship, under canvas alone, to compete at all points with a sailing clipper, was the want of a simple and more efficient mode of lifting the screw propeller out of the water, and stowing it away at the stern, in such a manner as to offer no obstruction to sailing, and or it to be raised or lowered in any weather, without difficulty or delay. The method of disconnecting the screw and allowing it to revolve freely, did not meet the objection. Messrs. Maudslay’s feathering screw, the blades of which were made to turn so as to bring them nearly in & line with the stern post, had been applied to several ships with considerable success. The system of lifting the screw vertically out of the water, although effectual, was troublesome, and in a heavy sea-way could scarcely be accomplished. Mr. Scott Russell had introduced a v idi of raising the screw out of the water, and stowing it away under e counter, with the blades in a borizontal position. The propellor worked outside the rudder; and the afte of the shaft was enabled, by means of a folding joint in the dead-wood, to assume an angular position with respect to the main portion of the shaft, so that it was not necessary for rg Set to be really unshipped or disconnected, and the propellor could be raised completely out of the water, and be again owered into its working position, without any difficulty, in the worst weather. It occupied two men about ten minutes to raise it and about three minutes to lower it, the necessary tackle being always attached. It possessed, moreover, the great merit of not imparting that unpleasant tremulous and lifting motion to the vessel, so much complained of with the ordinary screws. Comparative trials, of vessels of similar build, tonnage, and power, demonstrated a decided gain of speed with the out- side propellor. 170 The author then examined the voyages of the Red Jacket, the Sovercign of the Seas, and other celebrated clipper ships, giving their logs, and showing their speed, on long runs, to be from 84 to nearly 13 miles per hour. One of this class of ships, of 2525 tons burthen, was stated to spread about 13,000 yards of canvas, in a single suit of sails. The early attempts to introduce auxiliary power on board East India traders, especially alluding to those by Messrs. Seawards were mentioned, and the reasons given for the want of their succes. Arguing from the speed now attained by sailing clipper ships, and the successful application of screw propa leon, the author proposed the employment of iron sailing clipper ships, of about 3000 tons, builder’s measurement, with large sail power, and so constructed as to attain the highest possible speed under canvas alone, and by the aid of screw propellors and auxiliary engines of 200-horse power, to give them a speed of eight to nine knots under steam alone, in calm weather; the supply of coals to be for not less than fifteen days’ full steaming, so that a saving of ten to fifteen days might be anticipated in the voyage each way; the sailing power to be always used to the utmost extent, and the ship to be navigated entirely as a sailing clipper, the steam power being used only in exceptional situations. By this plan, all the good qualities of the fast-sailing clipper could be secured and. combined with the power of steaming at a fair speed, during calms or light winds, and in general this class of ship would attain, at a minimum cost, the best and most uniform rate of speed for long voyages. The relative expenses of the simple sailing clipper ship, and of the sailing clipper, with auxiliary engine power and screw, were examined in detail, and a difference of 4675“. in favour of the latter, was shown as the result of one voyage to Australia or India. The logs of several vessels were shown, and in a tabular form there were given the speeds attained by all the principal auxiliary screw ships in use up to the present time. March 27.—The discussion on Mr. Robinson's Paper being renewed, it was observed, from the statements in the Paper, that a special class of commanders of such vessels must be formed, in order to employ advan- tageously the combined powers of steam and wind; otherwise, in the attempt to bring the propellor to the aid of the sails, injury would probably result. A fully rigged ship, with square sails set, whilst on a wind, could rarely lay up nearer than six points from the wind, but with fore and aft sails she came up to within four pointe. If any auxiliary power was used, whereby the speed of such a vessel would be augmented, beyond that due to the sails, she would fall away from her course, just in proportion to the extra propelling power applied. This had n observed in H. M. steamer Inflexible, when using part of her steam power to aid the sails, and making about eight knots per hour; she passed many vessels, al! standing up full two points nearer the wind than she could do; but on ceasing to use steam, she came up even higher in her course, under canvas alone, than the other vesaels, and directly the steam was used she fell off again. An interesting account was given of the early voyages of the Red Jacket, Blue Jacket, and the other celebrated clipper ships, whose arrival in port could now be reckoned upon almost with the certainty of steain vessels. It was contended, that as a matter of commercial profit, well appointed sailing ships were preferable to steamers for the China voyages; but that the latter were most advantageous and comfortable for passengers, especially for voyages not longer than between England and the United States. The American clipper ships were from 200 to 300 feet long, had fine lines, sharp bow and stern, with a rather flat floor, and carried an enormous extent of canvas. Some of them had been built in a hurried manner for the Californian trade, and had caused an unfavourable impression of that class of ship; but it was stated from authority, that when carefully constructed, at an adequate price, there could not be better, more seaworthy, or drier ships; cargoes of grain had been constantly conveyed without a kernel being wetted. When, how- ever, à vessel of 300 or 400 feet long, was built and launched in about four months, it was not surprising that cargoes were damaged. These vessels, with their heavy spars and great spread of canvas, required much care in navigating, and energy and determination were almost as necessary in their commander as seamanship. Models were exhibited of the feathering screw, adapted successfully by Messrs. Maudslay to several vessels, extracts from whose logs were given; whence it appeared that great benefita, both in speed and convenience, resulted from the use of the system. The same had been experienced on board the Jason, fitted by Messrs. Watt and Co. The differential-pitch screw, by which any degree of pitch could be given to the propellor, was shown; it had been found very useful in variable weather, when used on board the Prince, which was lost in the great storm off Balaclava. It was suggested, that the displacement of the vessels should have been given in the tables, as without that information it was difficult to compare the results. Shipbuilders ought to give a scale of displacement, for the guidance of merchants in ascertaining the amount of work done by their ships. An account was given of the early use of auxiliary steam power, and of a screw propellor, adapted in 1844, by Captain Hays to a small vessel in the Irish trade. This, in some degree, led to the introduction of the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. first feathering screw. More attention was suggested to the position of the masts on board auxiliary power ships, and to their being more especially adapted for using their sails only, and having recourse to the steam power only under certain circumstances. The Cresus carried a large extent of canvas, but on account of the improper position of her maste, her sailing qualities had not been fully displayed. The great merit of the differential-pitch propellor was its power of being adapted to suit the sailing speed of the vessel, and thus to prevent the ship from making lee-way. By the late plans of Messrs. Maudslay the screw could be feathered and unfeathered under any circumstances, without any difficulty, and whilst the vessel was taking full advantage of wind and steam. Whenever it was necessary to hoist the propellor out of the water, it was usual to wait some time for the observation of the wind and various circumstances before hoisting, but the operation of feathering the screw occupied so short a time, and required so little power, that the captain never hesitated in making the changes of position five or six times in the course of the day. If this kind of propellor was more used there would be little doubt of great extension of the auxiliary steam- power system for long voyages. A suggestion was offered as to the advantage that would result from the accurate statement of the area of the midship section of the ship, and of the indicated horse-power of the engines, when descrihing any vessel; this would avoid much of the ambiguity of the statements frequently put forward. It was notorious that the actual power was from 14 to 6 times that of the nominal power of marine engines. It was contended that the system of full-rigged clipper ships, with auxiliary power and screw propellors, keeping habitually in the ordinary sailing track, and taking ful advantage of wind power, had already been acted upon, as far as possible, with the Great Britain, a ship not originally constructed for the purpose, and that in a few weeks the Royal Charter, an iron clipper sailing ship, built expressly with these views, would be launched for Messrs. Gibbs, Bright, and Co., of Liver- l. This ship, intended to trade with Australia, would be 2760 tons bande: 336 feet long, 26 feet deep, 41 ft. 6 in. beam, and 200-horse power, with three masts, square rigged. The first voyage of the Great Britain had demonstrated the great expense of using full steam power on the Australian route, and on her return she was, as far as possible, converted into a clipper sailing ship; instructions being given to her commander to take the route of sailing ships on the great circle,—to rely more upon sails than steam,—to dis- connect the screw whenever 7 knots an hour could be obtained by canvas alone,—to work at all times expansively; in short, to do as much as possible by the sails, and only what was obligatory by steam. The voyage was accomplished in 65 days, with a consumption of 1393 tons of coal, chiefly anthracite. On the subsequent voyage, acting on the same system, in 60 days she was within 260 miles of Port Philip; but stress of weather drove her from her course, and she only made the port in 65 days. The consumption of coals was very much reduced, and the fire-bars were uninjured, although the distance run was 14,300 miles. It was remarked that the masts of the Great Britain were of necessity not well-placed,—that her engines were much too powerful,—and that when under sail, her screw acted to some extent as a drag; but in spite of these disadvantages, the experience gained by her voyages had induced the construction of the Royal Charter. This it was contended had been publicly known for some considerable time, and to Mesars. Gibbs, Bright, and Co., of Liverpool, was due the credit of putting in practice the full-rigged clipper ship with auxiliary power for long voyages. The first voyages of the Great Britain having shown the advantage that might be derived from giving her more canvas and working the steam power less, on the Australian voyage, her lower yards were made 100 feet long, her top-sail yards were increased to 80 feet in length, and her suit of sails was made to contain 14,000 yards of canvas, which was quite as much as was displayed by any clipper ship. Such were the general qualities of the Great Britain, that if the position of her masts could be altered, it was contended she would, under canvas alone, be probably the fastest ship afloat. She had really run 17 knots per hour when dragging her screw through the water. The system of lifting the screw bodily out of the water was objected to, on the score of liability to accident, although on board some ships of war it was à common occurrence to lift the screw in about nine or ten minutes, with the power of thirty men at the windlass. It had now been deter- mined to try the system of having a small engine, merely to turn round the propellor at & speed corresponding with that of the vessel whilst under sail, and this it was anticipated would be a great advantage commercially. It was urged, that the nominal tonnage of vessels and the nominal horse power of engines were such indefinite terms, as to be utterly inapplicable data for comparing the merits of the performance of steam ships. In order to illustrate the extent of fluctuation of tonnage, with reference to displacement, and of nominal horse power to the effective working power of engines, an examination had been made of the constructive elements of ten ships, all having power in the proportion of 100 tons of displacement to 40 nominal horse-power; when the results appeared to be:— That as respected the ratio of tonnage to displacement, 100 tons, builders’ tonnage, gave different amounts of displacement, varying between 57 and 157 tons. That as regarded the ratio of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. nominal horse-power, as contracted for, to working horse-power of the wnit 66,000 lb. raised one foot high in one minute (or 2-horse power indicated) 100 nominal horse-power gave different amounts of working borse-power of the unit (66,000 lb.) varying from 93-horse power to $00-horse power; and that as ected the ratio of displacement to working horse-power (of the unit 66,000 lb.) the different amounts of working-power, to 100 tons of displacement, varied from 22-horse power to 185- power. Hence it was argued, that the ratio of tonnage to nominal horse-power did not afford any indication of the ratio of dis- placemont to working horse power of any definite unit. A doubt was raised as to whether the auxiliary power would ever be found so commercially effective, on the long Australian voyage, as it had been on the comparatively short passages, for which it been first desi ; the question of the currents must be well considered, and it would be long before the best system of navigating such vessels would be completely established. Some objections were raised to the feather- ing screw, and it was contended, that a screw capable of being lifted out of the water in a frame was superior; but it was admitted, that a oertain amount of power was required for the operation. Hydraulic power might, However, be beneficially ig? ki The propellor, with a rule- 1 in the dead wood, was strongly objected to as being liable to acci- t. It was a question whether, looking at a comparative obart of the Australian voyages of sailing clipper ships, it would not be found sufficient to give even smaller auxiliary power,—only just sufficient to enable a vessel to work in and out of harbour, do the work of loading and unloading cargo, etc., and let her rely, for the voyage, almoet entirely on her canvas. . On the other hand it must be considered whether such a condition would not be precisely that of the early auxiliary power vessels, of which it had been said they had just as much power as would get them into difficulties, but not enough to get them out again.” In war time it might be necessary to run from privateers, and in such cases small power would be utterly ineffective. All these were points to be con- sidered by commercial men, as well as the capability of conveying a oertain amount of cargo, at a certain cost, in the shortest period of time. The valuable assistance of Lieut. Maury's charts was forcibly alluded to. The difficulty in obtaining details of oonstruetion of machinery, of the midship section, and of the displacement, &c., of vessels, was pointed out, to relieve the author of the Paper from the sai aen that he not fully supplied all the particulars demanded for the discussion of the question. It was suggested, that at the next meeting, members should come git in to discuss the best proportions of steam power to tonnage, —the t commercial speed,—the means of disposing of the screw when the vessel was under sail, —the best form of recording observations,—and the general commercial question. Models were exhibited of Mr. de Bergue’s propelling apparatus, the moveable portion of which consisted of a long blade, tapering towards its extremities, to which was communicated by means of a crank and connecting-rod, a motion in a direction nearly vertical to its faces, and at the same time, by means of a radius-rod, an oscillating motion on its centre, causing the two faces of the blade to act simultaneously and alternately, in an oblique direction against the water, the one acting by compression, the other by suction. This blade, being enclosed in a submerged case or chamber, open at each end, produced by the rotation of the crank, a continuous flow of water through the chamber, in either direction. The displacement of water was very considerable, each revolution of the crank discharging double the oontents of the chamber. This apparatus was stated to be applicable as a propellor for steamboats, or for the displacement of any large body of water, or for a blowing apparatus. It was stated to possess several advantages over both paddle- wheels and screw propellors;—in cheapness of construction, —simplicity, —constant effect, from being entirely submerged,—saving in weight, expending usefully the entire engine-power exerted,—absence of vibra- tion in the vessel,—capability of working in shallow water, —freedom from risk of heated journals, — and as being peculiarly adapted for tug- boats, in which latter case the propellor would be placed quite beneath the centre of the vessel, in which position it would also be advantageous for floating batteries and gun-boats. Models were also exhibited of Griffiths sorew propellor, which had been used on board the Great Britain, and was stated by the late commander of that ship to have been very successful; the vessel could be sailed with the screw fixed, without much injuring her speed. Recent improve- ments in the form had further diminished the drag, and there was an almost complete absence of vibration or tremulous motion. The pro- 5 consisted of two moveable blades, inserted in a spherical centre or by which form it was rendered very strong, and the blades could be adjusted to any pitch required by the vessel or engines. It had been pis to a large number of vessels, and among them to H.M. yacht "Roms llors with curved steps on the blades were introduced by Mr. Walduck, who described the principel advantage to consist in thus obtaining a firm hold upon the water, and retaining it laid un off at the of the es. Greater speed had been i with an almost entire absence of tremulous motion. 171 April $.—G. P. Bomm, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair. The discussion being renewed on Mr. R. A. Robinson's Paper, it was argued, that a vessel carrying 3000 tons, besides machinery and coals, would require 1000-horse power (indicated) to obtain 84 knots per hour, and even by that means could not save more than 74 days in a voyage like that of the Red Jacket. Arguing from these premises, and demon- strating the position by a diagram showing the courses of various ships, it was contended, that the commercial advantages of employing auxiliary steam power on voyages to Australia, were questionable, inasmuch as the small saving of time on the voyage could not command such an increase in the rate of freight as had been named. The prevailing westerly winds and currents in the Southern Ocean ight always be depended on, if a proper course was taken, as laid down in Lieut. Maury's and it was not improbable, that from a con- tinuance of the same admirable observations as had served for the foundation of these charts, and the classification of the valuable documenta said to exist in the archives of the Admiralty, such further information would be obtained as would eventually still shorten and render more certain the voyages of the sailing clippers. It was admitted, that small auxiliary power would be very desirable, for enabling clipper ships to work into and out of port, and to make some way in what were called the ‘‘horse latitudes;" but the expecta- tion of great advan being derived on the Australian voyage was contended to be fallacious. ese remarks were not meant to apply to auxiliary screw clippers intended for other routes, but rather to enforce the position of its being always necessary to oonsider the peculiarities of the intended station, and to the power and means of propulsion to them. The question of speeds of American vessels was in raised, and it was contended, that the transcripts of the logs alluded to were correct, and did fairly nt the speeds attained. It was shown that the Great Britain having 14,000 yards of canvas in a suit of sails, exceeded in extent of sails any of the clipper ships, and that although it had been predicted for her that she would be a very fast steamer, yet it was not su that she would attain the great speed under canvas which she actually exhibited; it having been stated that she had run 17 knots per hour, whilst ing her screw through the water. The peculiarities of the method of building American vessels were described, and instances given of the facility of repair of well-built vessels, as compared to some of the cheap rapidly-built ships, that had been turned out for the California trade. Reference was made to the forms introduced to the Institution by Capt. Henderson, in 1847, and again in 1853, with the object of obtain- ing the iculars of area of midship section, lines of displacement, pur of engines, &c., which were now asked for from the author of the aper, who had furnished all that could be obtained; it was suggested to members to supply these, in order to render the paper complete for reference. It appeared to be shown, that neither the full-powered steamers, nor the large auxiliary power sailing ships, hitherto placed on the Australian route, had been commercially successful, and therefore a class of minimum-power auxiliary screw- ed ships, fully rigged, was advocated, with the view of sailing at all times should the wind serve, and only to employ their steam power in calms and under favourable circumstances, en the sun was far north, the trade wind ceased and calms commenced, in 154° to 16° north latitude, and continued as far as 8° to 4° north, or over a space of nearly 700 miles, in the usual track of ships from the North to the South Atlantic. In the con season, with the sun far south, the trade wind usually failed in about 6° north latitude, and thence to the equator, or 2° south, constant calms pre- vailed over 400 to 500 miles; the ships only getting over that space by occasional squalls of short duration. Now it was in these positions that the minimum power was required, and by its judicious use it was very possible to save ten days on the Australian voyage, and make a corresponding profit. As to the comparison of the lifting the screw of the Dauntless, in a frame, by 30 men in nine minutes, as compared with turning up that of the Caroline, upon a rule-joint in the dead wood, with 3 men in three minutes, there could not be any question as to which was the best system for a trading vessel; and it was contended, that the screw should always remain coupled to the driving-shaft, to avoid the rattling and noise arising from having easy allowance for coupling. As to American vessels coming to Great Britain, it was oontended that it was beneficial for both shipbuilders and merchants, that the American vessels should beat those of this rep d as otherwise the desire of having immense carried in vessels of nominal small tonnage would do away with all scientific improvements in construction. The Americans had moreover shown, that something of cargo must be sacrificed to speed, and this country was much indebted to them for the lesson; as also for demonstrating the neceesity for having the best practical seaman for the eaptain, and making it his interest to get as much out of the craft as her power and speed would give. It was contended that as far as it had been practicable to procure such information, the 5 and the immersed area of ships had been given in the Paper, but there was great difficulty in obtaining such data correctly from the builders, The consumption of coal for the distance Nominal horse-power had been referred to more as a of first cost, than as affording any measure of the power really (nominal) and with the expenditure of 350 tons of coals, a sailing clipper i auxiliary Screw-propellor, might save ten days on an power-ships Full credit was given to the charts of Lieut. Maury for ointing out that track, at ships could not ness of his views. It was contended that this commercial question was of great importance, Paper on the forms and capabilities of Screw-propellors; it was, however, Suggested, that such a communication should still be made, when the whole question would be re-opened, and the experience of the relative merits of the various systems of lifting the Screws, and the results of dragging them through the water, could be fairly laid before the meeting, Doubts Were expressed as to the anticipated advantages of having a very small engine merely to give a slow speed to the screw when the vessel was under sail, and calculations Were given to demonstrate its inutility, based on the results obtained by Mesars. Maudslay and Field in their experiments on the feathering screw. The benefita arising from the friendly rivalry between America and Great Britain, in shipbuilding, in engineering, and in general manufac- turing and production, were frankly admitted, and fervent hopes were expressed for that being the on!y kind of rivalry After the meeting there was exhibited in the Library a model of a system introduced by Mr. Clifford, for lowering ships’ boats from the davits, evenly, quietly, and safely, in a gale of Wind, and disengagin them without any risk of capsizing or being dragged under by the dped of the vessel. form, having three sheaves placed over each other, through and between which the lowering ropes passed in such a manner as to have a tight grip upon them, and yet so that by letting all run free, the falls would run out in such a manner as to let the boat down on the water, on an even keel and quite free from the ship. The lowering could be accom- plished by a man sitting in the boat, and though with a full loading, the i It was evident, that by this system the disastrous effects of undue haste in rushing to the boats, in „would be completely obviated. A simple ingenious System of a hollow rotating boat-plug for the bottom of the boat, waa also shown. It was resolved, that in order to insure a fuller attendance of memberg than could be obtained on Easter Tuesday, the meeting should be adjourned by apecial resolution. April 17.—J AMES SIMPSON, Esq., President, in the Chair. The Paper read was On the Construction of Railway Switches and Crossings,” By B. BURLEIGH, Assoc. Inst. C.E. manent way, largest ultimate economy. This remark was more peculiarly applicable to the construction of switches and crossings, the crossings, in the line where the outer edge of the wheels crossed them in & diagonal direction. The severe blows to which these parts were exposed were caused, in a great measure, by the undulation of the rails during the passage i alternately sustained by the point-rail and the outer rail. The movement or shifting of the relative ositions of the various parts of a switch or crossing, i these causes, was most injurious, as the least subsidence of the rail on which the wheel rested caused a severe con- and vertical, and being given at a high velocity, and the springs not being able to relieve the axle, wheels, and i general injury was occasioned, he greatest number of accidents arising from fractures of the rolling stock. A great defect in ordinary switches was the lateral weakness of the leading wheel as to open the point sufficiently for the next wheel to run in the London Station of the Great Northern Railway, upwards of five hundred sets of points and crossings. In certain situations, under very heavy and constant traffic, and with certain qualities of ballast, the outer rails of some of the switches and crossings were frequently worn out in six weeks, by the cutting action of the outer edge of the wheels. It was, however, generally found that a good, sound, and well-drained foundation tended materially to reduce this destructive action. In the case of a tyre, A want of rigidity was as severely felt in switches and crossings, as in the main portion of the permanent way; and hence the advantages of a projecting piece rolled upon the tongue-rail, for Supporting the flange extremity, gradually, and thus to avoid any Concussion; whilst the outer rail was protected from injury, and considerable lateral stiffness was imparted to the tongue-rail, i very successful practically, to obviate most of the defects of previous switches and crossings. The advantages of having extra connecting-rods at all meeting: points, at junctions, or stations on the main line, were insisted on; and it wag recommended that they should be fastened by a split-key, rather than by a screw and nut. The frequent fractures of the cast-iron hinge chairs of switches, had induced the successful introduction of wrought-iron for the purpose; the hinge being so constructed as to render it almost as perfect as a “fished” joint, and all risk of breakage was obviated, The introduction of a filling piece, or flange bearer, between the wing i i an improvement, tending to prevent concussion, whilst it acted as a fishing“ plate, for the entire crossing, a8 a beam. The importance of this Continuous rigidity wag evident, from the Cessation of the alternate movements between the wing and point rails, which were usual on the passage of trains, and which caused so much mis. f. The fishing“ plates were rolled alike on both surfaces, for the pur- insured immunity from fracture and ultimate economy ;— wooden keys were entirely dispensed with;—and after severe trial under very heavy i particularly in Positions where the outer rails had been previously destroyed in six weeks or two months, the switches and crossings introduced by the author had 8tood the test of long and heavy wear, without exhibiting any symptoms of failure, and the experience already acquired of their Properties induced complete confidence in the advantages they presented. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL April 24.—The Paper read was: On the Economic Distribution of Material in the Sides or Vertical Portion of Wrought-Iron Beams.” By J. Barton, M. Inst. C.E. It was stated, that in the various investigations upon wrought-iron beams which had been submitted to the profession, com tively little attention had been given to the part which the vertical portion of the beam had to perform, or to the elimination of the laws governing the strains in the sides, or the mode by which, on the application of a weight at one point of the vertical portion, the strain was resolved into a variety of strains, of known direction and intensity, in the top and bottom webs. The systems of construction most generally used were shown to be the tubular or plate beam, the ‘Warren’ girder, and the lattice bridge, the latter being the least represented on a large scale, until the recent con- struction of the Boyne Viaduct. An investigation was then made of the direction of the strains in plate beams, with and without vertical stiffening pieces, with the object of showing that the only supposition which could give true resulta, as to the horizontal strains in the top and bottom, was that the strains were diagonal through the vertical portion, and alternately tensile and com- pressive; this view was sustained by quotations from Mr. E. Clark's work on the Conway and Britannia Bridges, and from the experiments on the model tube, where the undulations in the sides showed diagonal strains, at an angle of about 45°, crossing each other at right angles. The calculation of Warren’s girders by Mr. C. H. Wild were then alluded to, and the mode of calculating the strains in the bars of lattice beams was investigated in detail, and a formula was given, deduced by the author, for arriving at correct results, either for a fixed uniform load,— for passing load,—or for the ordinary case in practice, a load partly constant and partly passing; the formula giving the maximum strains of compression and tension, in each case, to which each bar was liable. A comparison was then entered into of the three systems. Ist, as to the amount of material required under each; and 2ndly, as to the com- parative practical advantages of construction in each case. The amount of material theoretically required in each of the three systems was shown by diagrams, in which, by a geometric representation, the area of mate- rial was given, and the results arrived at appeared to be, that if the material in a theoretically perfect plate beam, was represented by 100, the ‘ Warren’ girder would only require 73, and the lattice 67; or, in other words, that the lattice saved 33 per cent of material, as compared with that of the plate, or tubular beam, and the ‘ Warren’ saved 27 per dent.; the lattice requiring 6 per cent. less than the Warren,’ chiefly from the fact of the angle of 45° being employed instead of 60° in the inclination of the bracing. It was argued, also, that, in the above con- sideration, the tubular girder was placed in too favourable a position, taking into account the position assumed by Prof. Haupt, in a Paper read before the American Institute in July 1853, where it was asserted that a plate could not theoretically act, within a large per centage, to the same advantage as a bar, for tension, in the side of a ben. between vertical stiffeners. Among the practical considerations, the price per ton was stated to be in favour of the lattice beam. The facilities which each system gave for 80 arranging the parts in compression that they would resist flexure, were examined, and an explanation was given of a mode devised and adopted by the author, in the Boyne and other bridges, by which the struts them- selves. became lattice beams, instead of mere bars, so that great rigidity was obtained. The presumed loss of strength from riveting together the lattice work was shown not to exist, as it was in no way more riveted per ton than the plate beam, and also, as by means of a mode of riveting devised by the author, the loss of area need never exceed one small rivet at any junction of two bars or plates. The facilities for repairs and painting, and the small surface exposed to storms, were assumed as additional ee in favour of the lattice system. On these grounds the author contended, that intersecting systems of bracing, set at an angle of 45° to the horizon, formed the most economic mode of constructing the sides of wrought-iron beams, and that both theoretical and practical considerations pointed to this conclusion. But whilst urging the subject on the attentive consideration of the profession, he felt bound to acknowledge that it was only from the advanced ground already occupied by those who had investigated the question of the tubular and the ‘Warren’ girders, that he endeavoured to go somewhat forward in the present investigation. In an Appendix to the Paper, an account was given of the principal features of the Boyne Viaduct, at Drogheda, on the line of the Dublin and Belfast railway, a work of about one-third of a mile in length, com- posed of twelve arches of blue limestone, of 61 feet span each, on the south bank, and of three similar arches on the north bank, resting on slender piers, the tideway being crossed by three lattice beams, a centre span of 264 feet, and two side spans of 138 ft. 8 in. each in the clear, at a height of 90 feet above high-water of spring tides. These lattice prom forming a continuous beam throughout their entire and combined ength, were 22 ft. 6 in. deep, the intersections of the lattice bars at an angle of 45°, forming squares of 7 ft. 5 in. diagonally. The tension bars in the lattice were severally proportioned to the strain to which they were liable, whilst those which acted as struts were in themselves lattice beams, made after the experience derived from a series of trials on the compressive force that might safely be applied, and of which the details 178 were given. The sectional area of the piles of Tue forming the top and bottom webs of the centre span was 113:5 inches at the centre of the top, and 127 inches in the bottom;—over the piers towards the side it was 132°6 inches on the top, and 127 inches in the bottom;—at the point of inflection, 45 feet from the piers towards the centre, the area both in the top and in the bottom was only 68:5 inches, and in the side spans the areas diminished to 41:3 inches at 80 feet from the piers, continuing thence with a uniform area to the abutments. The roadway was 24 ft. 6 in. wide, supported by transverse lattice beams, laid at the level of the under side of the main beams, and formed of Memel planking 6 inches thick, carrying two lines of rails, a third temporary line being laid for the purposes of testing. The side spans were first tried, by loading them simultaneously with three trains of loaded wagons, weighing 230 tons on each span, or two tons on each running foot; under this load the ponien deflection was r inch, whilst the middle of the centre span rose half-an-inch. One of the side spans was then cleared, the other retaining its imposed weight; and the centre span was loaded with 540 tons,—rather more than two tons per running foot; in this condition the deflection of the loaded side was P inch, and that of the centre span was nearly l4, inch, whilst the unloaded side beam rose about three-tenths of an inch. On the other side beam being also unloaded, —the weight of 540 tons still remaining on the centre beam, —the deflection increased to 1 1 inch, and both the side spans rose about three-tenths of an inch above their normal level. When all the three spans were loaded, with a weight of 1100 tons, — equal to 2 tons per running foot,—the deflection in the centre span was 14 inch, and that in the side spans was n- inch. On the removal of this weight, the permanent set given to the beams was less than one-tenth of an inch. The three spans had been calculated to bear a pressure of 5500 tons spread over them, or about five times the weight under which they were tested, whilst the ordinary duty of the bridge could scarcely bring upon it more than 350 tons,—less than one-third of the testing weight, and about one-fifteenth of the load that it was calculated to bear. Under a load of 5500 tons, there would be 15 tons per inch of tensible, and 134 tons per inch of compressive strain. The weight of wrought-iron was in the centre span 361 tons, and in the two side spans 151 tons each,—in the pillars over the piers 76 tons, —total weight, 739 tons of wrought-iron, besides 15 tons of cast-iron in the plates, rollers, &c. e dimensions of the iron work were such, that the greatest strain under a maximum load should not exceed a tension of 5 tons Der square inch of sectional area, after deduction of the rivet-holes, and less than 41 tons per inch for compression. The centre span was constructed with a camber of nearly 4 inches, and, on being relieved of its supports, it descended with its own weight only lj inch, but rose again j-inch on the supports of the side spaus being removed. In order to demonstrate the accuracy of correspondence between the calculated position of the points of inflexion and the actual situation practically, all the rivets in the top web, above that spot, were cut out, drifts being inserted seriatim during the process, and gradually taken out again after marking the edges of the plates. After removing these drifts, the joints were made to close and to open by raising or lowering the side spans, 5 clearly that the points of inflection for a uniform load corresponded identically with the calculations previously made. The Boyne Viaduct was opened for railway traffic on the 5th of April last. It was designed by Sir John Macneill (M. Inst. C. E.), the engineer- in-chief of the line, and was erected entirely under the direction of Mr. Barton, the acting engineer, by whom the calculations for the structure were made, and the design was worked out, and from whom a full descriptiun of the mode of construction was anticipated for the next Session of the Institution. — — ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. At the Special General Meeting, on the 16th of April, Earl de Grey in the Chair, the Medals and Premiums in Books, awarded duri the Session, were presented by the President. The Royal Gold Med of the Institute, to J. J. Hittorff, Member of the Institute of France. The Silver Medal of the Institute, to W. P. Griffith, Fellow, for his Essay on Mediæval Decorations and Ornaments.” To C. N. Beazley, Student, for a Design for Parochial Schools"—a Copy of ‘ Parker's Glossary of Architecture,’ in 3 vols. To C. N. Beazley and R. Willey, Students, for their series of Sketches from aubjects given Pa, the Council during the year,—each a Copy of ‘ Histoire de l'Art Monu- mental,’ par . Battissier. The award of the Silver Medal of the Institute to W. Salzenberg for his able and highly instructive work entitled ‘Early Christian Monuments of Constantinople from the Fifth to the Twelfth century,’ was announced, — J —————— 26 174 ON IRON BRIDGES, AND THE MAIN CAUSES OF THEIR DESTRUCTION. Sin, —In reference to the late catastrophe at Bristol, I take leave to hand you the following remarks for insertion in your Journal, should you think they would interest its readers. The Bristol bridge had been built about forty-six years, but prior to its first opening it had shared a similar fate, and in consequence there is a vast deal of conjecture as to the real cause of such accidents. In the midst of which, therefore, I will venture an opinion on the subject; though I am fully aware how little appreciated are gratuitous opinions. But nevertheless, from practical experience in bridge architecture, and self-conviction of the necessity, I do it with the utmost freedom, because the Bedminster bridge is an iron structure of the same dimensions and on the same principle as the one recently destroyed. Consequently the public mind is full of anxiety about its safety, and there are ample grounds for it too, as the same cause that destroyed the one will sooner or later destroy the other. Indeed, it was quite a chance which of these bridges would fall first. I publicly foretold the event eighteen years ago, and a gentleman (Dr. Tunstall) has just told me that he remembered sixteen years since, that whilst we were ing over this identical bridge, my pointing out to him the inherent fault in its principle, which would some day produce its destruction; and how completely have my predictions been verified! In 1840, the late Lord Western clearly explained this destructive power in a letter addressed to Lord Malone. then premier; and his lordship, after explaining the effects and results of another system (the taper principle) on which bridges could be constructed, adverted to the parallel principle, stating that these bridges contained the elements of their own destruction, increasing in self-destructive power as they increased in length; but this forcible admonition has been but little regarded. However, I dare say that time and repeated accidents—as in this instance the entire destruction of a bridge in four seconds which took four years in building—will force the conviction that there is some- thing fundamentally wrong in these bridges. But I doubt if it leads to a full investigation, such is the tenacity of the human mind to retain old principles and old errors. But be this as it may, I will point out another intensity of weakness in these bridges—that is, the very extraordinary inferiority of the com- pression, as compared with the strength of the suspension or tension principle. The cast-iron bridge, as every one knows, is supported entirely upon a multitude of props in a state of com- pression, and its main props are the ribs upon which everything depends. In the Bedminster bridge these are 80 feet long. But how incontestibly true is it, that an iron prop, however short it may be, will bend under pressure and become powerless. In fact, this is its natural tendency. Whilst, on the contrary, the same iron rod, in a state of tension, however it may be loaded, the greater is its tendency to preserve a direct line and its intrinsic strength. Therefore, suspension bridges are incomparably the strongest, safest, and least expensive, and the only objection to them is the undulation to which they are subject; notwith- standing (and how little is it understood!) that there is just the same tendency in compression bridges to undulate, only it is leas obvious in them, because their prodigious weight is less easily set in motion, and their spans are much shorter. But, after all, the parallel principle is the entire cause of this motion, and has been productive of every difficulty in bridge building, as it causes them to be self-destructive. Moreover, in all scientific works, in reference to these bridges, it is admitted “that their true principles of construction are as yet but imperfectly understood,” which is very true, as the parallel principle is antagonistic to every known law in natural mechanics. ilst, on the contrary, it is equally true that the taper principle, which Lord Western 80 strenuously advocated in 1840, is a principle that is strictly in accordance with every governing mechanical law of nature. Indeed, what can utter its truth louder than the great progress it has already made, in spite of the greatest opposition and prejudice any invention has ever had to contend against. However, in the midst of it, I will try to explain the principle, and as comparison is the only unerring mode by which we can obtain ita intrinsic value, I will put the effects and results in a parallel bridge in juxtaposition with the effects and results in a bridge on the taper principle. Both bridges shall be of the same sectional area and strength at their respective bases, and each shall be of the same dimensions; so that I may be able to show that the taper principle for bridges is, at least, worth considerable attention. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Now, the only true governing laws of all bridges, are, its weight, its span, and the depth of its arch. Then, knowing these items, it will be very easy to find out the consequent effects and results in every description of bridge, and institute a fair comparison between the taper and parallel principles. The first question now is how to find out the forces in a el bridge. Rule—Multiply half its weight by half the difference in its length of span ul depth of An. and the product will be its horizontal force,* to which add the other half weight, and the roduct will be its vertical force at the abutments—half on each. x.—f the Bedminster bridge is 160 feet span, its depth of arch 20 feet, and its weight 300 tons—then 300 —— 2 = 150 x 4 — 600 + 150 = 750 tons; viz., 375 tons on each abutment and 600 tons on the centre of the bridge; altogether it is subject to 1353 tons of vertical pressure. The second question now is to find out the forces in & taper bridge. Rule—Multiply half its weight by one-third the dif- ference in its length of span and depth of arch, and the product will be its horizontal force,t to which add the other half weight, and the product will be its vertical pressure at the abutments— half on each. Ex—The Bedminster bridge, on the ta principle, would be but half the weight of the el bridge (as it is analogous in 5 to cutting a el board into two taper brackets); hence, 150 — 2 = 75 x 266 = 199°5 + 75 = 274:5 tons; viz., nearly 1373 tons on each abutment—or 1075 tons less vertical force than in the parallel bridge. The advantages of the taper principle, therefore, in this instance would be—first, a saving of 150 tons of material in its construction; secondly, an annihilation of the 600 tons of antagonistic pressure on its centre, the cause of undulation in those bridges: and thirdly, an increase of 475 tons of strength in the bridge, besides relieving its abutment to the same extent, which would, strictly, be 950 tons of increased strength in the structure. 'The 600 tons on the centre of the Bedminster bridge which has already flattened the apex of the arch, is the element of self-destruction referred to by Lord Western, and it exists more or less in all parallel bridges. In the Menai bridge, if its supended weight is 1000 tons, then its antagonistic vertical pressure on the centre is 3750 tons; and there is nearly twice as much on the centre of each tube of the great Tubular Bridge. I may also observe, that the atmospheric influence on cast metal, of which material compression-bridges are made, is considerable; and as their abutments are fixed points, every change in the atmosphere produces a rising or sinking in the arch. It has been stated that the great Tubular Bridge varies as much as 3 inches from this cause; therefore, though slowly yet surely, in these bridges, it must be serious in its operation under such a prodigious pressure, analogous to bending a piece of wire repeatedly to break it. When Lord Western first advocated the taper principle, it had been adopted only in one instance, in the Victoria bridge in this city, but since then it has been carried out over the following rivers:—the Leven, Lochy, Oichness, Dee, Wye, Eithon, Llanduvercoven, Severn, Avon-in- Wiltshire, Frome, Bann, Blackwater, Mayola, and numerous other rivers and canals, both at home and abroad; in some instances two and three over the same river, and there are five in the Regent’s- park on this pee The suspension taper bridge was patented in 1836—and the taper compression bridge was registered in 1847; but both rights are expired, and the inventions are become the property of the public, which is well worth their attention and investigation. Sion-hill, Bath, April 23, 1855. ———— d» Cape Town Dock.—The excavation of a dock for the accommo- dation of the fast increasing shipping at this port has been for some timeincontemplation. A suabe position has been pointed out near the Chavonne Battery, and it is proposed to procure, as edily as possible, plans, estimates, &c., for the satisfaction of the public and the formation of a company, should it be determined to execute the work as a private concern. In connection with this work, and simultaneously with it, the breakwater, so long determined on, should certainly be commenced. The stones excavated to form the docks would be used in the construction of the breakwater. In the meantime, some additional convenience for coaling the steamers is urgently required. * On this principle ita horizontal force acts antagonistically and vertically on the centre of the bridge, and therefore it is an element of self-destruction in the highest degree. f On this principle its horizontal force acta horizontally, half in each direction; there- fore this force is one of ita most essential elements of support. JAMES DREDGE. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. an addi- tional 30,000 thalers, towards the completion of a museum in his ive city, i i n. The architec although the plans originally prepared by him have been greatly the whole of the upper story discarded gns have been on the whole approved. The upholders of Gothic architecture will perhaps disagree with the façade, whose division and arrangement is rather modern, pre- senting somewhat of the Roman or Italian characteristics. turrets at the angles of the building are considered too small, and the buttresss era E with the ensemble. Some of its wi will be The interior meets with general approbation, as does also the richly developed treasures of the city are so loca partial destruction is much apprehended. — fl ü Ó—————7 REVISION OF ARCHITECTURE IN CONNECTION WITH THE USEFUL ARTS. Dr. Reid, F.R.S.E., on the 18th ult., read a Paper to the Society of Arts; it was principally devoted to the consideration of the subject of ventilation of public edifices, &.; and, whilst existing defects in many of our public buildings were pointed out ina lucid manner, suge estions for their remedy were freely offered. After giving detai t variety of experiments in ventila- tion, the author submitted the following propositions as & means of facilitating the revision of architecture in its position as & useful art, and of placing the useful and the beautiful in a more harmo- nising conjunction is at present the case in most of our public buildings and in the habitations of the people;—l. No portion of any publi till a more complete series of models or drawings is provided than has hitherto been customary, and a special grant should be given for this purpose exclusive of all competition premiums. 2. The present mode of remunerating architects often leads to the too precipitate commencement of foundations, before any system 0 warming, ventilation, acoustics, lighting, or drainage is fully considered and determined, and these valuable opportunities are often irreparably lost, or restored only at a great expense. 3, Anextended system of instruction should be provided for the future student of archi- tecture at all the principal colleges or universities in thie country, guch as has been partially commenced of late years, and the curri- culum placed on the same footing as to honour and position that is awarded to members of other learned professions. 4, Acoustics, ventilation, and drainage, should be held as objects of study, equally incumbent on the architect as those which have hitherto been found to constitute the more attractive branches of the 5 Dr. Reid accompanied his Paper by an interesting | escription of the ventilating arrangements of St. George’s Hall, at Liverpool, illustrated by plans, drawings, and daguerreoty pes of several portions of that noble edifice. ———— oon” IRON SLEEPERS. A portion of the Ulster railway has been laid with iron; Mr. Godwin, the engineer; atates that it is much cheaper than & line laid on timber, and besides, it has the advantage of durability; while timber lasted only eight or ten years, the iron would last some 20 or 30 years. Besides that it 1s found that the relaying of the permanent way, after it was worn out, is not 80 formidable a matter as Was v ces because a large rate per ton for the old iron is obtain For new iron seven or eight pounds per ton is paid, and five pounds is given for the old; and assuming the iron to wear out as soon a3 the timber, they would still have & arge quantity to dispose of. ——— P 176 PRODUCE OF RAILWAY IRON IN THE UNITED STATES. _ The following estimate of the een of railway iron produced in the United States in 1854, the American Railway Times extracts from a speech of Mr. Cooper, in the United States Senate. The table exhibits an increase over the estimate for the year 1853 of 85,000 tons. It shows the number of tons, the amount of pig-iron consumed, the location of the various mills, and the quantity of the manufactured article produced by them respectively :— | Railway Mills, and their Estimated Production. Tons. ant re | Montour Iron Works, Danville, Pa. ... j Rough and Ready, Danville, Pa. 4,000 Lackawanna Scranton, Pa. M . 16,000 Phoenix Iron Works, Phoenixville, Pa. 20,000 Safe Harbour, Safe Harbour, Pa. 15,000 Great Western, Brady's Bend, Pa. 12,000 New York, Pittsburgh, Pa. . NS 5,000 Pottsville Ironworks, Pottsville, Pa. ... 3,000 Cambria Iron Works, Cambria, Pa. 5,000 Trenton Works, Trenton, N.J. P m 15,000 Massachusetts Iron Works, Boston, Mass , 15,000 Mt. Savage Iron Works, Mt. Savage, Md. .. 12,000 Richmond Mill, Richmond, Va. me - .. 5,000 Washington Roning Mill, Wheeling, Va. 5,000 Crescent Works, Wheeling, Va. : 5,000 New Mill, Portsmouth, Ohio ... 5,000 160,000 Represented Items on the Production of 160,000 tons Railway Iron. Pig Iron required 14 ton per ton of rails ... 213,333 Coal used ......--- 51 ton per ton of rails ... 840,000 Iron Ore ......-- 3] ton per ton of rails ... 560,000 Limestone ......++ 1j ton per ton of rails ... 218,333 Total number of tons of raw material 1,826,666 It appears that there was à capital invested in these works of $10,000,000. — . — NOTES OF THE MONTE. Messrs. Wehnert and Ashdown have been elected surveyors to the Orphan Working School, erected at Haverstock-hill and City-road. The salary is 50l. per annum, and the same fees on all new buildings a5 paid to the district surveyor. There were sixty-four applicants. M Pownall has resigned the district surveyorship of St. Giles and St. George’s, Bloomsbury. magistrates of Middlesex will proceed on Thuraday, the surveyor for the district of East gton, in the room of Mr. Carpenter, ,and another for the district of St. Giles-in-the-Fields and St. George, Blooms- bury, in the room of Mr. George Pownall, resigned. The Exhibition of the Society of British Artists, Suffolk-street, Pall-Mall, is now open, and contains 803 works, the most etriking of which are Columbus,” x Mr. Hurlstone, the president; 2 Evening "5 Chelsea,” by Mr. Fyne; “ The Fairies Glen, on the idsummer pin. by Mr. J. P. Pettitt; «An Incident in the Shepherd Shepherdess, time © Louis XIV.” b Noble; Market Basket," by Mr. S. Anderson; and “ Malines,” by Mr. Dobbin; the interior of the cathedral is well executed. The electric telegraph is now complete from the War Office, Downing-street, to the head-quarters of Lord Raglan and the trenches in the Crimea. The submarine portion between St. George's Monastery and Cape Kaliacra is 200 miles longer than any other in existence. At a meeting of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers on the 3rd ult., various additional plans for the drainage north of the Thames were received, and it was resolved that the several plans sent in since the 29th of November sh ould be referred to a general committee of the court, and that the City representatives be members of that committee. The Burial Board for the parish of Braintree, Essex, are desirous of receiving plans, designs, and estimates for a new burial ground, chapels, &c., to be delivered on or before the 15th inst. The party whose plans are approved will, at the option of the Board, either have the superintendence of the works or be paid 201. 26° 176 The tender of Mr. Jeffrey Austin Hall, of Dudley, 3507. has been accepted for the survey of Willenhall district. The tenders ranged in amount from 750l. to 1404. The committee for the completion of Leamington parish church, under the advice of an architect, have awarded & premium to Mr. James Murray, of Coventry. The Burial Board for the Monkwearmouth cemetery chapels, Sunderland, have selected the designs of Mr. Thomas Oliver, jun. of that town. The council of the borough of Grimsby are prepared to receive designs and estimates for a corn exchange and covered markets, to be delivered on or before the 14th inst. A premium of 254 will be awarded, and the design is to belong to the corporation; the successful competitor will not be employed as the architect to carry out the works. This provision we cannot understand. FOREIGN NOTES. The last doubt pending on the inauguration of the Paris Universal Exhibition on the 1st of May, has been dispelled by an official announcement in the Moniteur stating that the opening will take place, as fixed before, on the 1st of May, and notice is given to the Exhibitors that the last day for sending in their products is the 20th of April. At the same time the commis- sary-general of the Exhibition of Fine Arts invites those artists whose works have been rejected by the jury, to have them removed before the 25th of ADDE to prevent their being detained till after the closing of the Exhibition in November. Several contemporary painters are to have private saloons at the Universal Exhibition. Ámong them are mentioned MM. Ingres, Horace Vernet and Delacroix, who are to collect the works of their whole life. The same advantage is said to be granted to the chief masters of foreigh schools. MM. Numa Grar and Co., sugar- refiners of Valenciennes, have prepared a specimen of their branch of commerce for the Exhibition of Paris, consisting of the bust of a Virgin of the natural size, copied from a composition from the chisel of M. H. Lemaire, and exactly imitating white marble. The execution of this work is so irable, that the persons who have seen it have expressed their regret at its being made of so perishable a material. Another strange contribution comes from Milan in the shape of a splendid embroidered carpet from the hands of the female inmates of the Hospital for the Blind of that town. It is destined to be presented to their unfortunate fellow-suffers at the Hospital for the Blind at Paris. In connexion with the Exhibition and the immense mercantile and industrial movement it will call forth, & kind of club has sprung up at the ancient Hótel d'Osmond, Boulevard des apucines; under the name of “Cercle de ] Exposition.“ The idea is good, and the locality well chosen. Among the commis- sioners lately elected, we notice Mr. Gries, for Pennsylvania; M. Damasio, Professor at the Polytechnic Academy at Oporto; M. Pimentel, Professor at the Polytechnic School at Lisbon; M. Almeida, Professor at the Industrial School at Oporto; M. Corvo, Professor at the Agricultural School at Lisbon, for Portu The Swedish government has charged M. Fahlman to replace provisionally M. Brandstrom, as its commissioner to the Exhibition, the departure of the latter gentleman having been delayed. The same government has appointed M. Hockost, a Swedish artist, and M. Tidsman, a Norwegian artist, its com- missioners to the Exhibition of the Fine Arts. The Spanish government has nominated M. Villanueva and M. Guerrero, its commissioners. The recent erection of the Marchés centrales, at Paris, has rendered necessary the demolition of many obstructing houses, and afforded a greatly improved view of the church of St. Eustache. The renovation of the interior of this fine edifice has also been proceeded with. The nave and its elegant columns now present a fresh and lively appearnce, heightened by the addition of gold and coloured ornaments around the church. Glaize has also decorated the aisles with some very creditable historical paintings. The government of Saxe Gotha have decided that the observa- tory at Seebach, rendered famous by the names of Zach, Lindenau, Enke, and Hansen, should be removed from its present locality, and another erected in accordance with the present state of astronomical science, and somewhat more in the open country. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. The restoration of the cathedral of Cologne progresses favour- ably. The finials on the north and south sides of the nave, now completed, bespeak the activity of the Bauhütte. "This sculptural department will be represented at the Paris exhibition, and amongst other specimens will be the finial (15 feet in length), terminating the pinnacle of the south doorway. The splendid painting, representing the ‘Adoration of the Kings, which, according to Albert Durer, is by the old Cologne master, Stephen, has been faithfully engraved by M. Masson, of Dusseldorf. The electric light has been recently employed in diving bells for subaqueous illumination. The A erae. consists of a glass linder, with a lens 5 light parallel to the galvano- electric mechanism placed in the interior of the cylinder. When- ever the diver requires its aid, he has only to touch a delicate screw, when the electric streams, terminating in finely-powdered al, are so closely brought together, as to occasion the ignition of the charcoal to such an extent as to burn for two hours, illuminating a radius of 40 feet. One of the Seine bathing machines has been already furnished with a large apparatus of this kind, which will show any object to a depth of 30 feet beneath the surface of the water. The director of the Vienna Observatory, Dr. Kreil, has invented an instrument for measuring the duration, intensity, and direction of an earthquake, consisting of a pendulum cacilleting in every direction, but which cannot turn. To this is attached a cylinder in a perpendicular position, which by means of mechanism in its interior moves once round its vertical axis in twenty-four hours. Ona piece of wood firmly connected to the pendulum is fixed a thin, elastic stile or pencil, reaching close to the cylinder, and pon fee impressing a siet ap thereon. Thus on the surface of the cylinder is formed an uninterrupted line, continuous so long as the peudulum remains stationary and at rest; but if it be disturbed, the pencil forms strokes on the cylinder which will denote the commencement of the earthquake, and whose length and direction also indicate its intensity and movement. The A Academy of Mines, the great creation of the immortal Werner, is constantly in a most flourishing condition, as 17 5 and Italians, Swedes and Spaniards, North Americans, and Chilians, are to be seen together in the mineralogical lecture- rooms. It is only lately that Russians have been permitted by their government to enter, most of whom are employees, some from Siberia. The chief engineer, M. Von Beust, lately published a pamphlet wherein the construction of a railway is strongly advocated, as the mining importance of Freyberg is now so great that an annual saving of 100,000 thalers would arise in the con- veyance alone of and coke. The yearly produce of these old Saxon mines is now nearly 1,800,000 thaler, employing, besides a host of officials, up s of 9000 miners and other workmen. The amount spent in the improvement of the smelting furnaces, the forests, and other departments, has reached, in the period from 1843 to 1854, the sum of 2,300,000 thalers. It is also assumed by M. Von Beust that the produce of the mining district of Freyberg is not as yet fairly tested, as the average depth of the mines is only about 150 fathoms. Under such circumstances, it appears surprising that a railway connecting that city with the 85 lines of Germany and Europe has not long since been ormed. ö Professor Sprenger recently delivered a lecture in the University of Bonn, on the medieval art and industry of Cologne, which he said had flourished ever since the building of the first church of St. Pantaleon, under Archbishop Bruno. In the eleventh century we find a number of ecclesiastical structures in the course of erection, and successively the flat-roofed basilicas were converted into vaults and cupolas. Painting and the art of the goldsmith were also early cultivated in that city of the Rhine, so con- spicuously distinguished by its huge Dom. It is the intention of the King of Wurtemburg to ornament the 1 85 at Stuttgard with fresco representations of national and historical subjects, and Professor Ge nbauer has been in- trusted with their execution. These have been so much increased of late, that a printed catalogue has been published in Stuttgard, thus proving that this beautiful art of wall decoration is becoming extensively popular. A company has been formed for the purpose of draining the lake of Fucino, in the deep valley of the Apennines, between Rome and Naples, and covering with water annually to a depth of 30 feet, an area of 33,000 acres of fertile land, mostly destroy- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. ing the harvest and rendering the surrounding country very injurious to its inhabitants. Julius Cesar was the first who attempted to empty the lake into the sea, but which was only completed in the reign of Clodius. For ten successive years 30,000 men were employed in tunnelling through the mountains; the channel, however, became choked up in the course of suc- ceeding ages. It is now intended to enlarge and deepen the ancient structure, and thereby to drain the lake, which, it is computed, can be accomplished in eight years; and thus render this extensive area a continually productive and fertile tract of land. It is also supposed that the three ancient cities sunk by the action of volcanic forces, and whose summits are to be seen at low water, will yield a rich harvest of antiquarian treasure. M. Jabard, Director of the Belgian Museum of Industry, has proposed that a prize of 50,000 francs be offered for the oy of a new material suitable for paper, or for that of a printing in or indian-ink which can be washed out of the paper. The Chi- nese, it is known, wash and bleach their . paper, rendering it capable of being re- employed. A hypothesis on the probability of the existence of great ooal deposits in the Pustas" of Hungary, has of late attracted much attention, and was first broached in the Donau; this too, at a time when the Magyar territory is likely to become the line of transit for great commercial transactions between the east and west of Europe. The soil of the great basin of ia consists of very recent alluvial strata; its confines, however, bear the traces of tertiary and other formations. It is in both of these latter that seams of coal have been occasionally detected. There is great probability that these coal strata form the bottom of the depositions of the more recent alluvial soil, whose thickness, however, is a matter of conjecture. But, on the other hand, while these alluvia attain but a certain thickness, there is every pepe that the coal may be reached by shafts, and thus success- y worked. The scarcity of water in these steppes need prove no obstacle; bat, on the contrary, by the uuum o shafts, with the prospect of finding coal, the district might be supplied with an 8 of water poured forth by the Artesian wells thus obtained; opening up a new country and a new channel for the great western traffic to the east of Europe. Intelligence from California does not speak favourably of iron constructions, which, indeed, cannot be considered as intended for aught but temporary service. Exposed to a tropical sun for an entire day, they become exceedingly hot; but during the evening and especially towards morning, they cool so suddenly that their occupants are seized with a feverish chill. Another inconvenience is that in warm weather the varnish used for protecting the iron pass from rust, emits & very unpleasant smell, and the falling of eavy rains will frighten or annoy the inmates. According to recent travellers, the largest trees are to be found in Sonora, Mexico, but not more than a hundred of these giant pines have yet been seen. One of them has been felled at about four feet from the surface of the soil; its diameter was 27 French feet, and ten couple could dance on the area without any constraint. The circumference of the trunk at the root was 92 feet, and it could scarcely be encompassed by fourteen persons. Its concen- tric rings numbered 1242; the wood is not very hard, and re- sembles the Spanish cedar. The largest tree reached an altitude of 336 feet. ‘They are called by the natives, * Madres del Matto” —Mothers of the forest. A journal of Peru, containing a letter dated Maranham, men tions the discovery of large gold fields in that province, and its intended working by a company. It further states, that although the discovery of vast gold mines in Central America had occupied much of public attention ever since the discovery of that con- tinent, the supposed locality had always been fixed upon as lying between the Orinoco and the Amazon. This dream of bygone days has at last been realised in the valley of Maracassume, in the Brazilian province of Maranham. e existence of these gold fields was ascertained, in the first instance, from runaway slaves, who brought abundant samples thence, and bartered them for other goods with the inhabitants of St. Helens. A commission having been subsequently dispatched thither, returned with great quantities of the gold, most of which was obtained in a pure state without much labour, and consisting of gold of twenty-four carata. It is believed that these gold fields will exceed in value those of Australia and California, as the alluvial soil, in places two feet deep, is said to be almost entirely composed of gold sand. Nuggets of size have already been found. 177 OBITUARY. 19th Feb., Thomas Liddell, C.E., colonial engineer and surveyor, at Freetown, Sierra Leone, of fever. 21st March, James Gillespie Graham, of Orchill, N.B., archi- tect, at Edinburgh; he designed Murthley house, Perthshire, for Sir John Stuart, and the Victoria Hall, Castle Hill, Edinburgh. 23rd March, George Dominicus Burr, at Wokingham, Berks, aged 69; late professor of military mod at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst where for forty years he zealously performed his arduous duties. 27th March, Richard Cromwell Carpenter, architect, after a long and severe illness, at his residence, 40, Up Bedford-place, Russell-square, aged 47; he held the office of district-surveyor for East Islington, and was one of the honorary architects to the Incorporated Society. Among his works are the churches of St. Stephen and St. Andrew, Birmingham; St. Mary en, Munster-aquare, London; St. Paul's and All Sainte, Brighton; and St. John the Baptist, Bovey-Tracey, Devonshire; he was in the restorations at Chichester cathedral; Sherborne abbey, Dorsetshire; St. Nicholas, Brighton; and churches at Old Shoreham, Eastbourne, Devizes, &c. His late works were designed under the disadvantage of a health long fragile and failing, and include the College of St. John, at Hurstpierpoint, for the education of the middle classes, the first material product of Mr. Woodard’s energetic scheme of national education. Mr. Carpenter had, before his decease, also prepared the designs for the still more important college of St. Nicholas, belonging to the same society, nnd intended to serve as the locale of the uppe school, situated in the neighbouring town of Shoreham. The funeral took place on Monday last, at Highgate cemetery. Mr. W. Slater, of New Adelphi chambers, a pupil of the deceased, is to carry out the professional engagements of Mr. Carpenter. 29th March, James Rattee, of Cambridge, ecclesiastical carver, aged 35; his works are in Westminster Abbey, ap et Perth cathedrals; Merton coll chapel, Oxford; St. Michael’s, Mag- dalen college chapel, and Trumpington, Cambridge; and Eton chapel. 2nd ult., William Hoodless, land-agent and surveyor, at Work- ington, aged 78 years. Lately, Sir 5 la Beche, F. RS., &c., founder and director of the Museum of Economic Geology. PROGRESS OF RAILWAY WORKS. Portsmouth.—The report of Messrs. Locke and neo, the engineers, states that “the only tunnel on the line is at Buriton. The total length is 480 yards, entirely through chalk, and of this length the driftway has been carried 420 yards, and the masonry of the tunnel is completed for a distance of 220 yards. From the excavations in and adjacent to the tunnel, embankment has been. formed to the extent of 22,000 cubic yards. In the Buriton and Petersfield districts preparations are made for burning 2,000,000 bricks for the completion of the masonry of the tunnel and for the bridges in that neighbourhood. The cutting at Haslemere is now fairly opened, and 40,000 cubic yards have been carried to embankment, and clay has been excavated from the cutting for 3,000,000 bricks. At Godalming about 2000 cubic yards of embankment has been formed, 10,000 lineal of fencing has been supplied along the line, and a large stock of the contractor’s materials is on the ground; 240 men and 40 horses are at present employed on the works.” During the spring and summer it is intended to press forward the works from the Godalming junction to Haslemere, with a view to the completion and opening for traffic of the first section of the line from ing to Witley in the autumn. Staines, Wokingha reports that the wor cuttings between Staines an ready for the permanent way. South Eastern.—Mr. Peter Ashcroft, the engineer, reports that the Strood and Maidstone branch is in an advanced state towards completion, and will be opened in the early part of next year. The collier basin at Strood. is now nearly finished. The plaus of the Reading short extension branch having been altered, will have the effect of reducing the cost of its construction; it will and Woking.—Mr. Gardner, the engineer, are proceeding rapidly; one-half of the A Wokingham are completed, and 178 be open for traffic in August next. The walls of the Ashford Foundry are up ready for the iron roof, which Mr. Cudworth, the locomotive superintendent, is proceeding with. The New Custom House, Folkestone, is far advanced towards completion, and will be ready for use in about two months. The sidings at the Bricklayers Arms, for the Brighton Company, are partially finished. The re-construction of the Headcorn Viaducts are so far completed as to allow of the trains travelling over them. Leominster and Kington.—Mr. David Wylie, the engineer of this line states that “ the line has been all set out, and the neces- sary plans furnished for the purchase of the land. The fencing and earthwork are proceeding satisfactorily, and if the land be speedily obtained, the first ten miles will be ready by June for receiving the ballast and permanent way; the heavier cuttings near to Kington will be commenced immediately.” The estimate for the construction of the whole line is 70,0002. Manchester and Southport.— This line was opened on the 7th ult. It diverges from the Lancashire and Yorkshire, about 200 yards below the Wigan station, and the distance from that point to Southport is 17 miles. Lancashire and Yorkshire.—On the 26th ult. the new dock branch was opened for business. Cornwall.—The report of Mr. Brunel, the engineer, states that, between Truro and St. Austell the line is almost finished, except the ballasting. The viaducts have, with a trifling exception, been completed, the masonry of bridges and culverts is completed, and about half the length of the line is ballasted. From St. Austell to Lostwithiel the works are in a forward state, about two-thirds of the pepe d is completed, the earthwork is well advanced. The heading of the Treverrin tunnel has been driven through, so that the necessity for pumping has ceased, and nearly one quarter in length of the tunnel has been actually completed. This por- tion of the line may be considered as about three-quarters fiuished. Upon the Liskeard contract, extending from Lostwithiel to Liskeard, the masonry and earthwork are in a forward state, about two-thirds of the whole length of the contract is completed, and there is no work of any magnitude that can cause delay. East of Liskeard to Saltash, no work has been commenced. Between Plymouth and Saltash the work has proceeded steadily. The masonry 5 is now in a forward state, and the works may be pushed on at any required rate of speed. Coleford, Monmouth, Usk, and Pontypool.—The bridge over the river Usk, near Usk, is nearly completed; and the various works on p line towards Monmouth are being vigorously proceeded with. Forth and Clyde.—An arrangement has been made with the Scottish Central which will supersede the necessity of erecting separate station accommodation at Stirli The badge at Leven and Eudrick have been commenced, and it is expected the line will be opened by the lst of August. Limerick and Foynes.—In order that no delay should arise in opening a portion of the line to traffic as soon as possible, the directors have contracted for the erection of the station buildings at Patrick’s Well, Adare, and Rathkeale, two of which are now in progress, A portion of the line it is expected will be opened in the course of the approaching summer. Mr. W. R. Le Fanue reports that great progress has been made with the works of the railway. “The contractor’s operations extend now over 143 miles of the line, and the portion from Limerick to Adare is in a very forward state, about eight miles of it having been brought to for- mation level, and two and a half miles partially ballasted. The Roxboro-road bridge, over the railway, and the approaches to it, have been completed, and the bridge at Ballycummin road has been commenced. Six accommodation bridges have been built; seven field crossings have been completed, and a large number are in course of erection. Patrick’s Well station has been 2 and preparations are being made for the commencement of those at Adare and Rathkeale. Agreements have been made for 23 miles of the land; the contractor is in possession of 18 miles, and three miles only remain to be settled for. The rails and sleepers are in course of delivery at Limerick, and he will commence layin the permanent way in about five weeks. All the works are we and substantially executed, aud have stood the winter withou the slightest damage.” | Royal Swedish.—The progress hitherto made has not been so rapid as anticipated, owing to the interruptions of the original contract. Having found that the whole contract, under existing circumstances, could not be immediately transferred to competent THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. contractors, on such terms as would ensure the completion of the line at & fair price, and being very desirous to remedy the evils arising from the interruption of the first contract, the directors determined upon causing the works to be carried on by an efficient engineer, Mr. T. C. Watson, who resides on the line, in the same manner as & portion of the Great Northern railway was com- pleted under his superintendence, whilst in England. As the result of this arrangement, 35 miles from Orebro to Arboga, 114 miles are ballasted and ready to receive the permanent way. The other 23} miles are finished, except ballasting, and the whole distance of 35 miles can be opened for traffic during the present summer. The shareholders will then be in possession of an inde- pendent and remunerative traffic, as there 18 constant communi- cation by steamers between Arboga and Stockholm, and notwith- standing the extra expense attendant “pon interruption and delay, the whole cost of this line, including rolling stock, will not much exceed 60007. per mile. It should also be remarked, that a branch line of 11 miles, to the rich mining district of Nora, is in a very forward state, and negotiations are now nding between the two companies, for the working of this ranch, which can be done with great advantage to this Company. The Nora railway joins the Royal Swedish railway at Frovi, a distance of 11 miles from Orebro, and will therefore prove a most valuable feeder to our first section. The Royal Swedish Railway Company enjoys a most important position, as the centre of two main lines, viz., one from Stockholm to Gothenburg, and the other from Stockholm to Christiana, and during the last sitting of the diet, money was voted towards the construction of the former railway, which is, in fact, a continuation of the line, and preparations have been already made by the government for carrying into execution this great national work. These conside- rations enhance the importance of completing without delay the first half of the line. NEW PATENTS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW AMENDMENT ACT. Dated December 18, 1854. 2661. W. Gilpin, Moorgate-street, and A. Bowen, Stafford-street, Peckham—A new method for the effectual consumption or prevention of smoke, and the more perfect combustion of coals and other fuel by means of a mechanical apparatus and furnace- bars of a certain construction; a portion of the same may be applied for raising water, and iu furnaces where blast is required Dated January 17, 1855, 126. J. Slack, Manchester—Improvements in the manufacture of velvets, velveteens, cords, aud other woven fabrics, in waich floated threads or loops are formed, for the purpose of being cut Dated February 16. $51. R. A. Brooman, Fleot-street —A means of preparing the fibres of certain plants of the bean species in order to form them into pulp, and to fit them for other manufac- turing purposes. (A communication) Dated Febrwary YT. 858. H. P. Haughton, Bethnal-green—Lnoprovemente in a certain article of wearing apparel for the aukles Dated February 20. 874. F. B. E. Beaumont, Upper Woodball, Barnsley—Improvements in fire-arms, called revolvers Dated February 98. 482. T. Helliwell, Greenhirst Hay, near Todmorton, and J. Barker, Houchstone Mill, near Todmorden—Preserving pickers and picker-sticks, and for | pate cops being knocked off the spindle in the shuttle during the process of weaving in the power-loom Dated March 1. 451. J. Ramsbottom, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in steam-engines, and obtaining motive power more evonomically Dated March 5. 482. J. Gledhill, Congleton, Cheshire, and R. Gledhill, Halifax—Improvementa in the preparation of silk, flax, and other fibrous substances, and in the machinery or apparatus employed therein, part of which is applicable to the preparing of wool for combi 484. W. Johnson, Lincoln'a- inn- flelds— Improvements in coating iron and steel wire with other metals or alloys. (A communcation from A. D. E. Boucher and A. Muller) 486. A. Hotchkiss, New York, U. 8.—Improvements in projectiles 488. A. L. Garnier, Guernsey — An improved process for producing photographic pictures, which he intends to denominate ‘‘ Système Garnier de Photocherographie coloriée ” 490. R. Van Valkenburgh De Guinon, Brooklyn, New York, U. S.—Improvements in anchors 492. J. Wood, Barbican—Improvements in ornamenting woven fabrics for bookbinders and others Dated March 6. 494. W. Hyde, Spring-hill, Ohio, U. 8.—Improved marine life preserving apparatus 498. J. Player and L. D. Jackson, Winchester-buildings—Improvements in the con- struction of furnaces for the prevention of smoke 500. T. Lawson and M. Thompson, Gateshead-on-Tyne—Improvements in the con- sumption and prevention of sinoke Dated March 7. 602. J. Kennedy, Lopon pire vey in the manufacture of boota and shoes 503. J. Higgins and T. S. Whitworth, Salford—Improvements in the manufacture of small a part of which improvements is also applicable to hardening other articles of me THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 504. J. Cooper, Birmingham—Improvements in joiners braces, and in the mode of forming or partially forming the various bits to used with such, or any other kind brace of 605. W. Weild, Manchester—Improvements in looms or machinery for weaving pile fabrics 607. J. W. Sloughgrove and J. H. Wheatley, Windsor-street, Islington—Improvementa in smok-consuming furnaces 608. J. M. Napier, York-road, Lambeth—Improvements in machinery for manufactar- ing balls or projectiles for sinall arins 510. J. Wilson, Hurlet, Renfrew, and J. Horsley, Cheltenham—Improvements in the manufacture of iodines and iodides, and of a pigment or pigments from certain residual products in such manufacture Dated March 8. $11. B. L. F. X. Flechelle, Paris—Improvemente in flat-parses (port-monnaies) 613. L. E. Bataille, Paris— Improvements in looms for weaving pile fabrics 618. G. C. Reitheimer, Holyhead— Improvemente in the means of loading or dis- charging fire-arms 614. T. n Birmingham—Improvements in rotary engines, to be worked by steam or other flui i 615. A. F. J. Claudet, Regent-street—Improvemente in stereosco 616. G. Hazeldine, Lant-street, Southwark—Improvements in wheel-carriages and in the wheels thereof 517. A. Krupp, Essen, Prussia—Improvementa in the construction of railway-wheels 618. J. Brooks and W. 8. Walter, Bury, Lancaster—Improvements in looms for wea 619. 7. Nor Spring- grove, Isleworth—An improvement in packing and preserving eggs and other articles of food 620. H. Gilbert, Kus IMPO En in burdles 521. J. Aitken, S. Aitken, and J. Haslam, Bacup, Lancaster—Improvements in machines used for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotton, wool, flax, silk, and other fibrous materials Md 522. J. Norton, Dublin —Improvements in fire-arms and ammunition 623. W. Foster, Black Dike Mills, near Bradford—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for drying wool and other fibrous substances 694. W. Foster, Black Dike Milla, near Bradford—Improvemente in machinery or apperatus for cleansing wool and other fibrous materials 625. J. Bernard, Club-chambers, Regent-street —Improvements in the manufacture of boots and shoes, or other coverings for ‘he feet, and in the machinery or apparatus to be employed therin 686. J. Gerard, Guernsey—A portable floating or bridge, se into sections, which are designed ind adapted for formi eng vessels, ed and moveable structures on land, such as sheds and vehicles Dated March 9. 827. G. White, Laurence Pountney-lane, Cannon-street—Improvements in the treat- ment of horn and other substances of a similar nature. (A communication) $28. P. Dall, Woolwich, Kent—Improvements in self-acting, indicating, and recording mechanism for steam-engines $39. J. Bullough, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in looms and apparatus for weavin 580. J. Mardoch, Staple-inn—An improved shade or reflector for lamps. (A commu- nication) 881. J. Murdoch, Staple-inn—An improved method of enlarging or reducing designs, maps, and other similar articles, also apparatus or machinery to be employed in the same. (A communication) 832. F. A. Barnett, Nelson-street, Bristol—An improvement in the manufacture of metallic bedsteads and couches for the use of invalids, applicable to bedsteads and couches made from any other material 533. T. Hill, the Birches, Stanton Lacey, Salop— Machinery or apparatus to be employed in the manufacture of bricks, drain-pipes, tiles, and other like articles from plastic materiala $84. S. C. Lister, Manningham, near Bradford—Improvementa in treating and prepar- ing the fibres of flax and hemp, and other fibrous substances for spinning 585. G. T. Bousfield Dues Dan Loughborough-road, Brixton—Improvements in preparing, wool and other fibrous substances for spinning. (A communication from . J. J. Pierrard) 636. S. C. Lister, Manningham, near Bradford—An improvement in combing the noil of silk waste 688. 8. C. Lister, Manningham, near Bradford—Improvements in machinery for comb- ing wool and other fibres Dated March 10. 540. W. Mickle, Willington, Durham—Improvements in the smelting or production of iron from its ore in blast-furnaces 641. A. Clarke, Gate-street, Lincoln's-inn-flelds—Improvements in the construction and manufacture of celestial and terrestrial globes for the study of astronomy and h $42. J. Junderland, Marsden, near Burnley—Improvements in self- acting apparatus for controlling or b Se flow of liquids from casks or other veasels 643. J. Hughes, Uskxide nworks Newport—An improvement in bushing the touch-holes of cannon 544. C. Heaven, Hull—Improvements in machinery used for embroidering fabrics 645. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in machinery for batt- hi of wrought-iron or other metal complete at one operation. (A communication) 646. R. Brisco, Low Mill House, 8t. Bees, Cumberland, and P. 8. Horsman, St. John's Beckermet, Cumberland —Improvements in the preparation of flax Dated Maroh 12. 647. J. Malcomsonand R. Shaw, Portlaw, Waterford, and W. Horn, Mark-lane, London Improved expansion valves for steam-engines 848. D. H. Brandon, Beaufort-buildings, Strand — Improvements in machin or apparatus for cutting fustians and other piled fabrics. (A communication W. R. Harris and W. E. Baker, U. S.) 649. J. Brookes, Birmingham new or improved waistcoat 650. J. Hulls, Plaistow, x, and J. Lowe, Lambeth-road, Surrey—Improvements in ing iron and other metals with lead 551. G. Mosley, Southwark—An improvement in buttons 653. J. Gilbert, Engine Works, Boston-street, Hackney—An improved pump or pamp- ing Pp ra ue 553. W. P. Stanley, Peterborough—An improvement in or addition to clod-crushers 654. W. Score, Bristol—An improvement in bleaching oils, fate, and resin 655. J. M. Napier, York-road, Lambeth—Improvements in the furnaces used in the manufacture of soda or Dated March 183. 656. D. Macaire, Paris—Improvements in casks and taps 559. T. W. Willet, Belsize-road, St. John's Wood—Improvementa in swimming-belts 660. 8. Swingle, Aston-juxta-Birmingham—-An improvement or improvements in the manufacture of certain kinds of metallic spoons, forks, and lables 561. J. Gracie, Stanley-terrace, London-road, Rotherhithe—Improvements in ;wood- p machines 562. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved construction of engine to be actuated by the expansive force of explosive mixtures. (A communication) 179 ee Birmingham—Improvements in the manufacture of metallic rods, bars, u Dated March 14. T R. C. G. Cooke, New Swindon, Wiltshire—Improvements in military and other 565. G. Riley, Portland-place North, Clapham-road—An improved process for the manufacture of starch or grape sugar 566. H. Gray, Clement’s-lane, Strand—Manufacturing from vegetable substances a material which can be applied to all adhesive surfaces for either useful or ornamental purposes, as a substitute for, and in the same manner as flock is now used or applied on adhesive surfaces 667. B. Goodfellow, Hyde, Chester—Improvements in regulating the power for driving the ps of hydraulic presses 568. E. Neale, Cincinnati, U. S.—Improvements in copper and other plate printing 569. J. Kidder, Plaistow, Esser — Improvements in the construction of castors 670. W. Galloway and J. Galloway, chester—Improveinenta in balancing or regu- lating the on the alide valves of steam-engines 671. J. Marland, Sun Vale Ironworks, Walsden, Lancaster— An improvement or improvements in the manufacture of rollers for drawing, spinning, doubling, and reparing cot wool, flax, and other fibrous materials, a part or the whole of which poro n or improvements are applicable to shaping metals for other purposes 578. W. Soelman, Bennett-streeet, Fitzroy-equare—lIrmprovements in propellers 574. E. J. Mitchell, Bradford—An improvement in rollers employed in the washing of wool and linen, in the aqueezing of sized cotton, warps, and other like purposes 575. J. Turner, Farringdon-street—An improvement in coffin furniture 676. J. Bernard, Club-cbambers, t-street-—Improvements in the manufacture of rear ase UE other coverings for the feet, and in the machinery connected erewi 677. C. Goodyear, jun., Avenue Gabriel, Champs Elysées, Paris—-Improvements in the plates of artificial teeth 578. R. Wright, Richmond, York—An improvement in the construction of swords 619. A. Davia, Tottenham-court-road —An improved polishing powder 680. J. Hetherington, Manchester, and A. Vickers, Bristol—Improvements in ma- chinery for preparing, spinning, and doubling cotton and other fibrous materials 581. W. Lister, near Richmond, York—An md implement fer GGG in the ground, cutting off the tails ereo Dated Maroh 15. 589. H. Bach, Sheffield—Improvements in sash-frames 584. m Butt, Fairfield Works, Bow—Improvements in the manufacture of night- lig 585. E. Humphrys, Deptford—Improvements in applying heat to steam-boilers 686, F. Loret-Vermeersch, Malines, Belgium—Stopping trains on railroads 587. W. Monday, firm of Sollett, Monday, and Co., Kingston-upon-Hull—Improvements in preparing, mixing, and grinding the various kinds of plumbago, graphite, or black- lead, either together or separate, and with or without other materials, for polishing, lubricating, and for other Purposes, and in otherwise preparing the same for sale 518. G. Grignon, Sutherlan QUAS, Walworth—Improvement in the means of lauch- ing or detaching boats from s sides or davite, and in the apparatus and tackle te be used for that purpose, that the operation may be speedy, spontaneous and safe 589. H. Wickens, Tokenhouse-yard—Improvements in the means of communicating signals in railway trains Dated March 16. 590. J. Mitchell, e thr To, Sheffield—Supplying grease, tallow, or oil, either with or without the addition blacklead, to locomotive engines, horizontal and beam engines, marine engines, and Naamyth's patent steam hammer 691. W. Hill, Birmingham—Im vements in metallic pens and penholders, and in ornamenting metallic pens and penholders te M. mis firm of W. Smith, and Brothers, Heywood, Lancaster—Improvements looms for weaving 698. J. W. C. Wren, Tottenham-court-road—An improved construction of invalid bed 694. T. Picton, aie A for erecting and supporting scaffoldings or stages, and which is also applicable as a fire-escape 695. W. Winstanley and J. Kelly, Liverpool—Improvements in the construction of force-pumps and their pearen 696. A. Mauduit and F. H. Ouin, Paris—An hydraulic machine 697. Sir W. Burnet, Sumerset-house and J. W. D. Brown, Haslar Hospital, Gosport— Improvements in constructing signal-lanterns Dated March 17. 698. T. Pettijean and L. Petre, Upper John-street, Tottenham-road—Improvements in the manufacture of daguerreotype plates and of electro-plated sheets of metal, part of which improvements may be applied to the production of polished surfaces on metallic articles. (A communication) 699. E. Breittmayer, Paris—A new or improved mortising machine 600. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds—Improvemente In the application of carbonic acd gar 5 & motive power.—(A communication from J. Ghilltano and H. Cristin, rseilles 601. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds—Improvementa in steam- engines. (A commu- nication from N. Duvoir, Liancourt, France) 602. J. H. Johnson, Linooln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in steam pressure and other indicators. (A communication from L. F. C. Breguet, Paris) 608. T. G. Shaw, Old Broad - street — Im ements apparatus to facilitate the “tilting” of casks, barrels, or other similar vessels of capacity Dated March 19. 604. B. Britten, Anerley, Modi ees in projectiles 605. B. Cook, Chester-street, Kennington—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for consuming smoke ments in lubricators 606. G. Lowry, Manchester—Im 607. J. Rimell, Covent-garden—A substitute for the turpentine ordinarily employed in mizing paints and colours. (A communication) 608. E. R. Fayerman, Pall —Improvements in portfolios for holding papers 609. R. Howson, Lancaster—Improved means of increasing the motive effect of screw- ropellors, and of diminishing resistance to motion in vessels propelled 610. . Scully and B. J. Heywood, Dublin—An impreved mode of regulating the supply of gas to gas-burners 611. J. Taylor, Southwark—An improved means of consuming smoke in furnaces and fre- places 612. "à A. Chartraire, Paris—A new apparatus for fastening gloves, collars, shirts, and other similar articles 618. P. Roehrig, Paris—A new or improved alimentary substance 614. L. H. Crudner and F. L. Koebrig, Tottenham-court-road—An improved apparatus for pups of ventilation 615. J. Swalley, Bishopagate, Wigan—Improvements in PATRE CANO M 616. R. E. Hodges, Southampton-row, and C. Murray, Manor-place, Walworth—Im- rovements in bord pip 617. A. R Terry, Adelphia-terraco—Improvements in apparatus for copying letters 618. W. Smith, Little Woolstone, Fenny Stratford, Bucke—Im te in ploughing 18. W. Smith, Little Woo , Fenny provemen or trenching and subeoiling land 180 Dated March 20. 619. A. White, Great Missenden, Buckingham—Swinging beda, which will enable soldiers and others to sleep dry in tents or huts, and occasionally in the open air 620. J. ste, Pale Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improvements in steam-engines 621. W. D or, Poolstock, Wigan—Improvements in the construction of pickers for power-looms 622. T. M. Fell and F. Squire, King William-street—Improvements in balance levers 888 apparatus for weighing, and modifications thereof, for the purpose of detecting coin 623. T. Stevenson, Little Bolton, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for gring yarns 624. C. Marsden, Kingsland-road—An improvemnt in tent-poles 625. B. O' Neale Stratford, earl of Aldborough, Stratford ge, Wicklow—Iinprove- ments in aërial navigation, and in the application of the same to warlike purposes 625. E. T. Bellhouse, Eagle Foundry, Manchester. and D. Longsdon, Grafton-street, Fitzroy-square—Improvements in the preparation or manufacture of materials for coverings for buildings and other purposes, such coverings being specially applicable to and military storehouses 628. A. E. L. Bellford, Easex-street—A new and improved governor for engines and machinery. (A communication) 629. I. Rogers, North Haverstraw, New York, U. S.—Improvements in the mode of treating iron ores 630. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane — Improved machinery for forming moulds for casting. (A communication) March 22. Dated 631. W. Miller, North Leith, Midlothian—An improved apparatus for the prevention of smoke and promoting ventilation 632. J. Morrison, Birmingham— An improvement or improvements in the manufacture of metallic pens 633. T. C. F. Lecour, Paris—Improvemente in locomotion on canals and rivers 634. J. Biden, e in marine steam- engines 686. M. Semple, Plymouth —Improvements in railway - b 637. W. Mac Naught, Rochdale—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for spin- ing cotton and other fibrous substances 638. C. Carnell, Philadelphia, U. 8.—Improvements in the manufacture of bricks 639. J. S. Russell, Millwall—Improvements in shipbuilding Dated March 28. 640. G. Wort penahan, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for cutt iled g or fabrics 641. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds— Improvements in machinery for combing wool and other fibrous materials. (A oommunication from F. J. Boussus, Fournes, "i ae 642. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelds — Improvement in hydraulic motive power engines. (A communication from N. Duvoir, Liancourt, France) 643. H. J. Morton, Leedsa—Improvements in the construction of gas-holders or gas- meters 1 8 5 for casting metal. (A communication from D. Brown, Baltimore, 645. F. Ransome, Ipswich. An improvement in the manufacture of artificial stone 640. W. Young, Queen-street, Cheapside. Improvements in stoves or flre- places Dated March 24. 647. J. Willis, Cheapside. Improvements in certain parts of the frames and furniture of umbrellas and 643. J. L. Bachelard, Charles-terrace, Old Kent-road, and H. Harvey, Denbigh-street, Pimlico—Making an animal manure for all agricultural, horticultural, and floricul- tural porn by reducing the flesh and bones of all or any of the animals of the earth and fishes of the sea to a pulp, powder or jelly, with or without the aid of alkali 649. U. Scott, Duke-street, Adelphi—Improvements in the construction of carriages and of the various parte of the same ° 650. R. J. Jesty, Great Northern Railway, King’s-croas—Improvemente in apparatus for indicating between parts of a train of carriages on a railway 651. D. Elder, jun., Glasgow—Improvements in moulding or shaping metals 652. J. Niven, Keir, Perth—Improvemente in the manufacture of paper, and in the production of textile materials 653. T. F. E. Clewe, Paris—A new construction of locomotive engines, tenders, and railway carriages 654. G. G. Lewis, Woolwich, and J. Gurney, St. James's-street—An improved con- struction of knapsack, convertible when required into a bed, a litter, or a tent 655. us Brown, Gresham-street—An improved mode of preparing sewing silk for the market 655. L. F. Edwards, New Bridge-strect—An improvement in furnaces. (A communi- cation) Dated March 26. 658. R. S. North, Gorton, near Manchester—Improvements in the permanent way and sidings of feed 660. J. Gedge, Wellington-strect South—Improvemente in machinery or apparatus for forming corners or curves. (A communication from C. Sester, Beaume les Dames, france) 662. G. A. Barrett, W. Exall, and C. J. Andrewes, Reading—Improvements in port- able and fixed combined threshing machines M p E 664. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's inn-ficlds—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for dressing flax, hemp, and other fibrous materials. (A communication from J. J. A. Lallier, Evreux, and F. J. Vignaud, Paris) 666. C. A. Busson, Paris—Improvewents in feeding apparatus applicable to machines for treating textile materials 668. F. Croasley, Halifax—Improvements in the manufacture of mosaic rugs 670. A. W. Williamson, University College, Gower-street—Improvements in stoves or fire-places 644. C. F. Gers Commen a Sale Rooms, London—Improvements in machinery for mo Dated March 27. , 674. J. C. Bourne, Holmes-terrace, Kentish-town — Improvements in photographic apparatns 676. W. Yates, jun., Woburn-place, Russell-aquare—Improvements in the treatment of in from which beer or spirit has been made 678. J. Getty, Liverpool—An improvement in the construction of steam and other vessels Dated March 28. 680. G. L. Turney, Wood-street, Cheapside—An improved mode of arranging or pack- ing pins and needles for sale 682. J. S. Perring, Radcliffe, Lancaster—Improvements in the permanent way of railways 684. F. E. Hudde, and J. B. E. Fouquet, Rue de l'Echiquier, Paris—Improvements iu the construction of pyrometers 683. W. pin Swan-lane—Aun improved gear for communicating power from horses or cattle for the purpose of driving machinery. (A communication) 633. E. H. Becker, Altham, Lancaster—A new or improved projectile 64), T. M Low, Middle-row, Holborn—Improvements in screw-propellers 622. J. Peabody, Old Broad-street —Improved machinery for obtaining motive power by the action of the wind. (A communication) THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL Dated March 29. 604. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South—Improyements in the means of stopping or retarding railway-trawus. (A communication from F. 8. H. Schirges, and f Munich 696. M. J . T. Gillot, and C. C. Beauvais, Upper Charlotte-street, Fitzroy-square—Im- vements in purifying grain, vegetable or botanical matter, and cochineal 698. J. Porritt, Stubbins Vale Mills, near Ramsbottom, Lancaster—Improvements in steam-engines f 700. J. Blair, Glasgow—Improvements in hats and other coverings for the head 102. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-felds—Improvements in anchors. (A communication from L. F. F. David, Havre, France) e i James, Crosby Hall-chambers—Improvements in the manufacture of screw- ta Dated March 30. 706. H. W. Parnell, Bryanstone-square—Tne improvement in the contraction of ships and boats, so as to increase their buoyancy and diminish their rolling motion 708. W. Swain, Birmingham—Ilmprovements in furnaces for japannvrs' stoves, ovens, boilers, and kilns, and which ded hah are also applicable to other fire-places, by which combustion is rendered more complete and the fuel thereby greatly econo- 710. G. H. Babcock and A. M. Babcock, Westerly, Rhode Island, U.S. Improvements in ae for printing in colours, called polychromatic printing presses 712. J. Morgan, Manchester—An improvement in the manufacture of candles in which tallow is used 714. E. V. Neale, Russell-place, and T. Dawson, King's Arms-yard—Imprevementa in handles and parts of handles for umbrellas, walking-sticks, knives, and for other like articlea of furniture, in stoppers, finger-plates, ions, jewellery, furniture, and other decorative articles 716. T. W. Bunning, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—Improvements in steam engines Dated March 81. 718. C. Whitley, Manchester—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for drilling 720. W. Corbitt, Elm-tree Bank, Rotherham—Improvementsa in warming and ven- tilating apartments, parts of which improvements are applicable to the prevention of smoky chimneys 722. W. E. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved mode of constructing centre bite. r communication) 724. G. F. Wilson and ie Payne, Belmont, Vauxhall—An improvement in treating oils uct Abbott, Horningsea, Cambridge—Improvements in stays Dated April 2. 728. A. E. L. C. Timmerhans, Litge—Forcing projectiles applicable to artillery as well as to portable fire-arms 780. J. Shand, firm of Shand and Mason, Blackfriars-road—Improvements in fire- engines 732. C. Crews, Montague-terrace, Bow-road, and H. G. Gray, St. James's-street—Im- provements in preparing and using deodorising or disinfecting compounds 134. R. Peyton, Bordesley Works, Birmingham— Improvements in the manufacture of iron gates and fences 736. W. Lund, Fleet-street, and W. E. Hipkins—Improvements in the manufacture of corkscrews Dated April 8. 738. R. C. Whitty, Torriano-avenue, Camden-road-villas—An improved method of reflecting and diffusing solar light 740. T. Prideaux, Birmingham—A new or improved plough for draining and other similar purposes 742. H. Powers, Florence—Forming perforations or throats to the cutting edges of files or rosps for allowing the particles cut away to pass through, and to prevent the instrument from clogging or choking 144. W. E. Gill, Totnes, Devonshire, and H. B. Sheridan, Parsons-green— Treating fish for oil, and utilising the products of such processes 746. J. Maas and J. Adams, White Hart-yard, Southwark—Improvements in mills for splitting or grinding beans, peas, corn, and all kinds of grain 748. H. R. Fanshawe and J. A. Fanshawe, North Woolwich—Improvements in the to obtain an elastic 726. E. Abbott and manufacture of waterproof fabrics of the vulcanised, eulphurised, or cured class 160. M. Evrard, St. Etienne, France—An improved continuous drawing compresser for moulding or bruixing several substances or mixtures 162. C. Nickels, Albany-road, Surrey, and J. Hobson, Leicester—Improvements in Weaving pile fabrica when wires are used Dated April 4, 754. R. Hills, Caroline-place, City-road, T. Miles, Queen-street, Finsbnry, and H, Monument, Caroline-place, City-road—Improvements in bottles, jars, and other similar vessels to facilitate the corking or atopping of them Dated April 5. 156. T. Squire, Latchford, Chester — Improvements in removing hairs from hides and skins. (A cominunication) 158. I. Carlhian, Rue de Sentier, Paris, and F. I. Corbitre, Castle-street, Holborn— Improvements in apparatus for making soda water and other atrated liquids. (A communication from Measra. Galliard and Dubois) 160. J. Brazier, Wolverhamptou—An improvement or improvements in revolving or repeating fire-arms 162. D. Lane, Sundays Well, Cork—Improvements in obtaining power by water 164. A. Longbottum, Soho Foundry, Meadow-lane, Improvements in preparing sand and materials to be used when casting. (A communication) 766. P. Arrive, Spencer-street, Darnley-road, Gravesend—Improvements in safety- valves of steam-boilers Dated 9 85 7. 768. R. W. Waithman, Bentham-house, Tork — Improvements in machinery or appa- ratus for the manufacture of lint or similar substances 770. A. Rollason, Birtningham— Improvements in photography 772. R. Stones, Kingatou-upon-Hull—Improvements in taps or cocks for drawing off fluids 774. J. Aresti, Greek- street, Soho- square A method of obtaining improved effects upon drawings washed or painted on stone 776. D. G. Jones, Harrington-square, Hampstead- road A new or improved farinaceous food Dated April 9. 778. J C. Kay, Bury, Lancaster—Improvements in the construction of pressure and vacuum gauges 780. E. O'Callaghan, 51st Light Infantry—Improvements in ordnance, and in projectiles applicable to ordnance and small arms — ERN PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 800. E. Pasquier, Rheims—An improved machine to be used for drying wool and other fibrous materials—4A pril 11 806. 8. Hjorth, Copenhagen—An improved electro-magnetic battery —A pril 11 807. S. Hjorth, Copenhagen—An improved electro-magnetic machine—A pril 11 808. 8. Hjorth, Copenhagen—An improved electro-magnetic machine—A pril 11 PUT . ^" ru, S ty f Gre eee Liss Hebe MT LEV TELL LUIE "e erdt [p e m T — | 1 it es) C d Hi 4 a. ) Mil 7 " $ 1 N its ie AN W II ^» pU e AN JUL. | uir i i | Te MEC ee oe Mie eal CAE D MN Í rr * qw \ I l "(m ^ 7 AAA EE | AY lad f — ——— — g —~ o m THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL 181 PEEL INSTITUTION, ACCRINGTON, LANCASHIRE. (With an Engraving, Plate XIX.) Tue buildings represented by the engraving, and erected from the designs and under the superintendence of James Green, ee Portsmouth House, Todmorden, are to embrace accom- modation for the Accrington Mechanics’ Institute, consisting, on the ground story, of entrance-hall, 24 feet square; vestibule; staircase, 25 feet wide; reading-room, 32 feet by 25 feet; com- mittee and class rooms, and a small lecture-room, 45 feet by 96 feet. On this story will also be provided a public news- room, 48 feet by 18 feet, and. suitable accommodation for the post-office. A dwelling-house, and large cooking and refresh- ment-rooms are provided at the back of principal staircase, over which are the resident's apartments, and & subscription billiard- room. The principal story willbe devoted entirely to 8 large ublic hall or assembly-room, 105 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 29 eet high, exclusive of retiring-room, and ladies’ and gentlemen’s ith gallery over the same for orchestral purposes. The walls of the room will be decorated with panelled pilasters, enriched with fruit and flowers, in high relief. A bold modillion which springs a coved ps enriched with perforated decorations, flowers, &c. The uilding throughout wil be heated with hot-air, and provision made in all rooms for ventilation. The style adopted throughout, as seen from the engraving, is Italian, and will have a bold central arcade, or carriage-drive, with portico over. The whole is to be built of excellent free- atone, procured in the neighbourhood; and the principal fronte will be finely polished. The works were let in November last, Fors buildings, for the use of premises to be devoted to the echanics Institute, which will, by this means, be provided with ample and convenient apartments, and for which a nominal rent d bbe im The entire cost of buildings, exclusive of land, will 75000. — —U—ĩWä— ä—ü— — ARCHITECTURE AT THE ROYAL ACADEMY. Ow the first Monday in May (somewhat tardy this year), an eager crowd presented themselves as usual at the doors o the Royal Academy, awaiting the opening of the exhibition. Such an event is always an interesting and exciting time. The rooms are thronged; every one goes to see and to to find the whereabouts of their pictures—a suspense,—and next to look around for frien their congratulations or condolence, as the case may be;—con- noisseurs are there, peering among the unbespoke works for some choice gem to add to their collections;—the lucky prize-holder may be descried feasting on the display before him, and, ami unwonted profusion, like the hero in Bombastes— « Uncertain which to take or which refuge: From this or that to turn away is loth, And sighs to think he can't secure them both.” A acene like this is not the time for calm criticism, 80, con- tented with a superficial glance, we retrace our steps to look through the catalogue, an con over the report in the day’s paper of the festival dinner with which, by English custom, the yal Academy inaugurates its een season. The speeches on peaceful arts fall pointlessly pointed. The President, among other remarks, assured his hearers that reat efforts had been made by those to whom the arrangement of this exhibition had been confided, to put forward works of merit, by whomsoever contributed; and he hints that want of the building. This plan has hevér been acted upon, nor does it iene likely to be: the whole question even of site seems in abeyance, although it happens that in one of the drawings exhi- bited (1206), the space intended for a “new national gallery and buildings for schools of arts and for the learned societies,” is indi- cated. A something was said the other day in high quarters about appropriating Burlin uestion of locality is the ]-important one,-—the present situa- tion, beyond a doubt, the most generally acceptable to the public. Let the authorities, then, Sonder yet awhile ere the scene be shifted. The advocates for its removal must make out a very strong case before the roposition can be entertained. A second visit hardly bears out the expectation formed by the observation of the President ust alluded to. The Aber of hanging this year apparently differs in no respect from that of old times. To form pretty nosegà ike f icture-frames euch as shall i ave, it is evident, greatly influenced the arbiters as to what shall have a place, and where. Take an illustration from what we used to be able to call our own room—the « Architectural.” Look at (1258), Mr. Oliver's “ Longitudinal Section of the Basilica of St. Peter, at Rome, —an outline drawing filled in to the minutest detail, yet hung some 12 feet from the ground, so as the only instance. Ifa picture deserves à place, it is preposterous and cruel to assign it one where its merita cannot be ap reciated ; it is even a greater misfortune than excluding it altogether. We have ever contended that architectural achool require to be close to the eye. We ignore those flashy ad captandum performances in which the artist's work is more evident than the architects, and which for such reason are viewed at a distance, and we fain hope that the public in general are beginning to see things in a truer aspect. The display on the Academy walls this year is below the Neither of the Academician architects’ names appea having seen the list of accepted drawings for the Paris Exhibition, we might have supposed that the counter-attraction had acted prejudicially at home; but that list was 80 brief, and included so many old acquaintances, that the surmise would probably be un- founded. The fault must be mainly with the profession itself. Of course we accept, under protest only, the scanty and now diminished space afforded under the roof of the Academy; but it is most important that the little hold which architecture has there should be at least maintained, and a slight individual effort would enable us both to make good use of our rights in Trafalgar- uare, and also worthily to support the more exclusive ** Archi- tectural Exhibition" There is plenty of room for both, without anything but honourable rivalry. ‘A portion of the little North Room” is allotted, as heretofore, to architecture, and the place of honour is occupied by & Perspec- tive View of Mr. E. M. Barry’s “ design for the Oxford University Museum” (1236), which obtained the second premium at the late coropetition,under the motto Fiat Justitia ruat ecœlum It ghows an Italian com ition of one order, very Soanean in cha- racter, in plan an most unbroken rectangle. The principal front has a recessed octastyle portico, continued or flanked by wings of three intercolumniations each, in which the columns are attached. "There are no pedimenta, the sky-line being horizontal throughout, only interrupted at intervals by the ornamental vases along the attic. Externally, the design is of very ordinary cha- racter, partiall enlivened by some vigorous groups of sculpture about the stylobate. (1 272), is an “ Interior view of the same," showing the principal apartment, which is lighted by a semi- circular glass roof over the whole area, on the Paxton principle. There is some novelty in the forms of spandrils and subarcuation, but altogether it has a one look. These drawings have been very carefully prepared, and are well illustrated by plans and sections. Barry is the contributor of several other drawings (1173), being the «Interior of a Library fitted up at the Reform Club.” If the view before us does justice, the room is scarcely worthy of the building. Although enrichments are multiplied, there is & shallow feebleness about them far from gatisfactory. The ceiling is coved, with lattice-ribs in white and ‘gold, which are the prevailing colours throughout. The shelves are ranged between the pilasters round the walls, and additional book-space is gained by subdividing (as it appears) the room, leaving an open communication between two columns in antis. Perhaps it is not our province to pass an opinion on extraneous 27 182 adornments; otherwise we should remark on the specimens of the male species which the artist has introduced into the picture. One, in a supposed easy chair, is painfully elongated as to his anatomy, while another is indulging in a very vulgar habit as he warms himself before the fire. However true to life, we would rather not see it in such a picture of sucha place. Mr. E. Barry's other drawing (1218), is a competition one for a New Bank at Bristol, for the West of England and South Wales Banking Company,” and which received the first premium. It is to be wished that this drawing had appeared with the several others that were exhibited in the Suffolk-street rooms last year, if only for the sake of comparison, and to show the ingenuity evinced by one and another in making the most of a very difficult aite. In the present instance, the author shows, grouped into one frame, the first and the modified elevations and interiors, accom- panied by small but sufficiently distinct plans. Perhaps this design has recommendations not at first sight evident, but, ing from recollection, some of the other designs, of which we spoke at length at the time, have left a very favourable im- ression, in point of novelty and architectural taste especially. he one under notice is Italian in style; the street front quite flat and unassuming. Internally, there are two versions of the same room, of which the one selected has a doubly-curved ceiling, which is its chief peculiarity. The plan appears conve- niently arranged. Perhaps the most important drawing in the room, in interest -as well as size, is Mr. Goodchild’s “ Interior of St. George's Hall, Liverpool," (1284), somewhat oddly shown, by a conceit of the author (or shall we say of the Professor who superintended the completion of the structure), as in part finished, even to the polychromic decoration and corons, and partially incomplete, the sectional walls being left irregular, giving a peep of part of the exterior, with the roof, scaffolding, and all appliances and means to boot. It is needless to criticis? a building of which, notwith- standing its petty drawbacks, the oy aud may be quy roud, and with whose magnificence have been visibly, or, b the numerous illustrations, are now tolerably uainted. e view before us, save that it is rather too atmospheric, is a truthful and valuable representation, and serves to convey an idea, almost too undecided, of the extent to which colour has been introduced. One of the superb brass gates, it will be remembered, formed the subject of a drawing by Ar. Goodchild in the late Architectural Exhibition; thev are here shown in situ. Another drawing, that will, on more accounts than one, attract attention on entering the room, is Mr. G. G. Scott’s successful competition design for the “NewHotel de Ville, Hamburg,” (1235). It is matter of no little congratulation that architectural honours of such high order have twice been won by the same individual, and he our countryman. We cannot describe this design more fitly or comprehensively than as worthy to rank with the series of splendid edifices of this class of which Brussels, Louvain, Ypres, are such noted examples. Their character of massy outline has been followed, but with less frit- tered detail, and by the indications it would appear that surface decoration by different materials, on the mosaic principle, is con- templated. For want of a general plan we are at a loss to inter- pret the arrangements, but there are two small sketches in the margin which exhibit respectively the back view (extremely picturesque and well grouped), and another in one of the courts, embracing an elevation of the council-hall, which promises to be a noble apartment, and one of the main entrances with its noble flights of steps. In the middle of this court is a handsome foun- tain. The central feature of the building is a lofty square tower, surmounted by a proportionate spire—continentally treated, of course. Miss L. R. Rayner, in (56, 1148, 1161,) has some very clever oil studies from Canterbury Cathedral,” in which the detail is clearly, yet artistically given. Mr. Norton’s “Stapleton Church, Gloucestershire,” (1159), heads the array of churches, and is, as usual, very creditable. There is less of the inventive than we sometimes see in this gentleman’s productions, if we except the gabled windows round the spire, which have a good effect. The “ Marché aux Fleurs, Rouen.” by S. Read (1165), and “ Antwerp Cathedral,” by J. Dobbin (1168), are specimens of patient perse- verance; though in water colours, they are worked up almost to the depth of oil. Like former works, these are marked by great care and finish of detail; the vast concourse of people, bartering, is well depicted in the former drawing. It is not surprising to see that Westminster Abbey retains a spell on the minds of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. artists as well as architects. A from its associations, it affords an ever-varying and inexhaustible field of study, and several results are now around. (1166), is from one of the best ints of view (St. Erasmus’ Chapel), by W. H. Crossland, a Id architectural sketch. (1169), a view from Edward the Confessors Chapel, by G. P. Boyce, is rathy muddy and con- fused in its details. Bythe bye, how much more of late archi- tectural studies have been produced in oil (1190), is another case in point, showing another vista in the Abbey, restored to the period of the Funeral of Henry V., the procession of which is shown in the foreground. The picture comprehends views of several royal tombs, and those of William de Valence and John of Eltham. The several missing portions the author has evidently been at much pains to restore, so that the scene is perhaps as authentic as could now be depicted. The beautiful canopy which once surmounted John of Eltham's tomb is here shown, though unfortunately it only exists now on paper in the records of Sandford and Dart. It must have been of the most elegant desigu, and we are ashamed to know that its removal is of comparatively recent date. It is said that some fragmenta of this canopy were among the spoliations at Strawberry Hill, a statement which we believe was never proved, or the reverse; all we can say is, that every true archeologist and conservative of time-honoured treasures should aid the Abbey authorities in replacing, to the utmost extent, all such losses. A right move was made some years since, in regaining from the late Mr. Cot- tingham's museum some beautiful | portions of Queen Philippa's tomb.—To return from our digression. In (1171), we have a drawing of “ Queen Elizabeth's room, Coombe Abbey, Warwick- shire," by A. E. Everett, of which it is perhaps not too much to say that it is by far the best of its class in the room, as well as the most elaborate; every part is a study, and most carefully shown. Even those to whom the style of architecture is pesti- lent,” will own that there is an ensemble attained in such apart- ments as these which greatly reconcile one to the total repudiation of the ordinary rules-of-thumb; the fireplace especially will repa examination. (1172), of an entirelv different stamp, is an excel- lent drawing of an excellent subject. Every one knows the palaces of Pall Mall, and all must have watched with delight the growing beauties of the new “Carlton.” Well, here it is, com- pleted;—a large view of the garden front. Notthat there is any great diversity in this elevation: the orders, windows, and cornice, are naturally continued all round the building, and unbroken, so as to ensure a high de of grandeur from any point of vision. The only innovation on its simplicity, is the extra story in the centre (probably for a smoking-room); it is however conceived in unison with the rest of the design, and its projecting balcony, on tasteful cantalivers, is a graceful addition. e architect, Mr. Sydney Smirke, is the exhibitor. Mr. Teulon’s works are always marked by a feeling for the pictu- resque, and also a share of originality. Both these are seen in his village domestic buildings, “erecting at Thorney Abbey, for the Duke of Bedford ” (1175, 1197). Mr. R. H. Potter is a con- tributor of two drawings (1176, 1196); the old half-timbered cottages at Stone, form a quaint group, but we cannot admire his * Entrance to à Cemetery Chapel" It is nothing less than a steeple, amazingly heavy, and fussily made up; it stands on open arches. “The Grotto of Egeria, near Rome,” (1177), A. J. Strutt, is hung too low to be properly seen; it is an interesting sketch, and very richly coloured. (1183), * The Staircase at the Earl of Har- rington’s new Mansion, Kensington Palace Gardens,” C. J. Richardson, strikes us as excessively m . There is astarchy uniformity which destroys the notion ol comfort, and the few ornaments are poor and misplaced. Better things might have been expected from one who has so much studied our old i mansions. His view of Kirby House, Northamptonshire ” (1219), is a bold drawing of that really fine building. The * View of Princes-Road, Kensington” (1206), is a large but very insipid affair—at least as here shown. Venice, as usual, finds a few admirers. Part of the everlasting St. Mark’s forms a picture (1191), by Mr. G. P. Boyce, which would attract more notice were not the subject so hacknied. Mr. McCallum’s study from the same (1293), is more ambitious, but far less pleasing. In the new Garrison Church at Edinburgh Castle (1192), Mr. Billings is lavish in the use of corbelling. There is a suitable effect of mass- ing and severe ornament; the principal timbers of the roof are boldly notched. The very beautiful water-colour sketches, exhi- bited by Mr. G. Aitchison, jun., are quite redeeming features in THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. the room, and there are fortunately several of them. ‘ The Duomo at Pisa” (1193), and the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Rome, we should particularly single out as specimens of powerful hand- ling. Mr. W. W. Deane's five pictures are of the same class, evidently truthful studies from nature. * Schools at Woodley, Berks ” (1202), is plain, of red brick, and looks sensible (the plan is also shown) Its neighbour, the * Exeter Training College" (1239), J. Hayward, has been before noticed as a successful group. We must offer a remark or two on the different “ Mansions” before us. (1203), by Coeand Goodwin, for Whitland, Carmarthenshire, is curious, as transporting the half-timbered framing of the North of England into moun- tainous and stony South Wales,—a novelty, but, we should say, not a pleasing one. (1222 and 1240), illustrate the costly edifice now being reared at Witley Court, Worcestershire, for Lord Ward, from the designs of Mr. Daukes. Except the itude of the undertaking, there is little to call forth notice. The gal- leries, we presume, form the wings, and very long they are—too long for proper proportion. Lawrenny, Pembrokeshire (1226), by H. Ashton, is & most sombre affair, and in its severe irregu- larity, absence of all ornament, and denuded A iia ta, looks more like a ruin than a new structure. “The New Hall, Pembroke College, Oxford ” (1233), by J. H. Le Keux, might be taken for an old one, which, we suppose, is giving it high praise. (1243), design, by Messrs. Wrightman, Hatfield, and Goldie, for a “Mansion at Boreatton, is of good Elizabethan character throughout, and has a handsome entrance-gateway to the unds rather too cut up to be in keeping with the rest. (1245), . D. Brandon's “Staircase at Falconhurst Lodge, Kent,” is also in this style; as also ** Design for à Mansion," by Banks and Barry (1252), who have adopted its worst, not best, characteristics. The open-work parapets; or whatever they may be called, are unmeaning, and y ugly. “Cowley Manor, Gloucestershire, as altered, from designs by G. S. Clarke” (1260), is a great improvement on the old house, judging by the sketch appended. Mr. Joseph Clarke’s “ Barley Manor” (1282), is a really sensible, comfortable -looking place, built of brick, and has 175 bay-windows and tasteful dormers. Bourne Place Farm“ (1292), designed by J. Turner, is very inferior; the roof-pitching is too flat, and the details are very poor. Red brick is here again the material. Messrs. Banks an have constructed an elegant apartment for Claudet's photographic gallery, of which a view is given in (1209). The mode of lighting, entirely from the ceiling, which is divided into flat panels for the purpose over the whole surface, is an excellent contrivance. The ornamental features and accessories A the a a in rs us ipi Ms upper gallery does not fit so pily, and & railing of better design micht easily have been devised. Speaking of internal decorations, we may mention with commendation the design for a ceiling,” by E. Kuckuck (1217); and Messrs. Trollope and Sons’ “decoration of the boudoir ee at Harewood House” (109) which is in their well-known skilful manner. Mr. E. Falkener’s continued series of “ Pompeian Studies” (1230, 1244, 1267), are quite per se in point of subject, of colouring, and treat- ment. Many useful hints are suggested by their examination. (1237), shows the “improvements, under Messrs. Wehnert and Ashdown, of the town of Llandudno,” one of the prettiest spots on the north coast of Wales. The designs of the new houses seem of very average merit, and are uniformly covered with uncomfortable-looking blue-slates—all from Bangor, doubtless, A few importations from Westmoreland would greatly relieve this monotony of colour. Of the two designs for Venetian palaces (1241 and 1247), preference must be given to the latter, as possessing more of the genuine character. Such performances are, however, more like pretty dreams of imagination than likely to be practicallv useful. (1264), a group illustrating the closing event in the life of our Lord, is delineated with great power of expression and correctness by Mr. J. Powell. It is designed for sculpture in an arched recess, and is the only drawing of the kind in the exhibition. It is cleverly sketched in pen and ink. The cemetery chapels, lodges, &c. for St. Pancras and Islington parishes, are intrinsically in the worst taste, but they have the advantage here of being made the most of by the artist’s skill. They are shown in (1204) and (1220); and (1224) represents the Episcopal chapel and lodges for St. Marylebone Cemetery, by the same architects, Messrs. Barnett and Birch. The selected design for a church at King's Winford, Staffordshire, of which Messrs. Bidlake and Lovatt are to be the architects, is really a pretty thing. Of the smaller class of churches exhibited in the room— 183 and their name is legion—this is decidedly the best. There is a degree of piquancy about the treatment of the tower and spire which is refreshing, and some of the other incidental features are ' well studied; the staircase-turrets perhaps rather too much so. (1208), pro new Church of St. Michael and all holy (!) angels, at Sutton Coldfield, is of very ordinary talent. The tower and spire are far too insignificant, and of wretched design. We do not quite see the utility of designing cathedral churches on the elaborate scale of some in the room, unless as exercises of the inventive faculty. The highly-enriched roof in (1211) is more ornamental than constructional, and this is the danger in all such vast attempts. Several other inconsistencies may readily be detected. Mr. Christian exhibits the Collegiate Church of Wol- verhampton (1214), as now 55 by him. It is well known as a fine specimen of the later style of architecture, and for its beautiful pulpit. We presume that the chancel will again be opened into the church, by the removal of the abominable screen-wall which now separates them. Mr. G. G. Scott also has an Interior View of the New Church at Doncaster” (1189), only in outline, which does not adequately convey the relative effect of a building, however it may be preferable in making out its several details. Though a large drawing, it is not, to our mind, a pleasing one. The exterior view, it will be remembered, was exhibited here in a former season, and a view of one of the chapels in the Architectural Exhibition. Another of Mr. Scott’s works, the “ new residences for Masters and Scholars of Rugby School” (1180), is exhibited by Mr. J. D. Wyatt. It forms rather an extensive group, pict uely broken in outline and pun The materials red brick, with black headers in patterns, ere is an interior view (in 1198) of the new 5 chapel at Hooton Hall, Cheshire, just completed by J. K. Colling. The architect has adopted the Byzantine type, introducing semi- circular arches and elled walls. The seat-ends look rather coarse compared with the other details. In (1215), we see Mr. Teulon’s new church at Watford, in which the nave and chancel are continuous, the distinction being marked externally by the ridge-cresting only, which has a metal cross only as a demarca- tion. The tower is apparently at the east end of the north aisle, and has a “ k-eaddle” roof, from which rises a spirelet. This latter, we submit, is no improvement, nor is the pet below. (1225), is at the present time were ay all, being a “ view of the building used as the Hospital for French troops, near Pera, Constantinople, —an extensive pile, grand only from its simpli- city. It has, as a central feature, a projecting portico, behind which springs a low dome. Mr. E, W. Pugin's two designs (1182 and 1227) are very so-80; one expects something better than commonplace from such a name. Several “Congregational Churches” are exhibited by Mr. J. James, all in the Pointed style, and good in outline; some ingenuity has been exercised in planning the galleries and their approaches. Steeples still ap to be in the ascendant. The chapels for Halifax (1178) and for Barnsley, are on a costly scale. In the latter plan a wide transeptal feature is employed, which is roofed by two gables. The tower doorway is cusped and cano- pied, and altogether extremely rich. The west wall contains three large windows, leaving very little pier between—rather too weak for the large gable above them. (1242), is Interior view of the Choir, Carlisle Cathedral,” showing the restoration of the ancient wood ceiling, &c. This latter is semicircular, boarded, and in panels with molded ribs. Hammer-beams roject from the cornice, very heavy in size, whose only use is to support the corone. They look exceedingly out of place. The drawing is & painfully elaborate one, complete to the minutest enrichment. In the restoration of Great Yarmouth Church, as exhibited by Mr. Hakewill, in (1262) some odd fancies are apparent; witness the unpractical panelling of the roofs, the seats in the nave, with low plain square framed ends, while those in the aisles, and at the west end, have poppy- head finials. We think, too, we can perceive that they have doors. The lectern faces east, and the lift to font-cover is a veritable cross. The fabric is generally of quite early character, and the east window a three-light geometrical one, but the stone reredos underneath looks very like a Perpendicular design; it is in two heights, and has a door at each end. It would be easy to multiply exceptional remarks on many of the other drawings we have not alluded to, but we seek for points of commendation rather than the reverse. Let every one moralise for himself, and contribute his share towards a better display in future. 27° 184 REVIEWS. New and Comprehensive Dictionary of the English „ as spoken and written. By Hype CLAREKE, D.C.L. London: J. Weale. 1855. pp. 479. A Grammar of the English Tongue, spoken and written, for Self Teaching and for Schools. By Hype CLARkE, D. C. L. Lon- don: J. Weale. 1853. pp. 152. From our previous knowledge of Mr. Hyde Clarke’s extensive acquirements in philology, when we found his name on the title page of anew English dictionary, we were prepared to find in the work proofs of his usual learning and research; but we must say that Mr. Clarke has, in the work before us, su ed our expectations in this respect, whilst he has developed Fesouroes which we had not previously imagined him to possess, and which, at first sight, would seem incompatible with the ordinary course of the ideas of a man of learning. Had this dictionary been a new edition of any previous one, or an abridgment of any existing work, we should have passed it over without notice. Indeed, there are abridgments enough in existence, and most of them scarcely exceeding the requirements of the schoolboy. Mr. Clarke’s work, however, is (as far as such a work can be) a new and original dictionary of the English lan- guage, in which the author has included, not only all the words contained in previous dictionaries, but has actually added above 60,000 more words—that is, he has nearly doubled the number of words previously included by any other author. Mr. Clarke states that his dictionary includes more than 100,000 words, reckoning the number by the same standard as in other diction- es. This result alone is an extraordinary achievement in lexico- phy; but what renders it the more important, is the fact that e additional words now admitted for the first time into a dic- tionary of the English language, are precisely those words for ` which a dictionary of reference is most required. He appears, also, to have noted an infinity of words for which printed classic authority cannot be produced, and which have, therefore, not yet found their way into the standard English dictionaries. With our language in its present state of development, it hap- pens that there become interwoven into our ordinary con- versation, and we daily see reproduced in the newspapers, words and expressions derived from almost every language of import- ance under the sun,—words which, although they are not English by origin, have, by use and prescription, become as it were naturalised amongst us. These words of foreign origin, which in spite of philologists and lexicographers, English journalists will print, English orators will pronounce, and which the English people persist in using in ordinary conversation, still retain their foreign garb, and occasionally prove most trouble- some and puzzling. Mr. Clarke rightly marks these words as foreign by the use of an italic type; but this class of words, expressing generally ideas for which we have no English synonym (at least without resort- ing to circumlocution), form, in our opinion, one of the most use- ful features of a dictionary. As for the contents of Mr. Clarke’s dictionary as a whole, it is impossible to give a satisfactory account of them in a succinct form; the dictionary itself can alone be its own expositor. We have called to mind a number of words, English, POR Latin, French, American, Colonial, technical, classical, conversational, polite, vulgar, occurring in the 3 conversation and news- papers of the day, and we have found them briefly, but accurately, defined in this dictionary. It contains all these, besides all the words usually contained in an English dictionary. What should we require more of a book which, from its extreme ee is within the means of the workman and the school- bo knowin the enormous amount of labour involved in a work so extensive as the present, it would be hypercritical to point out some exceptional definitions which we have met with, and which we shall hope to see corrected in the enlarged edition said to be in contemplation. There are also some errors of the press, which require amendment; however, the work before us is a first edition of a very difficult piece of typography. The ‘Grammar,’ by the same author, prefixed to the dic- tionary, extends over 150 of compact print, the more essen- tial parts being printed in a larger type than the rest. The book contains an incredible amount of curious philological learn- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. ing, and displays an intimate acquaintance with the science of language, and particularly with the physiology of the allied to our own. On this account the most learned reader will find it of great interest, although he may probably not agree with all the author’s views. The form of the lish verb is worked out to a greater extent than is usual, and its great flexibility and power well explained; and the table of common verbs, including the irregulars, with their derivatives, and the observations upon the use of these words, form a new and useful feature of the The dictionary and mar together will be a great boon to the classes for whom they are more particularly intended. A Supplement to the Imperial Dictionary, English, Technological, and Scientific. By Joun Oauviz, LL.D. London, Edin- burgh, and Glasgow: Blackie and Son. 1865. Technological Dictionary in the English, French, and German Languages. By Messrs. ToLHAUSEN and GarpissaL. Paris: 1854. There are few books more abundant than dictionaries, because everybody wants one, and they are of all prices; and yet there is much wanted by the student, because one book cannot well contain all he requires, or because a book large enough is beyond his means. The chief cause of the want of comprehen- siveness in dictionaries is the speciality of their plan, for being generally the work of purely literary men, they are for the most part too exclusively literary. The dictionaries of the seventeenth century were chiefly guides to rare foreign words, or technical terms other than those of the mechanical trades. Such, for instances, is the ‘ World of Words,’ which Milton encouraged his nephew tocompile. In the seventeenth century a wider scheme was adopted, and comprehensive dictionaries of the whole literary language—as that of Bailey, for instance—were produced in various forms, from the elder scholar’s folio to the schoolboy’s octavo or duodecimo. The labours of Dr. Johnson, however, effaced those of his predecessors; and by the production of one useful work, he cast inio the shade other works no less useful, —perhaps, so far as the great body of readers are concerned, more useful. By founding an English dictionary on a critical basis, Dr. Johnson performed a great task; but from the foreign sympathies: of his early education, and the want of acquaintance with the philology of the English group of languages, he was led to adopt a false critical estimate, and thereby giving a bad example to do as much mischief as good. Not the least of the mischief is its rpetuation; and even in the present day, at a distance of one hundred years, Dr. Latham is employed by Messrs. Longman in the task of producing a new edition of Dr. Johnson’s dic- tionary, instead of a new work. The bias given by Dr. Johnson was in favour of lite dictionaries of words, and the pro of encyclopeedias tended to create a new and false classification of dictionaries of words and dictionaries of things, and so im- poverishing the dictionaries. The spread of the English dialect, and the ter communion with Scotland and Ireland, produced & demand for pronouncing dictionaries, in which Sheridan, Walker, and others introduced their several theories for speaking English. The great stage in this progress was, however, the publication of the learned work of Noah Webster, too much American and rovincial in its tendency, but still the fairest record of our anguage. Webster, with the mind of a practical man, as well as of a philologist of large endowments, sought to expand rather than to contract the sphere of the English dictionary, and he endea- voured more particularly to introduce words relating to the arts, iving to them as full a meaning as he could. In this effort he as been seconded by his son-in-law, Prof. Goderich. The extension of Johnson by Todd, was a memorable labour, for he contributed more than the first author; but the records of the language have been most enlarged by those coadjutors of Webster who emulated him in the wide range of scholarship. The Anglo-Saxon dictionary of Bosworth has restored the old and natural basis of the language, the extraordinary industry of Richardson has continued the exploration throughout the whole range of our literature, and the dictionary of Hyde Clarke places on record the spoken language, and gives to the English lan an extent of nomenclature which can compete with that of any of the living tongues . Dr. Ogilvie was called upon to produce a new dictionary, to be called the ‘Imperial Dictionary, and he availed himself of the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. opportunity not alone of reproducing the meanings of Johnson and Webster, but of carrying out completely the ee of the latter by illustrating the meaning of technical words with engrav- ings. us he secured for a standard work the practical merit of giving a clearness of interpretation, which will be appreciated by men of business and by working men. Such is the growth of technical age, and such the progress of observation, that already Dr. Ogilvie has been called upon by the publishers to produce a supplement to the Imperial Dictionary, which is passing through the press in , and which includes on one hand the ossary of Chaucer, Spencer, and Shakspeare, and on the other the latest creations and discoveries of the botanist, mineralogi naturalist, and chemist. In this supplement alone are hundred and fifty engravings, and it will be published at the moderate price of seventeen shillings and sixpence. Many will take the supplement, because it gives to a great extent reference to the newest discoveries in science and art. It is, we hope, only a preparation for a new edition of the Imperial Dictionary. m general dictionaries we step to technological dictionaries, and we have before us a very meritorious work in that of Messrs. Tolhausen and Gardissal. This embraces the technical terms in English, French, and German, having a part for each lan which can therefore be used in a separate form. To the French and Germans this book is necessary, because they have so much occasion to consult English authorities; to English and American engineers it is necessary, because they are called upon to practise on the continent, and often to give explanations of their own technical terms; and to manufacturers it is necessary in the completion of Sri orders. The dictionary is a very copious one, and the only defect is one common to Germans, who will imagine they know the English language, and will deal with it. The want of an English editor causes much awkwardness of expression, and sometimes 5 in tlie English portion, but the work on the whole is good and useful. Railway Machinery. Part 27. By DANIEL Kinnear CLARK. London, Edinburgh, and Glasgow: Blackie and Son. This work has been delayed for a time, having met with a piece of good fortune in the appointment of the author to a high post as superintendent of locomotives, for which he has so well proved his qualification. It is now, however, approaching com- pletion, and one more Part alone remains. It is to some extent to anticipate our summing up, to say that this work gives such a comprehensive view of railway machinery in all its details, that the engineer, old and young, can have no better authority for reference, and the old engineer will benefit by it because he finds here the examples of his rivals as well as his own. NM The present number contains the plates of à new six-wheel locomotive of Robert Stephenson, and one plate including eight geveral kinds of water-cranes, with their The text specially includes switches, crossings, and turntables of various plans. A Popular Account of the Styles of Architecture. By EDWARD L. Tarsuck, Architect. London: Hagger. 1855. pp. 80. This essay has been received with favour by “The Institute,” who have awarded the author the “Institute Medal” for its production, and which, in a very general way and in small compass gives a popular and historical account of the various styles of architecture. He commences with Egyptian architec- ture: The constructive features of all the Egyptian edifices are extremely simple. Remains of arches have been discovered at Thebes and Saqquara, but square forms were preferred. The same massy spirit which dictated the austere simplicity of the pyramids evidently con- ceived the sturdy temples of Egypt. Sculptured ornaments and coloured decorations were admitted; but they are of that large, broad character which will not allow of the little and petty. Rectangular plane were invariably adhered to. Les tiens,' remarks M. Caylus, ‘ne nous ont laisse aucun monument public dont l'elevation ait été circulaire. The sternest, but, at the same time, the most correct taste, dictated every carved and moulded detail. All was in unison; every- thing was grand and imposing. The columns were short, sometimeg 10 or 12 feet in diameter, with capitals and bases of varied design. The roofs were flat, and a peculiar concave entablature was used. Nature was their model. The palm and lotus, the papyrus and date leaves, were happily introduced; and that symbol of strength, a bundle of sticks, suggested one of the finest forms of oolumns." He then passes on to the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Medes, 185 giving a deecription of the town of Babylon and of Assyrian architecture: The wonderful spirit, the truth and vigour of the Assyrian style of sculpture, are indicative of a very advanced degree of proficiency. Many of the heads are full of expression; the beard, the hair, the folds of the dress, are most minutely carved and carefully finished; and the horses are magnificent, of pure blood and high breed, confirming the descriptions of those of ancient Chaldea; and all in such wonderful pre- servation! many of the remains are as sharp and decided as though just from the hands of the sculptor; as if the echoes of his chisel had not yet died away, although thousands of generations have intervened.” He states that little is known of Persian architecture: „The ruins of Persepolis present almost the sole means of judging of Persian art; and from them we are induced to believe that it partook somewhat of the character of that of Egypt and of Assyria. Symbolical winged figures within a circle, and winged animals with human heads have been here found resembling those since discovered at Nineveh, but clothed in the Persian costume. The of wisdom and power, with other qualities, and even the Persian alphabet, were of Assyrian character. Marble was an ordinary material; the walls were of an Egyptian pyramidal form, surmounted with a cornice, and columns of great size, fluted and otherwise decorated, were in constant requisition.” He next describes the architecture of the Jews, of the Temple of Solomon, and other buildings of early date. China, India, and Mexico receive their share; of the former he writes: Of the refinement of conception, the chaste elegance, and the beauty of the forms of the Chinese structures, little or nothing can be said. No power, no impressiveness; but a toy-like childishness and gaiety of effect are their obvious characteristics. They are simply curious, and remark- able chiefly for à mechanical ingenuity, which is principally displayed in the bridges. One called the flying bridge, springing from two heights, consists of a single arch, spanning a width of 400 feet, and 500 feet high. The nation excelled also in the construction of suspension bridges, which, of exceeding lightness and great span, existed centuries before the idea was embraced by European engineers." Of the Indian he says: “The earliest remains are the cave-temples, excavated out of the solid rock; and the noblest and most extensive of which are those at Elephanta and Ellora: these are executed in the most elaborate manner. The flat ceiling is supported by reeded or fluted columns, having capitals resembling compressed cushions; and the side walls are sculptured with colossal figures of the gods in alti-relievi. Richly graven obelisks and gigantic images of their native elephants were, with the Hindoos, very favourite decorations, and of their love of colossal statues we have & noted instance, at Ningydeo, of a youth, 70 feet high, carved out of a mass of stone. The excavations suggested the chief features of the structural edifices which followed them. The arch not being extensively made use of as a constructive element, necessitated the frequent employment of columns with projecting brackets to carry the roof above. e darkness of the cavern was preserved in a lesser degree in the temples; their general form was square, and the pillars and walls were ornamented in the most oostly manner." Of Mexican: ‘ Whence the ancient Mexicans derived their architectural ideas, if not from indigenous sources, is a very difficult question to answer. If the arts did not attain among them a high degree of perfection, it is nevertheless surprising that so much progress should have been made, considering the low state of the mechanical sciences, and the complete isolation of this people from ancient examples and the old- world civilisa- tion, for they erected pyramide or teocallis, almost rivalling those of Egypt. The side of the base of that of Cholula is 1423 feet, the height, however, according to Humboldt, being only 177. One of their grandest temples was constructed on a solid artificial mass of earth, the base of which, 90 feet square, was diminished to 30 feet on the summit. Excluded as were the ancient Mexicans from all communication with the busy, active life in the opposite hemisphere, their towers of pyramidal form, ques one above the other; their walls covered with hieroglyphics, and many of their columns, as strongly remind us of Egypt, as do their caverns and halls, hewn out of the rock, of the archi- tecture of India, and several of their roads and bridges of the works of the Cyclopes of old.” Grecian architecture receives its praises: „The Grecian edifices were perfectly suited to the purposes for which they were intended. Taking the Parthenon as an instance, whether we consider it as a whole, or regard ite minuter parts; whether we study the decorations in colour and in gold, the sculpture on which Phidias worked, the mouldings which Callicrates and Ictinus approved, or remark the long lines, emblems of mathematical truth combined with æsthetic beauty;—we are struck with admiration at the intellect which could carry out a work, so wonderful in its conception, so complete in 186 its smallest details. In its ruin, sublimely grand, it still stands an emblem of intellectual majesty. The storms of ages, the more destruc- tive violence of man, have contributed to its fall and desolation; but, long after its last stone shall have crumbled into dust, so long as the arts are studied, and man continues a civilised being, will the fame of the Parthenon remain. one of the brightest records of the lofty soul of desc its founder, and of the nation that worthily seconded his efforts." The architecture of Rome next demands his attention, and a general epitome of its public buildings is given;—then Roman- eaque: In the structures which were next built, the general form of the basilic was adhered to; and such was the incompetency of the artista of those days, and so scanty were the funds provided, that after the time of Constantine, churches were frequently composed of fragmenta plundered from the nearest ruins, and put together, where new parts were requisite, as well as the incongruous materials would permit. And thus, from rude attempts to imitate the edifices of ancient Rome in those intended for purposes dissimilar to any which had yet presented them- selves, an entirely new and distinct system was gradually developed, and it spread all over Europe with the faith which gave it being. In central Italy and Germany, it was called Romanesque; in north Italy, Lombard; in the east, Byzantine; and in England, France, and adjacent parta, Saxon and Norman.” “We may mention as illustrative of the modifications of which this style is capable, Norwich castle, the transepts of Ely cathedral, and portions of those at Gloucester, Winchester and Norwich, in England;—the cathedrals at Aix-la-Chapelle and at Worms, in Germany;—those of St. Mark in Venice, and in Pisa in Italy; together with the mosque of Santa Sophia in Constantinople.” He follows with a brief description of the Moorish, Gothic, Italian, and “Present style of architecture.” We commend this little work to all who desire a smattering of the several styles, but to the scholar it will not, of course, be found sufficiently erudite for his particular study. — Athens in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. By COMTE DE LABORDE. Paris: 1855. Such is the title of a work just published, distinguished alike for great completeness and minuteness of research, and for the number of facts obtained from rare books and hitherto inaccessi- ble MSS, maps, plans, and sketches accompanying the work, as the map of the dukedom of Athens and the Peloponnesus, from the ‘Mappe Monde’ of Fra Mauro, about 1466. Other engravings represent Athens ornamented with buildings of the Gothic or German type, from the earliest topographical sketches, and also the designs of the architect San Gallo, in the Barberini library, Rome. The Count was induced to undertake this work by his special reseaches on the Parthenon, which have also been laid before the public. The main point in the modern history of the temple is its destruction, on the 26th September, 1687, which is thus graphically described by the author:—“ A terrible detonation made all the neighbourhood tremble, and struck with alarm the besiegers on directing their eyes towards the summit of the Acropolis, where an awful explosion followed by the outburst of a conflagration, had just severed in two and reduced to a ruin the chief masterpiece of architecture—the Parthenon, the complex, as it were, of Greek art in its aim for excellence. We Europeans, who aspire to the palm of civilisation, must ever bewail that a monument constructed in the spirit of perfection, and which during more than two thousand years had withstood the inroads of time and the barbarisms of man, was thus destroyed by the bomb of a Christian nation—republican Venice.” The desecration of the Parthenon was, as it were, avenged by the destruction of the Venetian army in Negropont, and the death of their leader, Count Königsmark. Comte de Laborde speaks with enthusiasm of the works of Stuart and Le Roy, which in the middle of the last century appeared like the rising sun to shed a new light on Grecian art. Subsequently the works of Phidias were studied at Rome by a select circle of the initiated—A kerblad, Zoega, Thorwaldsen, Schwegel, and others. In compiling his notes, the author has searched the archives of Venice, those of the State, and the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, as well as the libraries of that city, of London, Vienna, and others. It appears from these documents that a council of war was held with the intention of destroying the city; but was relinquished for want of workmen. The Doge then required that the statues of Neptune and Minerva should be removed from the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL western pediment, but they were destroyed in the attempt, and he had to content himself with the two licns to embellish the city of St. Mark. The city of Athens was taken possession of by the Turks three years after the conquest of Constantinople, or in the year 1456; and when, three years afterwards, the Sultan Mahommed IL came thither, he, according to the account of Chalkordylas, exclaimed at the sight of these grand monuments: “How much titude owe religion and the empire to the son of Eurachan viz. to Omar), who has conquered for them these treasures.” he Parthenon was now again transformed from a Christian church into a mosque, and the fine fresco paintings of the saints (even yet faintly visible) were covered with whitewash. This is the starting-point of the present work of de Laborde, which commences with ‘Facsimiles of the description of Athens,’ in modern Greek, from the Imperial Library, Vienna, a very characteristic composition; as well as of the ‘Anonymous Viennensis’ (about 1460). Towards the end of this period appears the ‘Relation de l'état de la Ville d'Athènes, by the esuit Babin, edited by Spon, 1674, which is here reprinted with valuable additions. This description of father Babin is the only historical document which, after a period of merely fabulous legends, attaches our knowledge of Greece to the work of Pausanias. It became, in fact, so rare, that collectors could not procure it, and it was not until last year that a copy was sold by auction at Paris for fifty sols, and that another was also found in the British Museum. Babin's exultation on seeing the columns of the Parthenon through a telescope on his approach on ship- board, was so great, that he calls it the eye and the sun of Greece. This is followed with the work of the painter, L Correy, whose draw- ings of the sculptures of the Parthenon are of great importance, and of which de Laborde gives a facsimile of the two pediments. Contemporaneously also with the learned Jesuit, the Capuchin friars at Athens had also studied its antiquities, and sent draw- ings and plans to Paris, which, with Babin's relation, ap in 1670 under the title of *Athenes ancien et moderne. Thence the archeological history of the Greek city merges into that of our own times, but the author has not failed to elucidate what- ever has happened to the monuments of ancient Athens, and la the chronicles of the middle ages say of this city and its rulers. — — lj——— ——— HARBOURS OF REFUGE. Account showing Total Estimated Costs of the Works; Sums already voted; and Sums estimated for the Year 1855-56. Total P ai t bees d 0 (0) u HARBOUBS. Estimate: epo dés ced REMARKS, Votes. 1855-6 £ £ £ Dover 650,000! | 244,000 | 34,000 | The new works have been let to the same contractors as before, and are proceeding satisfactorily. Harwich ...| 125,000 | 125,000 vet — Alderney ...|1,300,0002| 382,000 | 90,000 | An extended scheme having been approved by the Board of Admi- ralty, the Estimate has been increased accordingly. Jersey ...... 700,000 | 285,000 | 10,000 — Portland 588,9593 | 455,000 | 100,000 | The works are under (Harbourand contractand progress- Breakwater). ing satisfactorily. 1 This sum includes the pier, 800 feet long, at Cheeseman's Head, and the extension of it to 1800 feet. 9 This sum includes the extended scheme approved of by the Board of Admiralty. 8 This includes the sum of 30,0007. for the purchase of 474 acres on the shore of the bay, quarries, &c. Dover HARBOUR OF REFUGE. Messrs. Walker, Burges, and Cooper's Report. Quarter ending June 30, 1854.— During the past quarter, a portion of the outer end of the east wall of the pier has been raised to 17 bet above the foundations; at this level the diving work was stopped, to enable the contractors to bond the present work with the proposed extension of the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL pier, the staging for which is being erected, and concrete blocks for the earting are being pade. The west wall, above the quay level, has been extended 65 feet during the pe quarter. The temporary footway to the landing jetties on the east side of the pier has been widened and fenced off, to give additional accommodation to steam-boat passengers; and davits have been fixed in the east side of the pier for the life-boat. ` The daily average number of men employed on the pier during the quarter has been 121. No certificate has been granted to Messrs Freeman and Lee, the contractors, during the past quarter. The total amount certi- fied is 181, 500“. Quarter ending September 80, 1854.—The works under contract have been suspended during the past quarter, in consequence of the determi- nation of their lordships to proceed with the extension of the pier. 125 feet lineal of staging have been completed, two diving-bells are now 5 in the extension, and four more bells will shortly be ready. 25 lineal feet of the bottom course of granite have already been set on the enst and west sides of the pier, and the space between is partly filled in. 1900 tons of granite have been delivered on the works for the extension, and 2500 yards of concrete blocks have been made during the past quar- ter. The daily average number of men employed on the pier daring the quarter has been 135. A certificate amounting to 3000“. has been granted to Messrs. Freeman and Lee, the contractors, during the quarter, for works performed under the contract, making the total sum granted them 184,500. Quarter ending December 31, 1854.— During the past quarter the foundation course of the pier has been laid to 53 feet from the commence- ment of the extension contract on the west side, and to 48 feet on the east, being an average advance, since the last report, of 25 lineal feet. The backing behind has been extended 28 lineal feet during the quarter. 1500 tons of stone have been delivered, and 2000 yards of concrete blocks have been made during the past quarter. The daily average number of men employed has been 135. No certificates have been granted to Messrs. Lee, the contractors, during the past quarter. The total sum certified is 184,500/. Quarter ending March 31, 1855.—The foundation courses of the pier have been extended 20 feet during the past quarter, and raised an average height of 5 feet. The progress of the works has been much delayed by the weather, and also from the chalk foundation not proving so as in the portion nearer the shore. 500 tons of granite have been delivered on the works. The making of concrete blocks has proceeded. The average number of men employed upon the works has been 119. Cer- tificates amounting to 16,500/. have been granted to Messrs. Lee, the contractors, during the past quarter, making the total sum certified for the first and second contracta 201,0002. Harwich HARBOUR OF REFUGB. Messrs. Walker, Burges, and Cooper's Report. Quarter ending June 30, 1854.—In the month of April last Mesars. Lee and Son, the contractors, commenced the removal of the shoal at the entrance of the harbour, and of the outer portion of the Guard Shoal, which was ordered by their lordships on the 7th of March last, and is not of the first contract. The total quantity dredged from these shoals during the past quarter is 11,000 cubic yards. The works have been retarded by the sudden death of Mr. Collins, the contractors' superintendent. The daily average number of men employed during the quarter has been 25. No certificate having been granted to the con- tractors during the past quarter, the total amount certified upon the first contract with Messrs. Lee is, as last reported, 54,5001. A survey of the portion of the harbour recently dredged has been made. The con- tract depth has generally been attained, but a few small rocks, both within and beyond the contract lines, have been found from 16 to 17 feet below low-water spring tides, which we have directed to be removed by powder. By a recent survey, it appears that an extension of Land- uard Point to the south-west still continues, both above and below iow water. Quarter ending September 30, 1854.—The contractors have been en- gaged in blasting the rock, near the site of the Glutton Shoal, referred to in our former reports; this has proved a much more difficult and expensive operation than was contemplated; a large quantity of rock has been raised. The proyress made in the removal of the outer shoal, at the entrance of the harbour, has been great, considering the great ex- ure; 12,000 cubic yards have been raised during the past quarter. The average number of men employed upon the works during the quar- ter has been 40. No certificate has been granted to Messrs. j the contractors, upon their first contract for dredging. The total amount certified remains as before reported, 54,5001. A certificate, amounting to 25000, has however been granted to the contractors, on account of the dredging performed at the Outer and Guard Shoals. The stone slopes at the foot of Beacon Cliff have been recently pointed, and are now in a perfect state. There has beon but little change in the form of Landguard Point, above low water, since the last survey was made, three months ago. Quarter ending December 81, 1854.—Since our last report a large quantity of rock has been blasted and raised by divers, but the con- tinuance of rough weather has retarded this and ing operations, The total quantity of material raised from the Altar, Cod, Glutton, Guard, 187 and Outer Shoals, during the past quarter, is 17,000 cubic yards. The average number of men employed upon the works during the quarter has been 73. The total agoda certified: upon the first contract with Messrs. Lee remains as before, viz. 54,500}. The contractors have, however, received a certificate for 2000/., making a total of 4500/. for the dredg- ing of the Outer and Guard Shoals. Landguard Point continues to extend, but the advance above low water has not been great during the past quarter. Quarter ending March 31, 1855. —O wing to the continuance of rough and inclement weather, and the exposed nature of the work, no dredging has been done to the Outer Shoal at the entrance to Harwich Harbour during the past quarter. The quantity of material raised from the Guard Shoal has been 10,000 cubic yards; in addition to which several large rocks have been blasted and removed upon the portion of the har- bour to be dredged under the first contract. The average number of men engaged in dredging and blasting operations during the quarter has been 38. A certificate, amounting to 2000/., has been granted to Messrs. Lee, the contractors, on account of the dredging at the Outer and Guard Shoals, making a total of 6500/. since the commencement ef the works. No certificates have been granted on account of the first contract. The total amount for these works is, as before stated, 54,5002. The severe froste of the past winter have affected the pointing of some y. portions of the breakwater, and of the stone slopes round Beacon Cliff, Ahich will require attention. The long continuance of easterly gales has caused the greatest extension of Landguard Point, above the level of low water, that has been observed for sometime. Since last December, this portion has advanced in a south-easterly direction 100 feet; but below low water the extension has not been great, and does not therefore interfere with the entrance of vessels. The point is now above high water for about 100 feet to the westward of the line of the two lighthouses in one. ALDERNEY HARBOUR OF REFUGE. Messrs. Walker, Burges, and Cooper's Report. Quarter ending June 30, 1854.—On the 8th April a commencement for the season was made, in advancing the foundations of the walls of the western breakwater. The sea wall has been founded 91 yards in ane da during the quarter. Of this, 50 yards are raised to 4 feet above high water, 14 yards to 12 feet above low water, and 27 yards to low water of spring tides. The foundation of the harbour wall has been ex- tended 90 yards during the same time; of this, 52 yards have been raised to the level of the coping, 14 yards to 15 feet above low water, and 24 yards to low water. 100 lineal yards of staging have been erected, beyond the end of last season's work. The hearting between the walls has been extended along with the walls, and for 45 yards in length is raised 4 feet above high water. In addition to the stone in the works above described, 33,000 tons have been deposited in the base of the breakwater below low water. The weather during the quarter has been unfavourable, but no part of the work, or staging, has been disturbed by the sea. The daily average number of men employed during the quarter has been 686, and of horses 47. The amount of cer- tificates granted to Messrs. Jackson and Bean during the quarter is 12,500/., making a total of 267,564/. since the commencement of the works. Quarter ending September 80, 1854.—Since the date of our last quar- terly report the foundations of the walls of the western breakwater have been extended outwards 30 yards, their extreme outer ends being now 655 yards from the shore. e total length of the sea wall founded this season, viz. 121 yards, have been brought up to the level of 17 feet above high water; and the harbour wall for the same length is raised 4 feet above high water, ready for the coping. The hearting between the sea and harbour walls is ready for the pitching. Large blocks of stone and concrete have been placed at the outer ends of the sea and harbour walls, to protect them against the winter storms. The promenade wall has been extended outwards for a length of 90 yards, and brought to the level of 7 feet above the plinth. The base of the breakwater, under low water, has been extended seawards. A sufficient quantity of stone is deposited for the foundation of the walls for a length of 200 yards in advance of the masonry. "The total quantity of stone delivered on the works during the quarter has been 51,000 tons. The weather has been favourable for the works during the quarter. The daily average number of men employed during the quarter has been 648, and uf hores 48. The amount of certificates granted to Messrs. Jackson and Bean, the contractors, during the quarter, has been 18,500/., making a total of 286,054/. since the commencement of the work. Quarter ending December 30, 1854.—The sea and harbour walls of the western breakwater have not been carried further eastward during the past quarter than was stated in our last report, namely, 655 from the shore; but 120 yards of sea wall have been raised to the level of 20 feet above high water, making a total length of 646 yards of sea wall complete except the coping. 30 yards of promenade wall have been raised to the height of 7 feet above the plinth. The base of the break- water has been extended seawards, and a portion of the stone has been laid down below the level of low water, for a distance of 250 yards east- ward of the extreme end of the walls. The total quantity of stone de- posited in the breakwater during the quarter has been 44,000 tons. A 188 considerable supply of concrete blocks and dressed stone has been pre- pared, for the next season's work. There has been a succession of severe gales during the quarter, accompanied by heavy seas, which, with the exception of drawing out a few face stones from the sea wall on the 18th and 27th ultimo, and since replaced, have not affected the permanent works. The small portion of the contractors’ stage that was left standing has, however, been much damaged by the sea. The amount of certificates granted to Mesars. Jackson and Bean, the contractors, during the quarter, has been 9500/., making a total of 295,554l. since the com- mencement of the works. Quarter ending March 31, 1855.—The distance of the sea and har- bour walls from the shore remains as stated in our last report, viz., 655 yards; the length ready for the coping is 646 yards. The promenade wall, for 121 yards in length, has been raised to the level of the coping, and nine recesses under the promenade have been arched over. The promenade wall is ready for the coping for a length of 647 yards from the shore. The total quantity of stone deposited in the base and fore- shores below water during the last quarter has been 40,000 tons. A large quantity of stone has been dressed at the quarries, and a number of concrete blocks have been made for this season's work. The past winter has been very stormy, but with the exception of the few face stones drawn out of the sea wall, referred to in our last report, the works have not sustained damage from the sea. The daily average number of workmen employed during the quarter has been 470, and of horses 42. The amount of certificates granted to Messrs. Jackson and Bean, the contractors, during the quarter, has been 6500/., making 302,054“. since the commencement of the works. JERSEY HARBOUR OF REFUGE. Messrs. Walker, Burges, and Cooper's Report. Quarter ending June 30, 1854.—The masonry of the wall round the head of the Verclut Breakwater has been raised to a height of 17 feet above the level of low water, ordinary spring tides. The foreshores round the head have been extended to the full width on the harbour side, those on the sea side are in progress. The harbour wall has been coped for a length of 140 lineal yards, and the granite pitching laid be- hind the coping for a length of 136 yards. Six mooring posts have been fixed along the quay. The promenade wall is now to the full height for a total length of 672 yards; the foundations having been extended 33 lineal yards, and the coping 112 lineal yards, during the quarter. The third flight of steps has been completed. The parapet to the sea wall has been extended 151 yards, and the coping set for a length of 58 yards. 10,000 tons of stone have been deposited in the breakwater during the last quarter. The daily average number of men employed upon the works has been 165, and of horses 18. Messrs. Jackson and Bean, the contractors, have received certificates amounting to 4500. during the past quarter, making a total of 175, 000“. since the com- mencement of the works. Quarter ending September 30, 1854.—The walls of the head of the Verclut Breakwater have been raised 11 feet during the past quarter, making a total height of 28 feet above low water of ordinary spring tides. The harbour wall has been coped for a length of 142 lineal yards, and the granite pitching behind completed for a length of 183 yards. Kight mooring posts have been fixed along the quay, and five ties for mooring chains have been built into the harbour walls. The promenade wall has been coped for a length of 117 yards. The parapet of the sea wall has been coped for a length of 133 lineal yards; 13,700 tons of stone have been deposited in the breakwater during the past quarter. The daily average number of men employed upon the works has been 164, and of horses 16. Certificates have been granted to Messrs. Jackson and Bean, the contractors, amounting to 9000}. during the past quar- ter, making a total of 184, 000“. since the commencement of the works. Quarter ending December 31, 1854.—The masonry forming the head of the Verclut Breakwater has been completed to within one course of the underside of the coping of the quay, having been raised 8 feet during the quarter. The harbour wall has been coped for a length of 32 lineal yards, and the granite pitching behind the coping has been completed for 66 lineal yards. Two mooring posts have been fixed, and one moor- ing chain tie has been built into the harbour wall. The upper part of the sea wall, above the quay level, has been advanced 43 lineal yards and raised on the average 6 feet. The coping of the parapet has been finished for 108 lineal yards. 11,700 tons of stone have been deposited in the breakwater during the last quarter. There have been several gales during the past quarter; the most severe one (from the north-west) occurred on the 18th December, but no damage was done to the works. The daily average number of men employed during the quarter has been 133, and of horses 16. The contractors, Messrs. Jackson and Bean, have received certificates amounting to 3000/., during the past quar- ter, making a total of 187,000/. since the commencement of the works. Quarter ending March 31, 1855.—The upper part of the sea wall of the Verclut Breakwater at St. Catharine's, Jersey, has been completed as far as the centre of the head, excepting the parapet. The harbour wall has been coped for a length of 82 lineal yards, and the granite pitching behind it has been extended 58 yards. Two mooring posts and two ties for mooring chains have been fixed. The promenade wall has been advanced 64 lineal yards, and this portion raised 54 feet in height THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. above the plinth. 9600 tons of stone have been deposited in the break- water during the past quarter. The gales from the east and south-east have been very severe, but the damage to the works has been trifling. The daily average number of men employed upon the works has been 112, and of horses 16. The contractors, Messrs. Jackson and Bean, have received certificates amounting to 2500/. during the past quarter, making a total of 189,500/. since the commencement of the works. PORTLAND HARBOUR OF REFUGE AND BREAKWATER. Messrs. Rendel und Coode's Report. Quarter ending June 30, 1854.—The works have made satisfactory progress during the past quarter. The masonry for the west head of the passage is, on an average, about 6 feet below the level of low water of ordinary spring tides, some portion having reached that level; and arrangements are being made by the contractor for the completion of this head during the present year. The foundation for the eastern head of the passage has nearly reached the level of the footing-courses, the progress being necessarily limited by the rate at which the material has n supplied from the convict quarries. The quantity of stone depo- sited since the last return has been 142,552 tons. The end of the break- water is now 3540 feet from the shore, and the depth of water is 104 fathoms at low water of ordinary spring tides. The average number of men employed has been 388, of convicts in quarries 935, and of horses 33. Amount paid during the quarter, including 8470.. for reserves released, 27,5502. Quarter ending September 30, 1854.—The outer breakwater is now 3686 feet from the original shore-line having been advanced 146 feet during the quarter, 670 feet during the last year, into 104 fathoms at low water of spring tides. The quantity of rough stone deposited during the past quarter amounts to 136,431 tons, and the total quantity since the commencement has been 1,522,566 tons. About one-third of the masonry of the west head of the passage is now up to the level of high water spring tides. "The foundation courses for the masonry of the eastern head of the passage are being set; all the stone for these courses is on the ground ready, and will be set with all possible expedition, so as to ensure the completion of this head next summer. The works gene- raly are progressing very favourably; the stage and deposits of the outer breakwater are being advanced as rapidly as the supply of stone by the convicts employed in the quarries will allow. Average number of men employed has been 469, of convicts in quarries 961, of horses 34. Amount paid during the quarter has been 24,100/. Quarter ending December 31, 1854.—The quantity of rough stone de- posited in the breakwater during the past quarter amounts to 120,420 tons, the breakwater stage and deposit extending to 3776 feet from the shore. During a heavy south-east gale on the night of the 8th October last, a length of about 60 feet of the temporary piled stage was car- ried away by the sea; the permanent works were, however, in no way damaged, nor were the operations connected with the depositing the stone at all retarded. The masonry of the west head of the passage and its return is now for the most part up to the level of 5 feet above high water of ordinary spring tides, the return having been built up from the level of 10 feet below low water during the quarter. The three first courses forming the foundations to the eastern head of the passage are rather more than half finished; the diving operations at this part of the work will shortly have to be suspended on account of the season of the year; to be resumed again about the early part of April next. During the storms of the past quarter, 300 vessels have sought refuge from the works, and there have been as many as 100 anchored under their protec- tion at one time; among these were the Breslau, 90 guns, of the French Navy, Queen of the South, steam transport, with troops for the Crimea, a steamer with stores for the hospitals at Scutari, and a number of ves- sels with coal for the fleet in the Black Sea. The London and Irish steamers have put in for shelter on three or four occasions during the past quarter, and many large vessels have been riding at anchor in the harbour from a fortnight to three weeks. All these have been accom- modated without a casualty. The average number of men employed has been 508, of convicts in quarries 987, of horses 39. The amount paid during the quarter has been 21,800/. Quarter ending March 31, 1855.—The breakwater stage and deposits are now 3860 feet from the original shore line; the depth of water at low water of spring tides being 104 fathoms at the outer end of the stage. The total quantity of rough stone deposited in the breakwater to 31st March is 1,743,437 tons, and the quantity deposited during the past 12 months upwards of 505,000 tons. The setting of the masonry in the heads of the passage has been necessarily suspended since the early part of January last, owing to the unusual severity of the winter, particularly as the winds have prevailed to an unusual extent from east and south-east, to which quarters the works are most exposed. The masons will, however, re-commence setting operations on the west head of the passage very shortly. The works, both temporary and perma- nent, have withstood the heavy gales of the past winter in a very satis- factory manner. The average number of men employed has been 421, of convicts in quarries 1030, of horses 40. The amount paid during the quarter has been 14,800/. —ͤ — o — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. COLLIERIES OF THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. By Hersert MackwonTH, Inspector. Abstract of Report to the Secretary of State for the half-year ending December 31, 1853. THE accompanying schedule which I have the honour to sub- mit, contains a list of the fatal accidents which have occurred in the coal mines of the south of England and Wales during the second half of the year 1853. There are no means for ascertain- ing the numerous accidents which have either not terminated fatally, or in which death has ensued at so remote a period, that no inquest has been held, and no notice sent in conformity with the Inspection Act. Were the means of ascertaining the occur- rence of minor and non-fatal accidents provided by that Act, the attention of the inspector would, in many instances, be directed to dangerous localities, so as to interpose a timely warning before more serious casualties had ensued. This is particularly im- portant with reference to explosions of firedamp. In those cases which are enumerated from deaths having ensued, a number of other persons are generally more or less severely burnt, and, in several cases, from two to twelve men have been burnt without a fatal termination. Out of nine explosions mentioned as having occurred within the half-year, five are attributable to the neglect of rules and discipline, and the use of naked lights at collieries where the. managers knew very well how to render their mines safe, but had allowed them to fall into a dangerous state; amongst these, Tondu, of which Mr. James Cadman is the manager, was the worst. No attention had been paid to my notice of the 4th of February, 1852, in which I cautioned the manager that the colliers were in the habit of opening their safety lamps. Four out of five working places contained firedamp, and although the seam of coal was particularly dangerous to work, the ventilation and system were of the most defective kind. Since the accident I have addressed several urgent remonstrances to the manager, who always promises amendment; but I understand from the colliers that the mine is still in the same dangerous condition. Cwmbach, another of the five collieries referred to, is situated on that peculiarly dangerous part of the upper 4-foot coal seam at Aberdare in which, during a few years, about 170 lives have been sacrificed, and which, therefore, requires special care in its working. At the Lletty Shenkin colliery, which adjoins it, there was an explosion of firedamp on the 15th of September, which killed 3 persons and burnt 15 others. There have been upwards of 5 explosions at this colliery. On the 10th of August, 1849, 52 persons were killed. Mr. I. K. Blackwell, who attended the inquest at the desire of the secretary of state, cautioned the 1 respecting the dangerous state into which this colliery been brought by employing an ignorant manager, and the jury embodied an emphatic caution in their verdict; both of these have latterly been disregarded, with the fatal results which on the 30th of September I had occasion to report. After the explosion in the year 1849, the supervision of the colliery was entrusted to a highly qualified engineer, Mr. Dobson. Such was the state of things when I examined the colliery on the 24th of March 1852, and pointed out several defects to Mr. David Simms, the resident trustee. On the 15th of June, in the same year, an explosion occurred in consequence of the neglect of one of my cautions; and after examining the colliery I addressed a letter to “the principal agent of the Lletty Shenkin Coal Company.” On the 8th of July 1852, by order of the secretary of state, I enclosed to the proprietors two printed copies of reports on an explosion at the adjacent colliery, by which sixty-five lives were lost, requesting them to carry out the recommendations contained in them. In October and February following, I saw Mr. David Simms again at the colliery, and referring him to my conver- sations on the 24th of March and 22nd of June, and my subsequent letter, he stated in reply that my recommendations were being carried out. About June last year Mr. Dobson left, and the management fell into the hands of the overman, John Johns, a man of little or no experience for the subordinate office of overman, unable to read and write, and quite incompetent to be entrusted with the charge of 180 lives in one of the most dangerous collieries in England. By the evidence at the inquest it appeared that John Johus and the fireman had on the morning of the accident given orders to & collier, named William Rees to work away a pillar, using a naked light close to a fall from whicb a quantity of gas was escaping; in all these particulars directly contravening the printed rules of the colliery. On cross- 189 examination, John Johns showed himself to be unacquainted with some of the most important rules. It was proved that the explosion commenced at William Rees’ light, and it could not have occurred if my recommendations, or the printed rules of the colliery, had been attended to. The owners of the colliery were represented by two trustees, of whom one never came to the colliery; the other, Mr. David Simms, was paid a salary, resided on the premises, and had the sole charge of the works above ride He had never communicated my cautions to John ohns. The jury returned a verdict of manslaughter against David Simms. The explosion at the Lwyncelyn colliery is deserving of notice, as no precaution whatsoever against firedamp appeared to be adopted in the colliery; and a large escape of gas in a colliery, ventilated through a single bratticed shaft, seems to mark it out as the probable scene of a very destructive explosion at some future period. On the 17th of December I addressed a remon- strance to the proprietor, of which I have forwarded a copy. The most destructive explosion during the half-year was at the Bryndu colliery. Five lives were sacrificed. It was occa- sioned through the neglect of printed rules by the fireman, and a want of discipline on the part of the overman. Pillar workings were being commenced, without using locked safety lamps. There was an explosion of firedamp in this colliery on the 11th of November 1853, by which four lives were sacrificed; but since that time great exertions had been made by the proprietor and manager, involving a large outlay of money, and the colliery had 5 into a much better condition. Locked safety Amp bave now been exclusively introduced; the ventilation is produced by one of Struvés ventilators, by which the very prevalent danger of an explosion at the ventilating furnace is avoided, and the manager exhibits adequate skill and attention. Out of 29 deaths from falls of the roof of the seam, or of masses of coal from the working face, 16 have occurred in collieries connected with ironworks. It is much to be regretted that the managers of these works will not appoint competent men to set the props by which the roof is supported, but leave this part of the dai 7 work to the discretion of the collier, who is often unskilful, or at work in a sitting or lying posture, is too much engaged to observe the condition of the roof. At the Gadlys colliery alone there have been three accidents of this kind, which, if the system almost universal in Northumberland and Durham had been pursued, might have been avoided. The employment of a superior class of men, called “deputies,” in the above-named counties, to set the props, introduces a system of constant super- vision and police in the mine, which is one of the most important desiderata, and, by their example and cautions, the colliers naturally become more attentive to those minor duties of prop- ping the face of the coal, &c., which necessarily devolve upon th em. At the Tynings pit, near Radstock, several accidents have resulted from the want of a proper supervision of the colliers and examination ofthe state of the roof by the deputies, notwith- standing my repeated cautions. The manager recently, at my request, assembled the subordinate officers of the Countess of Waldegrave’s mines, and impressed this duty upon them in such a manner that, on the recurrence of an accident by a fall of roof, the deputy of the district in which it occurs will be held responsible. Three accidents, resulting from the breakage of ropes in shafts, are enumerated. At Cymnner, the accident occurred whilst the pit was sinking. Unnecessary risk is generally increased, in sinking pits, from the use of round ropes, and pulleys or sheaves of small diameter for them to work over. At the Clase colliery the rope was not only round, and worked with the most inade- quate machinery, but it had been worn out, and another piece of rope spliced to it, near which splice it gave way. On the lst of March 1852 I pointed out to Mr. D. Jones, the proprietor, the serious defects of his arrangements, and had the inquest not been held before it was possible for me to arrive at Swansea, I should have pointed out to the jury that the neglect of the proprietor amounted in my opinion to criminality. Nothing but ignorance and wanton neglect can intrust the safety of men to ropes which have been so far worn out as to find it necessary to splice them. In no part of England is this practice more common,’ I regret to say, than in Somersetshire and Gloucestershire; and the accidents from the breaking of winding ropes are consequently more numerous—nearly all of them occurring, as was the case at the Dean Lane pit, from the rope giving way near the splice, or 28 190 iron hinge, which was inserted. Four fatal accidents have arisen from pits not being properly protected at the top; viz., at Morfa, Grayfield, the old pit Radatocle and Cwmfelin. At Lletty Shenkin à man was killed by being thrown off the stage whilst ascending the pit. I had previously seen a similar accident very nearly result from the improper condition of the chain guides, and both verbally and by letter had cautioned the manager, Mr. David Simms, without my recommendations having been carried out. In many mining districts it is the practice of the men to ascend and descend from and to their work by ladders, and it may be useful to state that nine accidents, involving a loss of twelve lives, have occurred during the half- year, which would probably not have arisen if this mode, the transit by ladders, had been in operation. Four persons have been killed from riding on carriages on inclines, a practice which is generally forbidden on account of its extreme danger. In two instances the incline chain broke. Five deaths have arisen from persons being struck or run over by coal-trains. From comparison of the number of accidents it appears that the total loss of life in 1853 was 33 more than in 1851, and 53 less than in 1852, but that the number of accidents has increased from 99 to 112, and then to 140:— No. 1—Number of Lives lost by Accidents in Three Years. January July to Total in 1851. 1852. to June 1853. Dec. 1853. 13853. Explosions of firedamp .. 15 ...... 838 198 12 36 Falls of roo 54 FF 84 292 68 In shafts ................ 4l ...... 26- usovss 14. een 426. xus 40 Above ground............ 90 50 8 . 10 Weellnn een 888 { 8 oss 8 14 Totals ...... 130 ...... 26 80 88 160 No. 2.—Number of Accidents causing Death in Three Years. January July to Total in l adi 1892. to June 1853, Dec. 1853. ` 1853. . of firedamp .. 14 ...... I eve e 9^ secon 18 Falls of roof ...... ... Rl MEO 588 34 22 - auae 85 In shaft «. . IA visess 2D. . Si uus 18. las 99 «ous 68 Above ground „52 6 6 „ 6 6 „ „ 0 0 18 29 $ ee». „„f% 6 "esto 10 Miscellaneous .......... JO 257 1 . 8 14 Totals ...... 99 ...... 11212 8 1 140 The number of accidents taken as in the second table, irre- spectively of the number of lives sacrificed in each, affords a means of analysing, in a comprehensive manner, the causes of, and the liability to accidents. The production of coal in this district is increasing with unprecedented rapidity; the demand is unlimited, and there is necessarily a scarcity of labour. In consequence of this, not only is the number of men employed underground pro- gressively increasing in a high ratio, but many of these men are new hands, unaccustomed to underground operations, and who naturally incur greater risk. It may be assumed that the number of accidents from falls of roof, taken on this large average, represents fairly the rate of increase of these two sources of accidents. The falls of roof numbered in the three years respec- tively 50, 56, 63, showing an annual increase of 12 per cent. There is almost necessarily a greater liability to an increase in the number of explosions; for, in addition to the above elements, and besides the number of new winnings in untried seams of coal, from which the escape of gas is usually most violent, the collieries are being worked deeper, and the firedamp, under these circumstances, increases in quantity and in the tension under which it is discharged into the mine. There has not been an explosion during the last year which has resulted in the death of more than ten persons. There are at least eight collieries in my district which are peculiarly dangerous, and in which, when explosions do occur, they are attended with a sweeping destruction of life. They are Risca, Tondu, Cwmamman, Cwmbach, Lietty Shenkin, Dyffryn, Bryndu, Morfa. Asa result of the inspection I may mention, that, in all but the first, locked safety lamps are professedly ied i but the three first are the most unsatisfactory in their condition. To all of them I have devoted my special attention, and proceeded as far as the Inspection Act permitted me. The great number of the accidents in shafts during the past year, constituting the principal part of the general increase of accidents, is attributable chiefly to two causes, which are still in operation; viz, the number of new shafts which are being sunk, and the endeavour, by the increased speed of winding and greater activity, to raise a larger amount of coal to the surface, without corresponding improvements being made in the power, efficiency, and safety of the winding apparatus. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL The subject which I think it my duty at this time specially to bring to your lordship's notice, 1s the constitution and incom- petenty of the coroners’ juries. The moral force or influence of the Inspection Act, and which is the only power for good which it possesses, consists in authorising the inspector to 1 out the dangers or defects in a colliery to the manager. The benefit of the Act would be lost, if the inspector were not to produce these cautions before the coroners’ inquests, assembled to inquire into an accident at the colliery, to guide the jury in returning a proper verdict. Accidents under ground are 5 difficult to investigate; most men would shrink from the subject, and as neither the coroner nor the jury see the locality, or know what witnesses are required, it is not going too far to say that the cause of an accident is rarely exactly ascertained without the assistance of the inspector. But the jurymen, on whose verdict the practical working of the Act turns, are appointed by the con- stable or police, include most improper persons (frequently work- men in the employ of the manager), and generally ignorant and incompetent men. Although in many instances, whilst attending inquests, I have blamed severely the conduct of managers, in consequence of their having disregarded my cautions, and the necessity of those cautions being proved by the subsequent occurrence of the accident, the juries have, with one exception, returned verdicts of “accidental death.” The Inspection Act is shorn of the little influence it possesses every time that a strong case is subjected to the imbecllity of such tribunals; and after several similar exhibitions, at some of the most dangerous collieries in which accidents have repeatedly occurred, the ve cease making improvements. Before leaving this subject, I must pay a tribute to the courtesy with which nearly all the coroners receive my assist- ance. In almost every instance, in colliery cases, they have to adjourn the inquest to allow of my attendance, and for this adjournment the counties make no allowance. If these gentle- men were to adhere closely to the terms of the tion Act, and hold the inquests in two days after a notice had been sent to the secretary of state, I should not be able to be present at them. The sending of the notice, its transmission to me, and my journey into Wales, could not be performed in less than three days. In this respect, therefore, the Act is clearly deficient. It is also necessary to mention that, at many collieries, the proprietors or managers are glad to receive suggestions, and e to carry out those which it is my duty to make; but the present mm Act provides no means of checking the Bystematic neglect of life and safety at the worst-managed collieries in my district. It would very much simplify both my duties, and those of the coroners, if the general precaution neces in all collieries, and which Mr. Dickinson and myself submi to the Committee of the House of Commons on Coal Mines last year, were specially described in the Act. It would, in addition, be necessary to fix the responsibility of the management, by requiring the colliery owner, when called upon, to prove upon which of his officers the responsibility of any part of the management devolved, and that he or his agent had communicated the cautions given under the Inspection Act to the proper officer, with full powers to act. In the present state of the law, the owner receives my written notice respecting the state of the colliery, and if he does not choose to communicate to the manager the cautions contained in it, the process is entirely useless, as no court of law will hold him or the manager any more responsible than if the Inspection Act had not existed. en there are several proprietors the difficulty is if possible increased. The regulations which I had the honour to propose in my last Report are perfectly simple and intelligible; are of universal application to mines; are in practice at well-managed collieries; and are a modification of some of those embodied in the laws of the coal-producing countries of the continent. They are supported in most points by the evidence given before various committees of Parliament by the most eminent mining engineers in England. At the present moment, in consequence of the great difficulty of obtaining colliers, and the high rate of wages, the managers find much difficulty in enforcing adherence to their rules, and many of them have expressed to me their desire that such simple regulations as I propose should be into law, in which case the men would obey them much more readily than rules prepared by the manager. The greatest misfortune under which the mines of this district labour, both in respect of their commercial value and their safe THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL condition, is the ignorance of the managers or the overmen. All other improvements are subordinate to the one of increased education, as without it they can be but imperfectly introduced. Elementary schools have increased of late years, but still attract only a small fraction of the children of miners within their walls. The proposal of Mr. Seymour Tremenhere to place mines under the educational clauses of the Print Works Act, would meet much of the difficulty; but still there would be no means of communicating to boys, or to adult classes, the scientific and general knowledge necessary for the manager or overman of a colliery. To supply this deficiency, after communicating with Dr. Lyon Playfair and the Rev. Canon Moseley, I have, by pub- lications and otherwise, brought a proposal for a central minin and trade school at Swansea, before the coal proprietors and the publie; and on two occasions I have met the mayor and town council of Swansea, who have promised their support, and appointed a committee to carry out the proposal To assist the obiect, and produce some more immediate effect, I have delivered lectures to the officers of mines, on subjects connected with the safety of mines, at most of the centres of mining industry, within the limit of my district. I have formed an association amongst the officers of mines in Aberdare (where the accidents are most numerous and serious), which holds monthly meetings to discuss similar subjects, and whenever my duties allow of my doing so, I attend their meetings. The principal difficulty in establishing mining schools, is the want of qualified teachers. I am looking to the school at Swansea to supply this want in a few years, by the education of pupil teachers, and by the assistance o ate ment, the prospect of which the Committee of Council on Educa- tion have held out. I see no reason why mining schools may not then be established, on an ultimately self-supporting prin- ciple, in every valley in South Wales. In consequence of your lordship’s commands, conveyed in a letter from the Hon. Henry Fitzroy, dated the 16th day of September last, I have, as my other duties called me to the various portions of the district, examined the sanitary condition of the miners’ cottages and mining villages. As the character, habits, and condition of the mining class differ considerably in the six tracts or areas which are marked out and isolated one from the other by the situation and nature of the mineral wealth abounding in each, it will be most convenient to adhere to these natural divisions, and begin with the coal field of Pem- brokeshire. In this county the seams of coal are thin, exceedingly contorted and uncertain, consisting for the most part of culm. For this reason the coal has been usually worked only by very shallow and temporary pits, affording occasional employment to the collier, who therefore often applies himself to agricultural and other labour. The number of hands at these pits is usually small, sometimes consisting of the members of a family, of whom the women wind up and unload the coal, whilst the men and boys areat work underground. The result of these circumstances is, that the Pembrokeshire collier differs but little in any respect from the agricultural labourer, and his gains but little exceed the payment for work on the surface of the ground. He is too r to remove to other localities, such as the valleys of Gla- morganshire, where wages are much higher; and he has fre- uently a freehold or other interest in his cottage or hovel. rom the convenience with which a kind of earth can be obtained, which is capable of being formed, with a mixture of road scrap- ings, stones and straw, into & firm and permanent wall, the cottages are generally built with mud, and thatched with straw. They are very low, usually without ceiling, but partially divided by a rough partition of earth or boards into two rooms. The “balls” of which the fire is built up being a mixture of clay kneaded up with the very sulphury culms of the inferior coals, fill both rooms with an oppressive odour of sulphurous acid. No regard is paid to health in fixing the site of the cottage. Very frequently they may be found built on the hill-side, or in angles of waste ground by the roadside, the high bank hedges shutting out air and settling moisture round the walls. As a whole, the cottages have a mean appearance, some being little better than Irish cabins; but the pigsties are commonly at the end of the cottage, or detached. No attention is paid to drainage; the refuse is thrown out near the door, and privies are seldom to be seen, except one or two near a row of cottages. The inhabitants are usually well and warmly clothed in proportion to their wages, and the women are hardy and industrious. Although the 191 employing of women almost universally to “bank” the coal develops their frames and physical strength, I hear many objec- tions made to this custom, and its intluence on their moral and domestic duties. In the great coal field comprised in the counties of Carmarthen, Glamorgan, Brecon, and Monmouth, three broad divisions enter into the characteristics of the mining population. In Carmar- thenshire, in the anthracite collieries, and in the small outlying mines generally, the colliers partake very much of the condition of those in Pembrokeshire. The employment has been pre- carious, the wages are from 20 to 30 per cent. lower than in the centres of mining industry; and the cottages, being those usually inhabited by 1 labourers, are isolated, and have the advantage of healthiness arising from this. In some villages which I have visited, which were situated in marshy valleys, fever and ague are common throughout the year. The cottages are generally built of stone, but much out of repair, and wanting in interior accommodation. As in Pembrokeshire, the inside as well as the outside of the house, including the stone or slate roof, is whitewashed. In other respects there is little diia to cleanliness; privies are seldom to be seen. The men sutfer much from pulmonary diseases, arising from the unwhole- some air, and want of ventilation of most mines where there is no firedamp. Candles will hardly burn in the extremities of the works, from the want of oxygen; and the miasmata resulting from the accumulated excretions of years, produce their worst etfect in this pent-up atmosphere. The boys principally suffer, the less hardy being either cut off or obliged to find another employ- ment. In a statistical point of view, this want of atmospheric and pure air is one of the most serious causes of mortality to be found in the kingdom, as 300,000 miners have their years of labour shortened one-third by it, whilst that labour is increased in severity. It is not out of place to allude to this subject, which I have referred to in former Reports, as the infections of disease contracted on the surface are small in comparison with the seeds of decay and death inhaled in the mine itself, and which can in all cases be removed with actual benefit to the proprietor. The most abundant deposits of ironstone occur in the lower coal shales, which stretch along the north side of the South Wales coal basin, between 10 and 25 miles from the sea coast. This determines the position of the great ironworks, and conse- quently of the large mining population which has been attracted to these centres of activity, and modified in its habits and condi- tion by the care of the employers, or on the other hand by their neglect. The employment is regular, and the wages liberal for the amount of labour performed. The miners are quite able to afford clean and comfortable homes; but the habits of intoxication which are but too prevalent, especially when the rate of wages is high, deprive many families of this advantage. The cottages near the ironworks are in long rows, and, where built by the iron or coal masters, are generally large and roomy, but little regard is had to more than erecting the shellof the house. In respect of these, even that very reprehensible practice is common of building cottages back to back, so that thorough ventilation is impossible. During the prevalence of the cholera it proved to be of all evils the most fatal in its consequences. Drains are neglected, seldom extending beyond a main drain fed by open tters. Privies and pigsties there is seldom room for, except at the ends of the rows of cottages. They are usually erected by the tenants, crowded into any available space. The former are rare, one serving for a whole row of houses; and refuse of all kind being thrown out behind, permeates the sloping ground towards the next street or row of cottages below. More atten- tion is paid than formerly to the fronts of houses and streets, in consequence of sanitary enactments; but the worst localities peed relapse into old habits, and much palpably remains to be effected on this head, and invested with sume permanent efficacy. The report of Dr. Holland presents not an unfair picture of Merthyr Tydfil, but even here the iuhabitants are leaving the worst cottages as others of a better description are built on the outskirts of the town. A supply of water by pipes to the houses of the inhabitants is verv rare, although, from the existence of large reservoirs on the hill-sides, this might be effected during the greater portion of the year. It would at least induce habits of ter cleanliness amongst the people; drains would follow, and when the water fell short more exertion would be used to obtain an unfailing supply. The pumping engines of the coal mines might in many instances, at an insigniticant cost, supply 28* 192 water during a part or whole of the year. The superabundance of hot water from the condensing engines offers the means of roviding baths at a lower price than that charged at the public ths and washhouses in towns. As in those establishments, the use of such accommodations, if erected by the masters, would be at first limited, but would end in being appreciated as a boon. The habits of the miners in the district of which I speak encourages this, for they make a practice of going through a complete ablution every day on their return from work. This is often the mutual stipulation when a lodging is taken by a miner, but from the public manner in which the washing is per- formed baths are much to be preferred. When pits are in the course of sinking, or collieries working night and day, the beds are sometimes occupied twice in twenty- four hours, but with this exception the lodging houses are not so crowded as in cities. In some parts of the towns of Swansea, Llanelly, Dowlais, &c., the condition of Merthyr is quite equalled, and nothing can be more unhealthy than the condition of the dwel- lings and families, These cheap, crowded, putrid dens are the last resource of the confirmed kard, and the habits of the population, as well as the apathy of those in authority, con- centre in them the sinks of iniquity and disease, which re-act morally and physically in the contamination of the population at large. The practice of frequenting and passing evenings at the beer shops is very common among men, boys, and women. The children are mostly healthy, much being due to the elevated situations of the towns and villages, several hundred feet above the sea; but serious mischief is caused by the prevailing custom of giving drams to children, especially when the mothers work at the ironworks. A more respectable class of men are being settled round some of the works, where, as at Dowlais, the houses having been erected by the employer. the best men have been induced to become the owners of their cottages in the course of years, by paying, in addition to rent, an adequate interest on the capital expended. A more desirable or more easily accomplished measure than this could not be recommended. The third class into which I divide the mining population of the t South Wales coal basin is that to be found principally in the mining valleys of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, whence the coal is transported by railways or canals; and the col- lieries being large and recently commenced, a considerable but changing population has been collected roundeach mine. The mixed character of these people collected from all parts of South Wales and the south-west of England renders it less under the control of the masters than that near the ironworks. But insomuch as the character of the mass is, as it were, forming, and house accommodation is being constantly provided for the fresh acces- sions of labourers, it is in these places that improvements or essentials to health and comfort can most easily and cheaply be introduced. It is, I believe, incontestable, that the proprietor is greatly interested and advantaged by attending to the moral and social welfare of his workmen, and they are here within his Nevertheless, in the numerous rows of cottages built for the miners, privies and drains have been almost wholly overlooked. In the populous district of Aberdare there is not one house in twenty provided with them; and the erection of double cottages back to back, or one above the other on steep ground, renders one or both of them unhealthy. -Pigsties are not so common in these localities, but little re is had to their position when erecting. The privies are often so situated near thoroughfares as to become serious nuisance; and to check the establishment of such nuisances, as well as to prevent the accumulation of ashes and filth in front of the houses, the constant visits of inspectors of nuisances are everywhere indispensable. Fortunately the cottages are seldom built on flat ground, but on the hill-sides where the air is pure; still in many places, where hamlets are becoming mining villages, fevers are prevalent in the wetter months of the year. Whitewash is freely used in the interior and exterior, but without attention to the previous removal of accumulated dirt. Considerable attention is paid by some of the proprietors, as at Llynvi, Cwmavon, Abercarne, &c, to the cleanliness of the cottages; and it must be admitted that a change in the right direction is very slowly working its way throughout the district, and affords an opening for suggestions and assistance, In the Forest of Dean, from their isolation and the indepen- dence emanating from their ancient mining privileges, the free miners, as they are entitled, are superior in their moral and domestic condition to colliers elsewhere. The cottages are THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. generally detached, with a well-stocked garden, and even a small paddock. Not being confined for room, the pigsties are better placed than when the cottages are built in rows. Some attention 1s also paid to drains. The mines are free from firedamp, but are consequently very badly ventilated; the exhalations in them from ani and vegetable substances in a state of putrid fermentation, produce, together with the want of oxygen, as has been already explained, & serious effect on the health of the men employed underground. The dunghills are often left for years to rot close to the most frequented passages of the mine. . In the Bristol coal field, comprising portions of the counties of Gloucester and Somerset, the collieries are small, much scattered, and from the long time they have been in work, have collected around each & mining population distinct from that of the populous aciehboarhood adjoining. The underground life occu- pying most of the hours of daylight, and entered upon at a very early age by boys whose fathers and grandfathers have been miners, little opportunity is afforded for that education of day- light and of the surface which is the chief moulder of the minds of the young; and as might be expected, there is a line of separa- tion between the sympathies and associations of colliers and of the other labouring classes. For this reason, as well as from the dangers and unhealthiness to which they are too commonly sub- jected in their occupations, the mining classes peculiarly deserve the solicitude of government in education, health, and preserva- tion of life. , The dwellings of the colliers in the Bristol coal field are not below those of the agricultural labourers in cleanliness and comfort. Most of them havea small garden, but are insufficiently drained. Privies are more common than in South Wales, about one in three cottages in some places being provided, and the pigsties are generally at the end of the house or next to the back door. The agricultural labourer generally completes the outdoor appurtenances of his cottage in a more workman-like way than the collier, and his garden is better cultivated. This is partly due to the dislike of colliers, belonging to the hot and unhealthy mines of this district, to working in the open air. It is in this district that, notwithstanding the small pits and the thinness of the seams of coal (which are worked when only 12 inches thick), the ventilation is in the most neglected state. It is rare to find a mine where a candle will burn freely in every part, and the presence of that most poisonous gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, in dangerous quantities has been ascertained. The diseases of colliers are contracted underground. The air of the surface is seldom so charged with noxious exhalations, as the main ways of these mines, supported as they are with rottin timber, covered with fungi and travelled by boys on hands an knees, drawing heavy weights along roadways covered more or less with mud and slime. The miners usually wash as soon as they reach home. They have been noted as a dissolute, reckless class, but of late years they have decidedly improved, and a better and compulsory education for the boys is one of the most pressing wanta. VM To sum up the reply to the inquiries Hae ager by your lord- ship, the sanitary condition of the dwellings of the colliers is inferior to that of other labouring classes, although their habit of washing after leaving off work gives them an advantage on the score of health. This practice probably in a slight degree neutralises the injuries inflicted by the underground atmosphere; but I need only refer to the reports of medical and scientific gentlemen to the Children’s Employment Commission, and to the Royal Institution of Cornwall, to prove that the sanitary evils of the surface are insignificant when compared with the injuries inflicted by the want of ventilation in almost every mine which does not contain firedamp. In the firedamp mines, which constitute about half the coal mines in England, the ventilation is generally adequate for health and vigour, however, deficient it may be as regards safety from explosions. Dr. Hanot in Belgium has very fully investigated this subject, and cor- roborates my own observations. To demonstrate the loss incurred by the proprietors of mines through insufficient ventilation, I may state that in several mines where the ventilation has been improved by my suggestion, the colliers have admitted they could do one-quarter more work. At the United Mines in Cornwall the temperature of one of the levels was 105?, three gangs of miners relieved one another every five minutes, and to cool themselves plunged into water eight or ten times a day. The level was costing 181. per fathom. I was THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. called in by the proprietors last September, and explained the simple and inexpensive arrangements by which natural ventila- tion alone would bring in air at a temperature little exceeding that of air at the surface, and left the captains to carry out my suggestions. I have been recently informed, that by following these suggestions, the temperature has been reduced from 105° to 80°, and the cost from 187. to 5l. At nearly all collieries employing above 100 hands warm baths could be 5 y supplied from the pumping engine, which would enable the men to wash immediately on leaving work, and their clothes could be dried so that the filth of the collieries would not reach their homes. The arrangement would involve the construction of a “chan ing room,” as it is called in Cornwall, a walled tank, and a drying room, which might be on the top of the boilers. In Cornwall this practice has been adopted in several instances, but in some of the large works in France and Belgium the best examples are to be found. Nowhere have I seen in this country arrangements to be com- with those at Anzin, Grand Hornu, Mariemont, St. tienne, &c., for providing commodious dwellings, and enforcing a police of health and cleanliness, fully appreciated by the work- men, and esteemed of the highest advantage and importance by the managers of those mining establishments. The expenditure for surface works at mines in this country is small com with that in Belgium, where the seams are thinner and more expensive to work. The outlay in dwellings, in warm baths and washhouses, would be no great addition to the cost of a large mine, and it might in all cases be made to return a fair profit for the capital expended, apart from the advantage which an improvement in the moral condition of the workmen always places in the hands of the employer. eee SUPPLY OF WATER TO WASHINGTON GEORGETOWN, UNITED STATES. In the latter part of the year 1852, the President of the United States directed the Engineer Department to make the necessary surveys, projects, and estimates for 5 the best manner of affording to the cities of Washington and Georgetown an unfailing and abundant supply of water. The late Capt. F. A. Smith, of the corps of engineers, was ordered upon this duty, upon which he had just entered when he was suddenly removed by death. Lieut. Montgomery C. Meigs, of the same corps, was then, on the 3rd of Novemher 1852, assigned to the service. He has made his report to the President, through General Joseph G. Totten, Chief-Engineer. The present population of Washington is about 50,000, and of Georgetown 8000 inhabitants. Three schemes are pope by Lieut. Meigs:—l1st. An aque- duct from Rock Creek to the Capitol, navy yard, and public buildings. 2nd. The Little Falls works. 3rd. The Great Falls project. After some brief and interesting remarks upon the his- tory of the water works and supply of the States, the storage, ind modes of filtering adopted, Lieut. Meigs proceeds with his report as follows. Description of Rock-Creek Aqueduct. { propose to erect, at a point shown upon the accom i ma P k creek, a dam of masonry. Its height will be dile middle of the valley, 41 feet above its foundations. It will be built of rubble masoury, faced with large stones, roughly dressed, and laid in hydraulic mortar. The foundation and abutments are of sound gneiss rock, which is well calculated to resist the abrasion of water falling from such a height. The rock will be excavated under the aite of the dam till all the loose and unsound stone is removed. The plan of the dam will be an arc of a circle of 282 feet chord, and 30 feet versed sine—adding to the inertia of the masonry the strength of the arch. The back of the dam will be embanked with earth, as usual. To prevent the slow wear of the masonry and foundations caused by the constant flow of a thin sheet of water, 20 feet of the dam near the west end will be left as a waste-weir, 2 feet lower than the rest, and a channel will be excavated through the rock, which here rises within 10 feet of the lip of the dam, to carry off the ordinary flow of the stream. This weir will be uas by stop-planks, in the usual way. e water will flow in the channel prepared for it without injury to the dam, which will be exposed to wear for a short time AND 193 only, during freshets. Wings 10 feet above the crest of the dam extend into the hill on each side, protecting the abutments from wash during floods. The water will be raised at the site of the dam 37 feet, and a pond of about 28 miles in length will be formed, whose surface, at a level of 166,45 feet above high-tide in the Potomac, will contain 1412 acres. The upper part of this reservoir will be excavated to secure a depth of 5 feet near the shore, so as to prevent, as far as possible, the growth of aquatic plants. The water contained in this pool, within 5 feet of the surface, will be about 231,000,000 gallons. A greater reservoir, but at great cost, might be made above the termination of this one; but the character of the valley here changes, and, without much expense in excavating its head and borders, we should only obtain a wide shallow pool, which, by the heats of summer, would be rendered too warm for drinking, and which in time—filled with aquatic plants and the countless millions of infusoria—would become a stagnant lake, deleterious to the health of the neighbourhood, and unfit for use in the city. From this reservoir, Í propose to convey the water by a conduit of brick 6 feet in diameter and 9 inches thick, laid, wherever it is possible, entirely beneath the natural surface. Where raised upon embankments or masonry, it will be covered with a depth of at least 2 feet of earth, sufficient in this climate to protect it from any damage by frost. I propose the circular form, because it gives the greatest water- way, with least friction on the sides and least expenditure of material The diameter is determined by the necessity of allow- ing free to workmen and officers engaged in the periodical Inspection and repairs. his conduit will be capable of delivering much more than the minimum supply of Rock creek; but there is no good reason why, because we can get only 10 millions in dry seasons, we should not take 20 when they are to be had. The slope hac] 1 foot per mile, and the depth of water 5 feet, the discharge wil be 26,732,300 gallons a day. Waste-weirs will be erected in the proper places to relieve the conduit from the surplus caused by floods, and a gate-house near the dam will regulate the quantity admitted. The route is very rough and rocky, requiring several deep cuts, four bridges, and one tunnel. Generali , however, the line has been 80 placed as to require but little excavation and embank- ment. 'lo secure this result, and lighten the expense, we were ir. ae to make the line very croaked The most considerable bridge is at Piney branch, where the valley is 537 feet wide and 73 feet below the water-line of the aqueduct. I propose to cross this by a bridge of eight arches of 50 feet span—the arches to be, except at the heads T exposed to the weather, of brick; the piers of good rubble masonry; and the style of the whole work substantial and plain. Its magnitude and simplicity will give it a good effect, which will be little inferior, I think, to that of a more ambitious and decorated structure. The cost of this bridge will be $68,123. I do not particularly describe the other three. They are designed in much the same style, but, being smaller, are less costly. They might all be replaced, with some reduction of cost, by pipes; but I have in these projects avoided the use of pipes in crossing valleys. They always occasion a loss of head, or else exceed in cost the bridges they replace. New York now regrets the unwise economy which, to save $100,000 in a work costing $12,000,000, choked the aqueduct at the great Harlem bridge, sacrificed 2 feet of head, and reduced to one-half the capacity of a work everywhere else able to pass 60,000,000 of gallons a day. At a much greater expense it is now proposed to raise the Harlem bridge, as it should have been at first, to the general grade of the aqueduct. The conduit crosses the high ground near the Russian minister's country-seat by a tunnel, about 1500 feet in length, through hard gneiss rock; shortly afterwards it crosses Piney branch by the xr hepa bridge above described, and then, ascending the valley of a small brook, a tributary of Piney branch, turns, near the toll-gate on the 7th-street road, to the south, and, by a cut of 31 feet in depth, reaches a ravine between Mr. Stone’s house and 7th-street road, where it is proposed to locate the receiving reservoir. This reservoir will be formed by throwing a bank across the ravine. This bank will be 15 feet wide on the top—the interior sloping to the low-water level at an inclination of 11 to 1, and 194 protected from wash by a paving of brick secured at the low- water line with broken stone. ence to the bottom, the alo 0 3 to 1. The exterior slope will be 2 to 1, and will be A bank, paved on the interior, will surround this reservoir. It is usual, in other cities, to pave the bottoms of the dis- tributing reservoirs, but for this I see no necessity; and indeed I do not know but it would be as well, in construction, if the soil proves to be a good compact E pub to omit the paving on the rders, except on the exposed bank which forms the retaining dam. Nevertheless, I have estimated for the construction of the banks in the customary mode, leaving it to be determined, upon further consideration, whether the paving may be dispensed with. The drainage of the surface water, which should not be allowed to flow from the fields into this reservoir, offered, owing to the form of the ground, a difficulty. It is provided for by & small sewer, 3 feet in diameter, outside the bank. Probably more careful study of the ground than I have had time to bestow may enable us to devise a less expensive arrangement. Certainly we are safe in estimating for this one. The usual precautions of puddling, &c., have been provided for in estimating for this reservoir. A smaller one might be erected at much less expense; but the smaller the supply from the source the larger the reservoirs required for storage, and I have estimated for completing this work upon a liberal scale. The price of the embankment has been put at a high rate; but it must be made with extreme care, for the consequences to the city of a breach in these embankments, holding millions of cubic feet of water, at a height of 160 feet above it, would be disastrous. The water would probably seek a direct course to the Potomac, sweeping everything in its way. A waste-weir gives escape to the surplus water, which is carried off by the drainage-sewer surrounding the reservoir. The conduit is continued on the east side of the reservoir to its south-eastern corner, where a pipe chamber and mains enable us to draw the supply directly from the conduit, in case of accident, foulness, or cleansing of the reservoir. The effluent mains and drainage-pipes will be contained in a brick vault, under the centre of the dam; so that the whole water of this reservoir can be drawn off for use in a great conflagration or any other extreme case. Its ordinary level will be 162,¢*, feet above high tide, which is 64^. feet above the roof of the wings of the Capitol, and 70,23; feet below the top of the balustrade on the dome. The mains which lead the water into the cities I have estimated to be 30 and 12 inches in diameter. These are sufficient for the present, and, unlike the aqueduct, are easily replaced by larger; or new ones can be laid beside them, as the wants of the cities increase, All leading and important mains should be double, to prevent the interruption of the supply by accidents; but it is not necessary that they should all be of the same size. The twelve-inch main will afford enough for an economical use during the short time needed for repairs of the larger one. A portion of Georgetown is at too great a height to be supplied by the natural flow of water from any source within reach. I propose for this high service—supplying perhaps 1000 per- sons—to pump the water into a reservoir upon the heights of Georgetown. This reservoir will be of earth, the materials of the bank being supplied by the excavation of the centre. It will be about three-fourths of an acre in extent, and contain, when filled to a depth of 10 feet, about 2,500,000 gallons. The pump will be worked by a small turbine placed near the river in Georgetown, and driven by a pipe from the main with a head of 162 feet. The difference of level to be overcome being only 48 feet, the expenditure of a small quantity from the main will suffice to keep this reservoir full. The wheel and pump will be of sufficient power to raise the quantity needed for the daily consumption in 10 hours; so that the water necessary may be drawn from the mains at those hours of the night or day when it can be best spared. The length of this aqueduct will be as follows. From the head of retaining reservoir to dam 3:625 miles Conduit ... "T ius is 3:8067 7:4317 Add length of mains to Pennsylvania 1:818 Total length to where pipes are common to all plans proposed, 9:2497 — nine and a quarter miles. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Description of the Project for Supplying Water from the Great Falls of the Potomac. The traveller ascending the bank of the Potomac from George- town to the Great Falls would conclude that a more unpromis region for the construction of an aqueduct could not be foun Supported by high walls against the face of jagged and vertical recipices, in continual danger of being undermined by the oaming torrent which boils below, the canal is a monument of the energy and daring of our engineers The route seems occupied, and no mode of bringing in the water except by iron pipes secured to the rocks or laid in the bed of the canal seems practicable. Such were my own impressions; and though I knew that, in this age, with money, any achievement of engineering was possible 1 thought the survey would be needed only to . by figures and measures the extravagance of such a wor But, when the levels were applied to the gronne, I found, to my surprise and gratification, that the rocky precipices and difficult passages were nearly all below the line which, allowing a uniform grade, would naturally be selected for our conduit; and that, instead of demonstrating the extravagance of the proposal, it became my duty to devise a work presenting no considerable difficulties, and affording no opportunities for the exhibition of any triumphs of science or skill. Indeed, the nature of the country is such as to present less than the ordinary difficulties to be expected in such an under- taking. There are several tunnels of an average length of only 220 feet; but three bridges, and only one of these large enough to make its erection an object of ambition to an ae The line runs on the slope of the hills, which is generally moderate, and such as to afford choice of ground. It has been located so as to conform to the surface, and requires very light excavation and embankment. As will be evident from the accompanying map, it is a very direct line, of remarkably easy curves, much less crooked than the line we were compelled to adopt on Rock creek; though longer, with fewer bridges, and those, except in one instance, less costly. The distance in a right line from the beginning of the conduit to the north end of the Georgetown aqueduct is 11} miles; the length of the conduit is about 14 miles, including the reservoirs and the pipe, to this same point. One great source of expense, however, is the number of small ravines which furrow the hill-sides, generally dry, sometimes containing small streams, but all liable, after heavy thunder- showers, to pour down torrents, requiring liberal culverts for their passage. The elevation of the water in the Potomac opposite the fifteenth milestone on the canal, which is somewhat less than #-mile above Collin’s Great Falls house, is, at low-water, 147 feet above high-tide at Washington. Our examination showed an average depth of less than 5 feet, a ledge of rock extending across the river and forming a natural dam. In ordinary stages, the water is 2 or 3 feet higher. A dyke of rock thrown across the stream, 1541 feet in length, and 8 feet in height, will raise the water, at its lowest stage, to the level of (150). A brick conduit laid in a trench, and covered up with rock and earth, will conduct the water to the tail of the 15th lock on the canal. Here a large 5 will be constructed, serving as a waste-weir to relieve the conduit from tlie super- abundant waters of great floods. Wastes will be put in at several points between this chamber and the head of the conduit at the dam to establish an equilibrium between the pressure within and without in floods, which may rise to a height, in some places, of nearly 20 feet above this conduit. It may prove, upon further examination, a better and cheaper arrangement to carry a wall or dyke from the end of the dam along some islands near the Maryland shore, so as to make this part of the aqueduct an open canal; but the determination of this question must be left to the surveys for a final and detinite location. The height is not sufficient to cross over the canal, and any location between the canal and river below this point will be insecure aud very expensive. The water will, therefore, be conveyed by large iron pipes, under the canal, to & gate-house on the opposite side, where revulating-gates, 1 by screws, will control the quantity to be admitted; while throttle-valves in the pipes, governed by a large float, will cut off the communication entirely when tlie river rises to a height likely to be injurious to the conduit. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. After leaving the gate-house, the water will be conducted to the receiving reservoir through a brick circular conduit 7 feet in diameter, 9 inches thick, covered always with at least 2 feet of earth. With a slope of 0°792 foot (a little over 9 inches) to the mile, the water running at 6 feet depth, this conduit will dis- charge 36,015,400 gallons in 24 hours. At a depth of 35 feet, the discharge would be 17,734,300. A small increase in the size of the conduit would very much increase the quantity of water. A conduit of 9 feet interior diameter, water 8 feet deep, would deliver 67,596,400 gallons a day. The quantity which can be supplied by the river being a unlimited, it is difficult to decile upon the size of the conduit. I have taken 7 feet diameter, because I considered it safe to construct one of that size, with an arch of 9 inches thickness; while a larger size would probably require a half-brick to be added to the arch, and thus considerably increase the cost. The difference in the excavation and embankment, however, would not be very great, and the increased expense by no means pro- portioned to the increased delivery. There are two short tunnels near the pipe-chamber—one 215, the other 272 feet in length. They mucho driven through hard gneiss rock, but offer no particular difficulty. After leaving these tunnels, the line for about a mile is rincipally in rock; but the excavation is light, as will be seen y the profile upon the map. It crosses a ravine and small brook by an arch of 24 feet span, and soon after passes through two tunnels—one 115, the other 61 feet in length. The character of the rock is the same as in the first tunnel. At 54 miles from the dam it crosses Mountain-spring brook by an arch of 50 feet span, and in easy cutting to the end of the seventh mile, where it meets the only serious obstacle on its whole course. This is the valley of the Cabin John branch. The bottom of the stream is 95 feet below the water in the aqueduct. This valley might be crossed by pipes; but the reasons given in describing the bridges on the Rock-creek line, and the experience of the lem bridge, on the Croton aqueduct, are sufficient, I think, to prove that a bridge, unless very costly, should be preferred. The bridge proposed will be 482 feet in extreme length; its greatest height 101 feet; width, 20 feet; and will consist of 6 semicircular arches of 60 feet span, resting upon piers 7 feet thick by 20 feet long at the top, and of various heights, the highest being 52} feet. e piers will be of rubble masonry of large stones, which can be quarried within a quarter of a mile of the site; the ring-stones, at the ends of the arches, of well-cut stone; and the remaining part of the arches of brick. l This bridge will cost $72,409, and is the only large one upon the route. The line then passes through favourable ground, being gene- rally two-thirds of its depth below the natural surface. There are some ravines requiring embankments near the Little Falls, and the hill-side there is steep and stony. Near the end of the tenth mile the line turns to the north-east, and, by a tunnel of 440 feet, reaches the valley of Little Falls or Powdermill branch. This is the last tunnel. The aggregate length of the whole five is 1103 feet, or less than }-mile. A comparison with the tunnelling of the Croton aqueduct will show how favourable is the ground. There are on the Croton aqueduct 16 tunnels; the shortest 116, the longest 1215 feet in length—longer than the whole of those upon this line. The aggregate length of the 16 tunnels on the Croton is 6953 feet. A dam across the valley of the Little Falls branch, 41 feet in height above its foundation, and 200 feet in length, floods 50°65 acres, ing a reservoir of irregular shape, containing, above the level of 140 feet above high tide, 82,521,500 gallons. This is the receiving and settling reservoir. The water leaves it at a distance of 3000 55 aT Si 2. where it enters; and, in slowl ing across the which deepens to 30 or 40 feet near the ezit it will deposit mbt of its sediment Powdermill or Little Falls branch is itself a valuable addition tothesupply. The water is beautifully clear, and pleasant to the taste. During summer it never, I am informed, entirely fails; and at the time of our surveys I judge that it yielded as much aa two or three millions of gallons a day. An important advantage results from the formation of this 195 reservoir, in hastening the time at which the water can be introduced into the cities. There are no tunnels or bridges on the line below this point; and the work, being light, except the construction of the distributing reservoir, the completion of which might be dispensed with for a short time, can be finished in a few months: so that, as soon as pipes are laid, and the dam on this stream completed, the two or three millions it affords in the autumn and winter can be introduced. This could, without difficulty, be accomplished by the beginning of the next session of Congress. The dam here is planned upon the model of the Croton dam, ed with less cut stone, and in a less expensive but equally durable style. The distance from the effluent gate-house of the receiving reservoir to the influent gate-house of the V»V³ñ³ is not quite two miles. Phe slope of the conduit, on leaving the receiving reservoir, is diminished to about 3 inches per mile. The two reservoirs are so near each other that their level is expected to remain nearly the same—145 feet above high tide. he cutting on this portion of the line is almost entirely in clay, and the work is light, and offers no difficulties. From the influent gate-house of the distributing reservoir the conduit is continued under the reservoir bank to an effluent gate- house and pipe-chamber at the end near Georgetown. An iron pipe communicating with the mains leading from the reservoir into the cities will afford the means of drawing a supply direct from the conduit when cleansing the distributing reservoir, or in case of interruption to its use during repairs. The distributing reservoir is upon the thirteenth mile, making the whole distance from the dam to the end of the distributing reservoir, and including three-fifths of a mile in the receiving reservoir, less than 13 miles. The distributing reservoir is near the Drover’s Rest, above Georgetown. There is much land here suitable for the erection of a reservoir, and perhaps more exact surveys may induce a change in the location. The bank between the reservoir and the bluff will be constructed upon the same general plan as that proposed for the Rock creek line. "The soil being clay, however, this bank will not require the heavy puddle-ditch in its centre there rovided for. Its average depth is about 14 feet, its water sur- ace is 364 acres, and is 145 feet above tide. Contents at 14 feet depth, 167,530,000 gallons; within 5 feet of the surface it contains 59,783,000 gallons. The two reservoirs will afford, supposing the conduit to be interrupted by floods or accident, or during the periodical examinations ne for repairs, 142,304,500 gallons, without reducing the head below 140 feet; and in case of emergency supposing the surface lowered to 131 feet above tide, the will yield 250,000,000 gallons, besides what will be supplied during this time by the flow of the Little Falls branch. A pipe is inserted under the bank of this reservoir to drain it into the canal, for cleansing or necessary repairs It is divided into two nearly equal parts by & bank rising nearly to the sur- face of the water, designed to assist, by allowing only the surface water to flow over it, in separating the turbid from the clear water, as explained in the remarks upon filtration submitted in the earlier part of this report. A communication-pipe and stop- cock are inserted in this division bank. The effluent pipe-vault is at at the south-east end towards Georgetown. It contains two pipes of 36 inches diameter. The mains proposed are double, to guard against accidents, and admit of repairs without cutting off the supply entirely. One will be of 30 inches, the other, laid beside it, of 12 inches diameter. They follow the most direct route into Georgetown, down Bridge- street and Pennsylvania-avenue to the Capitol. In the estimate I have provided for a small reservoir for high service in Georgetown, as in the project for the Rock-creek aque- duct. It will be supplied in the same way, by a force-pump, worked by a turbine with water drawn from the mains. The estimate for the Great Falls „ includes the mains, to the intersection of High and Bridge streets, in Georgetown, whence the pipes leading to the Capitol, Navy-yard, and principal publie buildings are common to all the plans proposed. A reduction might be made in these estimates by diminishing the size of the distributing reservoir; but this, I think, for reasons given above would be an unwise economy. I have estimated throughout to do the work in what appears to me the best manner. e have within our reach, at à moderate expense, the finest supply of water ever offered to a city; and to 196 build an imperfect work now, would only entail the necessity of e ing it, at great expense, hereafter. The mains leading from the reservoirs are, I think, enough for the present. In a few years it will be necessary to enlarge them. Then the 12-inch can be taken up and relaid in the distribution of the city, its place being supplied by one of 36 inches. A separate estimate provides for the mains to the Capitol, the Navy-yard, the Arsenal, the Patent Office, the City Hall, the Mall, and the Observatory. In comparing the estimates for the Rock-creek and the Potomac aqueducta, it will be seen that the cost of reservoirs is nearly the same Those for Rock- creek costing... $260,403 Those fur Potomac costing - 266,291 The iron mains for Rock-creek will cost 451,063 For Potomac ... , wae 398,726 The excess in cost of the Potomac line arises chiefly from the greater size and greater length of conduit. The total cost of the Rock-creek aqueduct, including dis- tribution to the public buildings, will be $1,255,863; of the Potomac, $1,921,244. The former will deliver, when the creek can supply it, in the wet months of winter and spring, 26,732,300 gallons a day; but will sometimes, in hot weather and long-continued droughts, be reduced to 10,000,000. The latter will always be capable of affording, in the hottest seasons, 36,015,400 gallons a day. The height at which the water of the Great Falls can be delivered in the Capitol, 14 feet above the upper floor, is, I think, quite sufficient to secure the safety of the building, and of the invaluable collections therein contained; but should it be desired to have the power of pouring the water upon the roof itself, this can be done by a small turbine wheel and force-pump, which, as for the high service of Georgetown, can be worked by water from the main. Thus an iron tank on the roof might be kept constantly over- flowing, and this store could be let loose at any moment, and its stream be directed upon any point required. I say constantly overflowing. There would then be no danger of the tanks beiug frozen; and the surplus water conveyed away by a pipe, might escape in a fountain in the grounds. Were it not for the great importance of protection to this build- ing, it would be better to reduce the height of the reservoirs, in order to diminish the pressure upon the mains and service-pipes, which require to be made of great strength to resist the strain caused by such a head. The full head, however, has an advantage in permitting the use of much smaller leaden service-pipes in houses. Description of the Project for Supplying Water from the Little Falls of the Potomac. When I took charge of these surveys, I had formed an opinion that the nature of the ground between Georgetown and the Great Falls was such as would make any line of aqueduct theuce enormously expensive. I knew of the country only what can be seen in riding along the canal, whence it presents a series of ravines and precipices. I knew also that Rock-creek was not a very large stream; and I turned my attention to the Little Falls of the Potomac. There is a dam, built by the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal Company about four and a-half miles above Georgetown aque- duct. The fall of the river between this dam and Georgetown is 36 feet. The great size of the river, with the height of the fall, and the great water-power thus created, appeared to offer the means of raising, by machinery, the water necessary for a supply. London, by steam power, pumps up 45,000,000 gallons daily. The Great Falls route, proved, upon examination, much more favourable than I expected; and, fearing I would not be able to perfect all these projects during this session of Congress, I studied and completed first the design for the work from the Great Falls. That from Rock-creek was next taken up; and, time pressing, I have been obliged to make the estimate for this from the Little Falls with less exactness than the others. The difficulties to be overcome are great. The Potomac, one of the great rivers of the continent, rises in floods sometimes 30 feet above its ordinary level. The people of Georgetown and Washington have seen por of its power in the wreck of their bridges and canals. Unlike the Mississippi and Ohio, which, when at their highest, move calmly and majestically, the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Potomac, shut in between steep hills, and chafed by its rocky bed, resembles, at these times, a mountain torrent. Every new construction in such a river tends, by diminishing the space for its waters, to cause the next great flood to rise still higher. The engineers of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal have long fought it, ee their Giana bake destroyed by the floods, too often only to find the next freshet going beyond their calculations, and sweeping away the barriers placed in its course. These difficulties, however, I believe, cau be overcome; but they entail the necessity of very expensive constructions. I regret that I have not more time at my disposal for a careful study particularly of this project. Perhaps it might safely be reduced in expense. It cannot be perfectly and fairly presented without detailed drawings, which I have not time to prepare; and doubtless, further alors deliberate study would enable us to improve it. For each difficulty I am obliged to seize the first and readiest solution. I have had but three months to survey, devise, project, and estimate three great works, either of which is well worthy the study of a year. I propose, then, to bring the water of the Potomac, by a canal, about 100 feet wide and 6 feet deep, at the level at which the resent Chesapeake and Ohio canal enters Georgetown, and ocated between this canal and the river, to a suitable place, about two miles above the Georgetown aqueduct, and there, by the proper machinery, to elevate it to such a height as will enable us, partly by a brick conduit, partly by iron pipes, to convey it to the cities. For the construction from the end of the pumping-mains to the cities, I have adopted part of the project for the Great Falls aqueduct. I believe it is well adapted to the object, and it will have the advantage of being capable of extension, at a future day, to the Great Falls, when the wants of the cities increase to such an extent that the use of pumping machinery becomes too expensive. One advantage of this plan is the security it will give to the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. To render ourselves safe, we must necessarily secure them. But the works for security must be high, and strong, and costly. Part of the dam at present existing would be repaired, and a new location adopted for the rest of it. It would extend from the island shown on the map, in the middle of the river, to the head of High island. Under protection of this rocky island, a guard-lock and sluice-ways will be placed. A guard-bank, reveted on the exterior with masonry, will extend from this lock to the Maryland shore; and, a stop-lock being placed upon the Chesapeake and Ohio canal, the bank and wall will be connected with the high and rocky shore on the north-east side of the canal. If these structures are high enough to overtop the highest floods, and strong enough to resist their pressure, they will render this portion of the work secure. The highest flood known is that of April 1852. By marks then placed by Mr. W. H. Bryan, C.E., it reached, at the location of these works, a height of 1775 feet above the top of the dam. Our guard-bank, shutting out the river from the space between High island and the Maryland shore, will, by contracting its water-way, cause the next great flood to rise still higher how much it is impossible for me to predict with exactness; but I believe that works rising 10 feet above the flood of 1852 will be safe from overflow. I have adopted this height in our project, keeping our banks and walls everywhere 10 feet above the flood of 1852. The construction of a lock will be necessary in order to permit the passage of boats which occasionally will need to navigate the river, and for our own use when en aged in repairs of the dam. The water will be admitted to the canal through ten sluices, 6 feet by 4 feet, in each of which are sliding-gates worked by screws. The gates are double, to guard against accidents; and there are grooves for stop-plauks, to permit the gates to be taken out for repairs. The sluice-ways and facing of the lock-walls are of cut stone; the rest of the work of heavy gneiss rubble masonry, laid in hydraulic mortar—the walls of great strength and thickness. They have been carefully calculated, and are believed to be sufficient to resist the floods and ice. The location alone of these works could be represented on the map. Slight drawings of them I have made; and I have suffi- ciently studied their details for the estimate. High island forms a portion of our guard-bank. Below its THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. foot a high embankment, 10 feet wide on the top, with slopes of 9 to 1, divides the canal from the river. It extends to within two miles of the Georgetown aqueduct. Its length is about two miles. Its top is kept 10 feet above the level of the highest recorded flood. Its exterior slope is protected from wash during floods by a thick covering of loose stone. In ordinary by the water. "€ of the river it is not reach e crossing of the stream known as the Little Falls branch presents a serious obstacle. To make our canal safe, it is necessary to shut out the floods, which here rise to a height of 6 feet above the surface of the water in the canal. Thence may result an upward pressure of a column of water 6 feet in height, tending to burst up the culvert. The flood, too, may come ata time when the Chesapeake and Ohio canal is empty: the upward ressure will then be that of a column of water 12 feet in height. The brook is too large to be in iron pipes, and a culvert of masonry will be needed. e river might be shut out of this culvert by sluice-gates; but if the brook should happen to be swollen at the same time as the river, it would then overflow into the canal, and might do serious The sluice-valves, too, might be obstructed by the heavy stones brought down by this brook, which is sometimes a torrent. An open sluice, by admitting the river, would involve great danger to the works. The only complete solution seems to be, so to arrange the maso in masses, leaving proper passages for boats on the shal bnt connected by counter-arches, as to bring its whole weight to bear as one mass in resisting the upward pressure. This has been done. The details of the pump-house I have not, for want of time much studied, but its general arrangement and size I have determined. For the machinery, I propose to use 1 of similar design to those for so many years in use in Philadelphia, but of greater size. They would be driven by turbine-wheels, upon the same principle as that so successfully applied by . Graff at the Fairmount waterworks. The quantity pro to be raised by each pump would be 6,000,000 gallons, which would be raised to the height of 145 feet in twenty hours, allowing four hours a day for repairs, oiling, cleaning, &c. I have procured an estimate from Mr. Geyelin, the designer and builder of the turbine and pump at Fairmount, It is appended to this report. In the development of our plans, the case has somewhat changed from that submitted to him, but it would not probably much alter the cost. I propose to establish at once two sets of such machinery, each ca ble of raising 6,000,000 gallons a day. e machinery must be in duplicate, to guard against accidenta, and allow for repairs. Other wheels and pumps could be added as the wants of the cities increase. The water from the pumps will enter à stand-pipe—a vertical tube of bir bau iler- plate, 6 feet in diameter, 160 feet high. It might be supported by stays of iron; but it will be better to surround it by a tower of masonry, with a spiral staircase between it and the masonry, to admit of frequent examination and repairs of leaks. The tower I would make circular in plan, and of brick; the stairs of cast-iron. The stand-pipe is necessary to avoid the strain upon the pum caused by pumping directly into the long mains leading to the reservoir. Air-vessels will assist in relieving the pumps, but will not alone be sufficient where the quantity of water to be raised is so t. Two 36-inch mains will lead the water under the canal and up a small ravine to a pipe chamber on the hill. The aqueduct from the pipe-chamber shown on the general map is a part of that described in the Great Falls project, and needs no further remarks here. Perhaps it would be better to shorten the canal, and locate the pumpe higher up the river, so as to bring in, with considerable increase of cost, but with great advantages to the project, the settling reservoir at the Little Falls branch. This project requires for its execution more skill and science than either of the others, and it bears a tempting aspect. The engineer who bridles and masters the Potomac wil acheva fame. he whole cost estimated, $1,597,415, would be not much less than that of the aqueduct from the Great Falls; and, that being far better, I should not have presented this to your notice, had not public attention been attracted to the Little Falls as a source of supply. My instructions were, to make surveys, projects, and estimates for determining the best means of affording to the 197 cities of Washington and Geo wn an unfailing and abundant supply of good and wholesome water. I present all those which I have made—as well as those which I think are shown by our investigations not to be the best, as that from the Great Falls, which I believe to be the only one which will continue for many years to supply the wants of the metropolis and Georgetown. Should the route from the Great Falls be adopted, and money be appropriated so as to be available early this season, I would advise the immediate commencement of the dam at the Little Falls branch, and the conduits and mains thence to the Capitol. The water from this stream could then be introduced next winter; and the remainder of the work could be pushed through Me m yon ES cen months. the work is delayed by appropriations, its expense will be much increased; and I hope, in ee ae not to be held responsible for its cost above my estimate, which is based upon a steady and vigorous prosecution of the work. The sum necessary to complete the work between the city and the settling reservoir on the Little Falls branch, not including the construction of the distributing reservoir, is about $700,000; but this would not allow us to commence the dam and tunnels on eri line above, which should be among the first works under- en. In preparing these estimates, I have sup the work to be substantially but plainly done. In the few bridges and buildings required, I have adopted a simple style, without much ornament, but suitable to the greatness and importance of their object. I have avoided all those expedients which, while they might some- what reduce the cost, would Impar the efficiency of the work. There was only time to e a first location, and no doubt further surveys and more close examinations will show some changes to be pro But the line we discovered from the Potomac is marked so plainly by the natural features of the ground, that I do not believe any great changes will be made. The work, as located, can be built for the estimate, and will fulfil its purpose. Any changes will be made, not for greater security, but for economy; aad will result, therefore, in diminish- ing, not increasing the cost of the work. have been particularly cautious not to lead Congress into error as to the cost. The prices adopted are liberal—the quanti- ties carefully calculated. erever we had a doubt, we took the higher price. And I feel assured that the estimate is a safe one. Its preparation has involved a great deal of labour; and if it fails, it will be from some unforeseen contingency, which no care or foresight on our part could provide against. Summary. In conclusion, I have to recommend, as, in my opinion, the * best means of affording to the cities of bi ne pd and George- town an unfailing and abundant supply of good and wholesome water,” the construction of the aqueduct from the Great Falls of the Potomac. The source is pure and unfailing; the quantity inexhaustible; the expense, when compared with its objects, moderate. Every dollar of capital expended will bring, for centuries, nineteen gallons a day of good and wholesome water into the cities. In New York, each dollar pf capital expended in the con- struction of the Croton delivers two and a half gallons a day. In Boston, each dollar delivers two gallons only. The Croton aqueduct cost $12,000,000; the Cochituate, $5,000,000. Buffalo has spent $400,000. Jersey city is spend- ing $600,000. One district of Philadelphia (Spring Garden,) has expended $300,000. I might multiply instances tending to show the sum estimated above for the supply of the metropolis, on a scale commensurate with its prospects, is moderate. But I fear that, while those not accustomed to the great expenditures common for such purposes may think it large, I shall be censured by engineers for making the estimate too small. The supply of 36,000,000 gallons by an ueduct costing, exclusive of distributing-pipes, little over a million and a half, is so contrary to the experience of New York and Boston, that it may well excite surprise. The explanation is to be found in the shortness of the line—less than thirteen miles —and the favourable character of the ground on which it is located. A comparison of the tunnels with the Croton has been made above; xd the same relation holds throughout. There are no deep cuts; no high walled embankments; no Harlem bridge, costing near a million itself. The most costly bridge on this line can be built for $72,500. 29 198 The length of the Croton, from the head of the retaining 555 to its termination in the distributing reservoir, is es. The Cochituate, from the lake to the Beacon Hill distributing reservoir, is 20 miles in length. The Potomac aqueduct, to the end of the distributing reservoir, will be less than 13 miles. Were J to recommend any change in this project, it would be to increase the diameter of the conduit. An increase of 2 feet, making a 9-foot conduit, would nearly double the quantity of ia 0E 67,596,400, instead of a little over 36,000,000 ons. The reservoirs would not require to be enlarged, and the increase of expense would fall chiefly upon the grading and embankment—which cost for the 7-foot conduit only $352,543, and would not be increased more than $100,000—and upon the conduit-trunk itself, which would cost about $250,000 more than the present one. The increase of cost to bring in 30,000,000 gallons more of water would thus be about $350,000, which is at the ~ d 86 gallons daily for each additional dollar of capital expended. The great supply obtained by the aqueduct from the Great Falls has the advantage of making it available for the numerous manufacturing purposes where a small steam-engine is too expen- sive, and heavy labour falls upon the mechanic in consequence. It can be applied cheaply to the driving of lathes in the smaller workshops of a city. 10 the printing press, and to many other such uses, it is particularly ada ted I am informed that a ride ap of aa circulation in Boston is printed upon a press driven by a small rotary pump, the 5 being supplied by a service-pipe from the street-main. e water is old by the city at a fixed rate per gallon. The revolution of the pump measures the quantity, as in a gas-meter, and there is no waste. The cost is not greater than the wages of an engineer to attend a steam-engine—thus saving the expense of fuel and fireman, and the trouble and delay of getting up steam. The power is always at hand, and, on turning a cock, the machine is at once in action. In a previous portion of this report, I made a comparison between the cost and advan of the Rock-creek aud Great Falls lines. Perhaps it will be well to give in this place a summary ee to each of the three projects submitted. . The Rock-creek project is less costly than either of the others. Ita supply is large enough for the present in winter; but it is liable to be diminished, at the time when a full supply is most needed, to about 10,000,000 gallons a day. The cost, complete, will be $1,958,863. The Little Falls project offers the advantage of securing the Chesapeake and Ohio canal from damage by floods. It is less costly than the line from the Great Falls. Its disadvantages are, that it requires the use of pumps and machinery; and I think the reasons I have elsewhere given in discussing the different modes of gaining proper height, are sufficient to justify my preference for a supply by the natural flow of the water. The quantity to be thus raised is limited, also. The Potomac is a great river, but it diminishes in summer; and, though I have no doubt of its power at any season to supply the canal, and spare water se es to pump up twelve or fifteen millions of gallons, it may be doubted whether the power to raise thirty-six millions— the supply given by the Great Falls aqueduct—will be always available. And should this latter be constructed on the e scale suggested of 9 feet diameter, capable of delivering 67,000,000 gallons a day, it will be still more decidedly superior. This project is also deficient in reservoir space; and though we could add to it the Little Falls branch settling reservoir, it would be at the sacrifice of some of its advantages. The cost of the Little Falls work, as designed and estimated, will be $1,597,415. The aqueduct from the Great Falls offers, I think, uncommon advantages. They are set forth in a 98 portion of this report, and J shall only uir died te them here. Among urabili them are: the up pres and ty of the work; the purity and abundance of the source; the extent and capacity of the reservoirs, by which ample supplies are gained to against accidents and t emergencies, and which, allowing space and time for settling, secure the delivery of & supply clear and free from mud; the height at which it is delivered—14 feet above the upper floor of the Capitol; its adaptability to manufacturing pure; the great quantity it will supply, while it takes m the river only what it delivers in the cities, not draw- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. ing off, as when machinery is used, seven or eight times as much to drive the wheels as those wheels and pum raise for use. This enables us to use the water more freely than from either of the others. The streets, in hot weather, may be flooded every moming by hose. Every particle of dust or of offal prejudicial to th or comfort would thus be washed into the sewers. The most magnificent fountains could be kept constantly flowing; and the city of Washington, unrivalled in grandeur and peri de plan, would, in a few years, refreshed by living streams, and beautified by sparkling jets and towering columns of water, become & place of summer resort and the admiration of our whole people. What American looks upon the great public buildings of our capital but with a feeling of pride and pleasure? Let our aque- duct be worthy of the nation; and, emulous as we are of the ancient Roman republic, let us show that the rulers chosen by the people are not less careful of the safety, health, and beauty of their capital than the emperors who, after enslaving their nation, by their great works conferred benefits upon their city, which their treason almost forgotten, cause their names to be remembered with re and affection by those who still drink the water lied by their magnificent aqueducts. e cost of this work will be $1,921,244 For the discharge of the conduit I have used with confidence the formule of D'Aubuisson, as reduced to English units in his admirable work on hydraulics, so well translated by Mr. J. Bennett, C.E., of whose assistance I have had the advantage ip conducting the Rock-creek survey. The revetment and other walls submitted in these projects have been calculated by the formula of Poncelet; the thickness of the arches, by that of Peronnet; and for their thrust and equilibrium, I have used the tables of Captain Petit, of the French corps of engineers, contained in the Memorial du Génie. In conclusion, I have to acknowledge my obligations to the ntlemen from whose reports I have derived information. Schramkes description of the Croton aqueduct, the reports of Messrs. McAlpine, Baldwin, Eddy, Jervis, Johnson, Chesbrough, and Graff, and of the Croton Board, the Cochituate Water Board, and the Watering Committee of 1 ar, contain a body of valuable information upon this subject, of which I have y availed myself. ——— dip ———— METROPOLITAN BUILDINGS BILL. A BiLL has been prepared and brought into the House of Commons by Sir William Molesworth and the Lord Advocate. The following gentlemen have been nominated to form the com- mittee on the bill:—Sir W. Molesworth, Lord J. Manners, Lord R. Grosvenor, Sir J. Shelley, Sir W. Clay, Sir J. Paxton, Mr. Alderman Cubitt, and Mesars. Brand, W. Williama, Jackson, and Locke. The bill re the present bill and its amendments; it gives rules to be observed with respect to measurement, structure, and thickness of walls, buttresses, &c.; construction of roofs; as to close fires and smoke pipes; projections; interiors of buildings; sepa- ration of buildings; uniting buildings; &c. District surveyors are henceforth to be appointed by the Com- missioners of Works and Buildings, who may remove them. Assistant surveyors may be 3 in emergency. The Commissioners of Works and Buildings may, for the pur- pose of superintending the district surveyors, and aiding in the execution of the act, appoint a person to be called the superin- tending architect of the Office of Works; the salary not to exceed 12002. per annum. Differences arising between building owners and adjoining owners are to be determined as follows:— 1. Where value of difference does not exceed 1004, or by con- sent of parties, by two justices. 2. Where value exceeds 1002, by arbitration, to be conducted as directed by the Companies Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845. An appeal to the superior courts is given from the decision of justices, in respect of any point of law, or of the admission or rejection of any evidence. No such ap to be made by any district surveyor, except with consent of justices before whom the case is tried. Appeals to be in the form of a special case. <> THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL ON DESIGNING MEDLEVAL DECORATIONS AND ORNAMENTS, WITH REFERENCE TO SOURCES . OFFERED BY THE NATURAL KINGDOM.* By W. P. Gnrrrirn, RI. B. A. [Paper read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, March 19th.] As in the natural kingdom certain principles are found regu- lating the most minute growth, and the largest forest tree, so in architecture there are principles common to all its productions. In the medieval period, for example, those contained in the multiples of the equilateral triangle, the square, the pentagon, and the circle, guided the formation of decorations and ornaments in gold, silver, brass, iron, stone, wood, and even the designs upon encaustic tile pavements, as well as the construction of the cathedral or church itself. This system of regulating form by geometrical figures was carried to à remarkable extent; in the services of the church, the candlestick, the lamp, the lamp-stand, the corona lucis, the vessel for incense, the censer, the chalice, the flagon, and even the vestments, were designed with the aid of geometry.* The ornamentation of our earliest sacred edifices was not altogether derived from foreign countries, and what was intro- duced received certain modifications. Through the diligence of antiquaries, a collection of Roman, Saxon, and Norman remains has been of late years amassed, from an examination of which, & system of decoration, floral and otherwise, can be traced, which may have exercised its influence on medizval architecture; and it is admitted by all who have devoted their attention to the details of that architecture in this country, that they are less Italianised than those on the continent, and that they possess an indigenous character. So extensive is the range of art decoration in every civilised country, each of which possesses its own characteristic develop- ment, that it would occupy a lifetime to collect, analyse, and study comprehensively, the resources of so widely cultivated a field. It has often been urged that we must look to nature as & source for ornamentation; but when she has been sought, the student has not known what course to follow, nor how to pro- ceed in a natural conventional manner. The difficulties which encompass attempts to design modern ornaments are often referred to; one writer says, “As a general rule, the less closely the artist attempts to embody nature, the more safe he will be;” and another writer observes that “it is extremely difficult to lay down any rule to say how far nature should be followed, or how far she should not.” The ditticulties, however, are not so great as they are supposed to be, when a little trouble is taken to comprehend the rules for embodying nature in decorations and ornaments. So many unmeaning designs having been thrust upon the public by those who have not entered deeply into the subject, have created a prejudice against modern performances; and it has therefore been considered “safer” to copy from those sanctioned by antiquity, than to produce new ones. Although it is true that modern designs have to be judged by posterity, to be worthy of lasting approbation, yet, Guides efforts are e to create new ornaments, no pro can be anticipated. One of the objects of this essay is to point out the best way of obtaining planta and rendering them available for the purposes of design; and another is to guide the student in his attempts to produce ornaments in relief, more or less detached, and orna- mental surfaces. Though he need not seek to equal Lindley, Hooker, or Balfour, he should know enough of botany to be acquainted with the plants and foliage he selects for adaptation. “The scientific botanist recommends his pupil to provide himself with a pocket lens of about 4-inch focus, and a few quires of paper, the former to assist him in examining, and the latter in drying the fresh specimens he may collect The architect, however, requires a greater knowledge of living planta than of dead ones; leaves sad flowers. after they have been flattened, are of little use, as the undulations and the beauty of the forms are lost. Lindley savs, “the apparently flat surfaces of leaves and petals are only segments of large circles. This is a necessary consequence of the primitive spheroidal form of vegetable tissue, which, in whatever way it may develop itself, must always be bounded externally by the curved sides of the parenchyma.” The ip s Extracts from the Essay for which the Medal of the Institute was awarded 1 See A. W. Pugin's ‘Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament’. 199 form of the leaf, the disposition and projection of the veins, the position of the leaves upon the stem, the form and character of the stem, the flowers, and the fruit, are all of moment, and require to be carefully studied. It is also important that the name of each plant selected, for a capital for instance, should be given; that of the order will not sulco, because the leaves v. in form; and although the leaves of one plant may be we adapted, those of another belonging to the same order may be entirely unsuited to the purpose. The plants collected should be kept in a tin case until they have been accurately copied whilst the are fresh, as the forms of their several parts disappear when they are dried. The prin- ciples to be followed in imitating nature are those which she herself adopts in the organisation or arrangement of her works; no abortions, imperfections, or peculiarities ought to be copied, but the architect’s object should be “to make things not as nature makes them, but as she would make them.” Perfect 5 flowers, and vegetable forms copied in decoration, must be distributed and applied in strict accordance with nature’s rules. For example, if we have a square panel or space, and desire to decorate it with the leaves and fruit of the oak,—to take a branch from the tree and lay it upon the panel, would produce an exact imitation of nature, but would show no design, nor geometrical distribution; if, however, the branch be geome- trically disposed, i. e. the leaves places upon the diago and the fruit upon the diametric lines,—the leaves and fruit would be per se exact imitations, as they sometimes should be, although the design or arrangement of them in the panel would be con- ventional. In Grecian and Roman decorations, the foliage, fruit and flowers were varied according to their use and position in the buildin The panels at the side of the entrance in the exterior of the Pantheon at Rome; the frieze round the exterior of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli; St. Paul's Cathedral, and the upper entablature of the Banquetting House at Whitehall, otfer exam- plee of excellent imitations of foliage, fruit and flowers, arranged in festoons or garlands, with ribands round their stems and stalks. This classic m differs considerably from the medise- valone; in the former, the festoons or ds are hetero- geneously mixed and stuck on the buildinge or sculptured purposely to appear so; and sometimes the ribands are suspended rom nails; but in the latter, the foliage and fruit grow out of the stonework with all the regularity of nature, whom the architects endeavoured to imitate truthfully,—the leaves and fruit of the maple, ivy, vine, oak, strawberry, and many ey being eactly copied, and upon natural or geometri al a In the best periods of architecture, design or mental arrange- ment upon natural principles was universal, but in modern times it is mostly dictated by caprice, fancy, and chance, except in those instances in which the decorations have been copied from the antique; the best examples of which will always be esteemed, because their forms have been derived from nature. In medieval ecclesiastical architecture, the treatment of orna- ments remote from the eye, and not easily inspected, varied from that laid down by Sir William Chambers for Roman ornaments seen at a distance, inasmuch as the former were generally finished with the utmost elegance and minuteness, even in the portions concealed from view; this perfection has been supposed to have arisen from the impression that the whole carving and execution were an act of adoration, in which the artist offered up his best faculties to the praise of the Creator. Such decorations are more beautiful than the garlands, festoons, and similiar ornamentations of Roman architecture, inasmuch as they are not merely taken from nature, but are disposed in conformity with the laws of vegetation. The petrified vegetation in the choicest examples of our ancient Gothic churches appears to grow out of the buildings, and to be plucked from the garden or hedge, and stuck on, as in some English and in many foreign instances. The stem either flows out of the cornices, capitals, and traceries, or is hidden by foliage; the end of the stem broken off from the tree or plant is not visible. Crockets have a better effect when they are connected by and are set upon a continuous stem, as in the lower part of the pediment of the great west door of York Cathedral, and not as on the south transept of Beauvais Cathe- dral, where they do not appear to grow out of the stone. “The ornamentist,” says Mr. Dyce, “is an imitator of nature in a sense very analogous to that in which the man of science may be ‘cried so, who applies her operating and governing laws 29° 200 and the means and hints furnished by her to the accomplishment of new ends of convenience and utility; and the positio accordingly, of ornamental design is side by side with practi science; ita real use being to hide, by a coating of beauty, the akeleton-like contrivances of the latter, and thus to bring them into the condition of the works of nature, in which beauty and utility are always concomitant.” In the ornamentation of sacred edifices, it would be well to consider the system which prevailed in the decorations of the first churches which the Christians were allowed to build above ground. St. Jerome tells us that the priest Nepotian decorated the interior of his churches with fluwers, foliage, lilies, and the gay branches of the vine. When pictures were attempted upon the walls or cupolas, the subjects were taken from holy writ, and the painters had the same source of inspiration as the artists who decorated the catacombs of Rome; and that source was the Bible. We are told that these catacombs, destined to the sepul- ture of the first Christians, and decorated during the persecutions of the church under the immediate dominion of sad thoughts and agonising duties, offer representations of heroism in the historical pictures, and graceful and cheering subjects in the purely ornamental parts, as the vintage, pastoral scenes, agapes or love feasts, fruits, flowers, palm-branches, laurel crowns, lambs, and doves; in a word, nothing but what suggests a feeling of joyous innocence. the middle ages, the monks rendered their abbey gardens attractive by flowers; they reared an appropriate one for each holy day; flowers thus became subservient to sacred uses, and useful in imparting instructive and pious lessons to the young. The study of ecclesiastical botany was revived and considerably advancel; herbs and flowers received a special nomenclature, medical botany was also much improved, and the plants named by the classic authors were consulted and compared with native specimens. Flowers were also dedicated to saints, and in honour of the Virgin Mary. In early times, each day had its flower of a particular colour, and the common events of life were marked by floral decorations; the funeral had its cypress and rosemary, and graves, crosses, and tombs were decked with suitable trees and flowers. Altars also at certain times were set out with floral symbols. The idea of perpetuating in stone the beauties of the vegetable kingdom, emblematically expressed, was a happy one the greatest antiquity, and there is no style of architecture without its flora, more or less conventionali In ecclesiastical decorations only such trees, plants, foliage, flowers and fruit are to be selected as symbolise holy writ. The Holy Eucharist, the Holy Trinity, the Crucifixion, may be sym- bolically expressed by vegetable products, either naturally, or b a geometrical arrangement, termed by some writers conventional. Those which do not naturally express by their form symbols, are to be when selected so arranged upon geometrical figures, as to form religious emblems. A church ought to be decorated with the greatest care and skill, to present a wonder-work of art, and from the natural and artistic beauty of its decorations vie with nature herself; with Pliny, we ought to be able to exclaim, * Hic in unum coacta rerum nature majestas,"—here we see nature in all her majesty developed within a narrow compass. The ornaments for the several the tower, the nave and aisles, the transepta, the choir, the chancel and its aisles, should be ditferent both in degree and style. Of flowers possessing a sacred symbolism, the Ecclesiological Society mention—the lily, the rose, and the marygold (all symbols of our Lady); the herb Benet (symbol of St. Benedict); the ivy (of immortality); grapes and wheat-ears (of the Holy Eucharist); the oak (of virtue and majesty). The Holy Trinity is symbolised by trefoils, and ternate, bi-ternate, and tri-ternate leaves. The natural symbols of the Crucifixion, are the passion-flower (passiflora), and flowers of the cruciferæ order, with sepals four cruciate, petals four cruciate, alternate with the sepals. Schlegel has observed in an essay on Gothic architecture (translated by Millington), that in the “second-floriated Gothic style (decorated), the same figures of the triangle and the square, the circle and the quatrefoil, form the groundwork of all those (floral) decorations, which, as in the early Christian, are introduced with a more profound attention to the scientific structure of the building. But these no longer appear in naked simplicity and geometrical exactness; they are all veiled with clustering Pliage and the luxuriance of vegetable life, as in the enamelled carpet of spring, we cannot, amid its verdant productions, clearly discern the precise geometrical symmetry ol each isolated form, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. but see all bloom and unfold their beauty together, in one eneral glow of life and immortality! The very existence of Gothic architecture seems bound up with the luxuriance of its forms and floriation. Hence the unvaried repetition of the same decorations, their plant-like similarity, and the deeply expressive yet tranquil mystery, the joyous loveliness and animation, which fill every beholder with reverence and admiration. The sym- bolism of Gothic architecture is, indeed, of the highest order; that of painting appears feeble in comparison with it, and its allusions to divinity em and uncertain. Architecture, on the contrary, by its imitation of the beauties of nature, brings the idea of the divinity palpably before our minds, even without any direct allusion to the mysteries of Christianity. Christian faith and hope had, however, no trifling influence on the develop- ment of ecclesiastical architecture.” Coleridge says that a Gothic church “is the petrifaction of ourreligion.” The rose and trefoil, in various combinations, may be recognised as the basis of all the highly artistic foliation with which the cathedral at Cologne is adorned. In foliated forms, the cross is made strikingly manifest, by selecting cruciferous plants, or by arranging leaves in the form of a cross. It is believed by all who have given attention to the subject of natural ornamentation, that leaves, flowers, and fruit, when selected for decorations, are conventionalised: and it is quite true, that the early architects, when they sought nature for ornament, did dispose them in a geometrical manner; they did not place vegetable products upon walls, columns, bosses, &c. in an unde- signed way, but ed had a system upon which their proceedings were grounded. It would be futile to endeavour to secure greater beauty and precision in decoration, without inquiring into those laws which directed the formation of those interestin and often beautiful natural designs of the early architects; an the nature and extent of conventionalism should be carefully analysed, and separated from the mis-shapen aboriginal examples, in which the early sculptor endeavoured to imitate nature clumsily and imperfectly, but did 5 vegetable products conventionally. The ignorant imitation of nature must not be confounded with the conventional or geometrical disposition; on comparing Anglo-Roman, Danish, Saxon, Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, sculptured or carved foliage, flowers and fruit, we shall find that all are more or less conven- tionalised; but nature in the earlier periods is hardly known as such, through the sculptors want of imitative skill. When foliage, flowers, or fruit, are selected for decorative purposes, they should not be portraits of any single specimen taken from a garden or hedge, but they should be ideal, in fact, more perfect than nature forms any one leaf or flower, so as to realise the remark, * Art is nature, better understood.” Mediæval decorations and ornaments may be considered under two classes:—1. Ornaments in bold relief, more or less detached, these include capitals, corbels, bosses, crockets, finials, patere, dog-tooth, ball-flower, nutmeg ornament, tudor-flower, roses, poppy-heads, fleur-de-lys, &c.;—and 2. Mural or surface orna- ments;—these comprise panels, spandrils, diapers, encaustic tiles, &c. The following extracts relate to the designing some of the ornaments, but the essay itself, in which each is historically described and analytically treated, must be consulted for many of them, which are illustrated by numerous diagrams. The capitals of columns generally give a clue to the date of a building. They vary in size, form and decoration, and are either moulded or foliated. The bell should be carefully proportioned and curved; otherwise, though ever so well decorated, it will be a deformity. Norman capitals are often degenerated imitations of Roman work. Early English capitals and ornaments have some- times trefoil leaves introduced, variously combined, and are boldly executed and enriched in an elaborate and elegant manner. Good examples are seen in Salisbury and Wells cathedrals. “The origin of foliage” says Paley, “on capitals, whence it was trans- ferred to bosses, corbels, window and doorway-arches and jambs, and other positions, may be distinctly traced through the Roman- esque to do classic, and especially the Corinthian style" and the idea of the latter was borrowed from the Egyptians. The foliage upon the capital of a mediseval column judiciously rises above the neck-moulding, so that the latter does not prevent its being seen. When the foliage rises from or is in contact with the neck-moulding, the projection of the latter foreshortens the capital, and gives it an inelegant ap ce. Some medieval capitals have heads and figures sculptured upon them, but they should not be imitated. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, For the dates of buildings, Mr. Repton* relies more upon the ornaments and details; than the form of the arches only, but if, as he states, many capitals in different buildings are old ones recarved and made to correspond in some de with new parts or additions, great attention and care should be given in examining architectural details before an opinion is pronounced. In Bing- ham Priory, Norfolk, erected in the reign of Henry L a building was added at the west end in the time of John or Henry III. in & different style of architecture, and with round capitals, but, to blend the whole massive part of the priory with the new building, some of the old square capitals were recarved, and the abacus rounded off. Norman and Lombardic capitals are variously ornamented, and exhibit a great variety of designs, which. owe their origin rimarily to degenerate imitations of the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, rinthian, and Composite capitals of the Roman orders; the results of these attempts have produced numerous very curious decorations, but of no architectural value or importance. 'The crypt of Rochester Cathedral contains Norman capitals; each has a square abacus, 2 feet square, and 44 inches in depth, and beneath it an ovolo and an astragal or bead, —it resembles the capital of the Tuscan order. 'The piers opposite to these columns have each a similar abacus, with a channel beneath it 3-inch deep and then a cavetto 2 inches deep. This is often used as a string- course. The next kind of capital, which is common, is a modif- cation of the Doric. It has a chamfered fillet on the top, and the original broad flat abacus and ovolo are united, the angles bein rounded off form an escalop edge, and under the whole is a Some writers describe the form of this capital as an inverted cone, cut to present four flat sides, or faces. channeling the conical mass, a series of escalops are formed, nd. the spaces below them are sculptured to resemble inverted and truncated semicones. Some of the pier-caps in St. Bartholomew's the Great, London, have six semicones. Of the Norman voluted capitals (after the Ionic) there are many kinds, varying from extreme simplicity, as seen in exam- ples in Canterbury Cathedral, and in the crypt of Lastingham Church, Yorkshire, to elaborate enrichment, as in St. Peter's Church, N igor our Adaptations to a certain extent of the Corinthian capital are seen in several of our cathedrals and churches, as well as in those on the continent. There are other examples of capitals charged with sculptured representations of human figures, animals, foliage, &c., which thus resemble many eapitals in the old churches of Normandy. In late Norman and in early English capitals, the foliage is arranged vertically round the bell. Decorated capitals the foliage flows horizontally. Perpendicular foliated capitals are not common; small leaves or petere, are more frequently set at intervals round the shaft above tlie neck. But the vine and the strawberry leaf are some- times found; though very ditferently worked from the deep over- hanging foliage of the earlier styles, and forming only a shallow surface ornament. The dog-tooth, the nail-head, the ball-flower, and other ornamental mouldings, sometimes occur in capitals, as well as crests of the Tudor flower, or of minute battlements, in the later munie Even angels’ heads with spread wings are found, as in the belfry-arch of Great Shelford, near Cambridge, and in the choir of Wingfield Church, Suffolk. Occasionally ein Norman work commonly) some subject is grotesquely sculptured below the abacus; of this there is a very curious example at West Keal, Lincolnshire; or a subject is intermixed with the foliage, as in some Early English capitals in the south transept and the north porch of Wells Cathedral. Although there are many beauties in mediseval architecture, there are also faults. In Pugin’s Gothic Ornaments, plate 86 shows some stone capitals in the entrance to the great hall, Kenilworth Castle; the central one is decorated with the foliage and fruit of the oak; the end of the stem ought to have been hidden, but it is a conspicuous object in the upper part of the capital, and the foliage is growing downwards. Stone patere upon fonts, panels, &c. are often composed of four leaves, or cruciferous flowers, forming diamond-shaped or square leafy ornaments; and stringcourses and cornices are often studded with these at intervals of one square apart, as in the roof of Crosby Hall. In this instance the ornaments are dis- sed in squares, with one plain square space between each. In ugin’s specimens, Vol. I. plate 48, the square ornaments (or ornaments arranged by squares) are placed two squares apart; * Archeologia, vol. xxxiii. p. 140. 201 and in VoL IL plate 52, fig. 3, they are two squares and a half distant; so that it depends upon the extent of decoration or limitation of outlay, whether the distance apart be one square, one square and a half, two squares, two squares and a half, &c. Sometimes these square ornaments or paters contain only one leaf, set one square a and connected by a stem or branch, which is so introduced in a cavetto as to form acornice. The stem through the foliated squares and in a wavy manner, with a fir-knob or two upon the stem between the foliated squares, so as to relieve the otherwise empty spaces, as in the cornice of the canopy of Lady St. John’s monument in Westminster Abbey. When plants are 5 in cornices, the stem is usually bent to form a flowing line, and 50 more or less hidden by the foliage it is still occasionally visible, and sometimes it is a prominent feature. The form should therefore be particularly observed; it is not always cylindrical, but it is often as it were formed of fibrous bundles, having a fluted appearance; in these instances it may be made an ornamental feature, as the undula- tions produce a variety of light and shade, not to be obtained in a simple cylinder. The stems of some plants are triangular, and wedge-s with curvilinear sides, and sometimes they are square. Graceful flowing stems and foliage often decorated the pyx (containing the Eucharist) formed of silver, ivory, or ‘‘de opere Lemovitico.” The foliage was of a pos green, and the general groundwork or field was of a cobalt blue. New College, xfi s a pix, of silver parcel-gilt, which has an orna- mental border with foliage, roses, &c. In sculpturing leaves, great care should be taken to make the veins on the underside in relief, when that part is presented to the eye; leaves clasping 55 ornaments should have their backs next the eye, and eir upper sarfaces on the sphere. In many instances, the back of the leaf being laid on the sphere has an unnatural and con- strained a ce. It must be recollected that a leaf contains ribs and veins, which branch in different ways, and care should be taken to put those proper to the peculiar kind of leaf. We have already observed, that it is not necessary to represent in detail each stamen in a flower, but roughly to represent the pistil and stamens en masse; so also with the leaves, if the margins be toothed, and the toothings be sharp and small, the latter need not be expressed. Sometimes each serrature of a leaf is itself serrated, this second serrature is not to be indicated. The general character and form of the leaves should always be maintained. When all these points have been attended to, a leaf assumes a conventional form. Among the ornaments prevailing in the later period of the Perpendicular style, are the Tudor flower and rose. The Tudor flower is a foliated crest, set at intervals upon the cornices of screens, or upon tie-beams, transoms, capitals, corbels, &c.; it is said to resemble a strawberry leaf. A small and simple trefoil is frequently placed in the between the leaves. A corbel in dalen College, Oxford, is enriched with this flower, which is rarely found in work of the fourteenth century. When used as & crest, it is variously formed, but always upon a regular system. Sometimes a row of attached squares (placed lozenge-wise), their bases connected by inverted semicircles, forms the ground-work of the design. A leaf, or a conventionalised form of leaf, is arranged in each square, and often three buds, berries, or other fruit are set up in a pyramidal form in the spaces between the leaves. The squares are sometimes not attached, but arranged at eertain distances apart. There are several kinds of architectural roses; the simple five- ed rose, & conventional form of the dog-rose;* the double ve-petaled rose, the triple five-petaled rose; roses with six single 2 and double and triple six petals. The single rose was used in the reign of Henry VL, and the double rose sur- rounded by rays is said to be the cognizance of Henry VI. and Edward IV. It occurs on pulpits in Worcester Cathedral, and Magdalen College, Oxford. The double rose ornaments a pede- stal in a niche of Henry VIIth's Chapel, Westminster. It is often used alternately with fleur-de-lys, and it is sometimes enriched by a floral wreath.t The triple rose is beautifully sculptured upon the south porch of King's College Chapel, Cam- bridze; it occurs with the portcullis. Spandrils, particularly during the Perpendicular period, gave * This flower is very common in Yorkshire, and has the repute of being the white rose of the Yorkists. t This is the Tudor rose. t The rose and portcullis are badges of Henry VII. 202 the mediseval architect another field for the exércise of his skill in designing floral decorations. In the early periods they were mostly plain. On the tomb of Archbishop Theobald, in Canter- bury Cathedral, the space between the arches has simply a trefoil on an upright stem. In the chapter-house of that cathedral, the spandrils have sunk panels filled with diaper-work. In the span- drils of the arches in the triforium and in those of the lower arches in Westminster Abbey, there is diapering. Each spandril of a Perpendicular doorway is mostly composed of a quatrefoiled circle, having a shield, rose, or foliage 1n its centre, and the remainder filled with foiled panels. The spandrils of the porch of Pinga College Chapel, Cambridge, exhibit the royal arms of England in slaborntely: foiled circles, and in the panels the Tudor rose. During the same period the spandrils of the nave arches were often highly ornamented, as in the Church of St. Mary the Greater, Cambridge. In designing ornaments in spandrils, especially of the Perpen- dicular period, the usual course was to insert in the triangular space either vertical foiled panels, a circle quatrefoiled, or a square modified for a shield or a po is. It was an easy and sa ve-trouble system to fill up a spandril with a foiled circle, and then to foil and foliate the spaces remaining; but to group foliage, flowers, and fruit, was neither an easy nor an economical process. When plants were selected, the geometrical rule for ing them was the same, although the result was different. e stem, if its root was not hidden by the leaves, germinated from one of the angles, and was coiled in a circular form, sending out shoots to the intermediate angle, and to fill vacant s , and it then assumed a flowing line to the extreme acute angle. The end of a stem, as if broken off, should not be introduced. The medise- val architects did sometimes represent foliage with such stems in crockets as well as in spandrils, but these examples should be avoided, as it is much better for the branch to grow out of the building than to appear to be stuck on. Foliage flowing from the mouths of animals, or from an unnatural extension of the tail, should not be imitated. Sometimes the latter assumes beautiful curved forms and foliage; it would, however, be as ornamental and less absurd if the animal was omitted. In Pugin's Gothic Ornaments, plate 37 shows two spandrils from Winchester Cathedral; in one example the stem grows out of the lower angle; and in the other (which consists of oak-leaves and acorns), the end of the stem is hidden beneath one of the leaves. Although the stems are correct, an unnatural growth is given to one oak-leaf, which is distorted in length to fill the space. PT he sculptured representation of flowers, applied to relieve the plaiu surfaces of walls, is termed diapering. In selecting flowers for this purpose, care must be taken to choose only those forms which are suited to the geometrical spaces allotted to them. For example, a flower with petals rounded at the apex is not well adapted for a figure with acute angles; the more obtuse the angle the better will a flower with rounded petals fill the pees and vice versd. Upon a monument in the choir of Canterbury Cathedral there is a diaper, the design of which consists of a flower with six petals, slightly raised in relief within a hex nal compartment; the flower has petals well suited to the angles of the figure. For square forms cruciferous flowers are chosen, as in the nave and choir, and on the tomb of Aylmer de Valence, Westminster Abbey. Ifthe spaces be triangular, or hexagonal, flowers having a ternary division of parts are the best. For octagonal compartments, those having a cruciferous division should be chosen; and for filling pentagons and decagons, those with a qui division of parts. In this work, the leaves and fruit of the are met with; as on the choir screen of Lincoln Cathedral, and the cornice of the Queen's Cross, Northampton. Diapers were more frequently produced by colour than by sculpture in relief; in the absence of historical paintings upon walls, the large surfaces were generally diapered. They were of several kinds; that commonly met with extends as a running attern, often executed in a deeper shade of the ground colour. here is a variety of this which may be termed, with more pro- priety, arabesque; it is seen in the groined canopy over the tomb of Aveline, Countess of Lancaster, in Westminster Abbey, and consists of an entwining pattern of vine leaves and fruit, the fruit and stems red, the leaves green; the ground straw colour. perhaps originally gilded. A second form, perhaps better under- atood by the term powdering, has a profusion of small sprigs or flowers, generally black or gold, scattered over the ground., The .THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL diaper of a wall sometimes consists of nothing more than the founder's initials, the monogram I. H. S., and like devices, in red, geometrically arranged upon an uncoloured und, that is a ground which has no other colour than de pre- vailing tint of the building. The use of diaper is to supply the place of middle tinta, the introduction of which destroys the brilliancy, and interferes with the keeping of polychromatic painting; a mass of colour of whatever weight or prominence may be enriched, and at the same time toned, to almost any limit, by a judicious use of diaper. The sides of the font in Swaton Church, Lincolnshire, are diapered, the flowers are cru- ciferous, and the form of the petals accords with the square out- line of each diaper. The date of the font is circa 1340. The sides of the font in Ewerby Church, Lincolnshire, are also reat care and judgment are required in selecting vegetable productions for ecclesiastical decorations and ornaments; many 5 are available for this purpose, and very many are not. mething more is required than a simple trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil, &c.; it is absolutely necessary that each leaf selected be suited to the space allotted to it; to twist or distort a leaf in an unnatural manner is not required. An error of this kind occurs in Bloxam's Gothic Architecture, in a modification of the dog-tooth ornament (from Adderbury Church, Oxfordshire), con- verted into a knot of four ivy leaves; it will be observed that in each leaf the side ribs branch from a midrib, instead of which the ribs ought to radiate from the stem, palm-like, as in the ivy leaf. Nature must not be misrepresented. Among other plants adapted for art-purposes, we may suggest the following: — Trifolium fragiferum, trifolium subterraneum, medicago polymorpha, fragaria sterilis, rubus, limonia trifoliata, iatropha gossypifolia, panax aculeatum; solanum fuscatum, cynanclum extensum, geranium robertianum, citrullus or auguria, chilidonium majus, adoxa moschatellina, alchemilla, gronovia scandens, atriplex, sorbus torminalis, sorbus sativa, amygdalus, cataputia minor and lathyris, androsæmum, berberis oxyacantha, viola canina, opogon porrifolius, and many others. All these may be seen in Curtis’ ‘ Flora Londinensis. In addition to the diagrams accompanying the essay, there are forty-two drawings arranged in four divisions. In the first divi- sious twenty-four illustrations exhibit an analysis of medisval ornamentation, and prove that, however diversified in appear- ance Gothic ornaments may be on the buildings, they are quite as capable of being classified and reduced to system as the orna- ments common to any other style of architecture. It will be observed that ornaments are not required to be always symmetri- cal; their parts must, however, be properly balanced; the quan- tity of sculptured ornament in each half should be equal. The conclusions to be drawn from an examination of these *twenty- four illustrations are— That medieval ornaments are designed in conformity with metrical figures, and are capable and worthy of analysis.— hat the great variety of forms does not militate against an analysis being attempted.—That the decorative portions need not be limited to the foliage and flowers selected by our ancestors, but that any others adapted to the geometrical spaces, and pro- rly conventionalised, can be employed.—That geometry is the basis of all true ornament. In the second division, six designs for double patere in deco- rated cornices are submitted. The foliage is directed by the diagonals of two attached squares, and has been chosen from the vine, wheat, the oak, the Guelder rose, the ivy, the maple, and the lily of the valley. These double patere are designed upon the same principles as the ancient medieval ones; they are set at certain distances apart, as the single paterre. When a child is first instructed in writing, diagonal lines are ruled by the tutor to guide his hand, but after a time, when the eye and hand have received the proper amount of practice, the lines are no longer required. ith the sculptor or artist it is the same; his eye guides his hand in properly proportioning the several parts of each ornament. The course of the stems, leaves, flowers, &c, whether they be curved in a horizontal, rpendicular, or a diagonal direction, are all freely executed by his practised hand, although in the first instance all the geometrical rules had to be demonstrated for his initiation. In the next series of designs for medieval ornaments, the fol- lowing vegetable products have been used, viz.—the water buttercup or the panel of a font) the ivy-geranium, the plane tree, the rose, the myrtle, the crowfoot, the wood anemone, and THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. the liverwort. A new feature is exhibited by working bosses out of the regular bodies. If we select the dodecahedron, the first process will be to produce a pendant hemisphere, and then to mark the angis or points for the six equal pentagonal faces (as only half of the regular figures is presented to view); each rose is then wrought out of the space thus allotted. Thé surface should not be flat, but in spherical relief, or convex. The central contains a rose with two ri of petals, and the other lowers are single petaled. The -faces of the r cent to the ribs of the groining are to be filled with two or three rose leaves. The roses are conventionalised; the stamens not individualised, but roughed out en masse. Another boss is gene- rated by the icosahedron. Bosses executed in this manner form * knots of reposing flowers." The fourth series of designs shows enriched cornices; the plants selected are the dog-rose, the white bryony, and the large white bindweed. The stems of these plants are bent to form flowing or wavy lines, which can be produced by uniting a continued series of alternating semicircles. When the eye has been educated for, and the hand accustomed to, this kind of ornamental work, the design can be marked without mechanical means, which are only required in tuition. The pistils and stamens of the flowers are not to be separately sculptured or individualised, but they are to be roughly worked en masse. In conclusion, it will be found that there are principles con- veyed to us through the natural kingdom, which man has endea- voured to apply to all he undertakes, and certain it is that in architecture and its concomitant arts, he has followed the work- ing of nature to & great extent: “That Art Which you say adds to Nature, is an Art That Nature makes.” Wimesn's Tas. The architect is indebted to nature for geometry, which is the true test and foundation of all pure ornament; without the aid of that science art-combinations would cease to be ful, and their symmetrical distribution of parts would no longer exist. So long as ornamentation is disposed as designed upon natural laws, so long will it be beautiful and endurable, for A thing of beauty is a joy for ever." But if, on the contrary, unnatural outlines and fantastic shapes be fostered, the “growth of the E pupa boughs and the budding of the clustering foliage will be , and an un- healthy formality mistaken for beauty." Mr. AsHPITEL said that there was generally much con- fusion on the subject of geometrical dios in decoration. Almost every line that was elegant to the eye might at the same time be mathematical and geometrical; and many lines which appeared fantastic, had, nevertheless, been produced by the com- passes. Theordinates and co-ordinates of the most difficult curves could be easily found by the profound mathematician. Cellini stated in his autobiography that he had obtained great praise in his ing and chasing, by breaking through the rules which fettered other artists. e commonest herbs and vegetables, the laurel, the fennel, and me pn afforded the most exquisite suggestions for architectural decoration, but whilst this was felt by every one, it was impossible to lay down rules upon the sub- ise orto apply the square and compass to objects of such a ind. The attempt to subject to rules the finer feelings of the mind, could only end in failure,—as much in architecture as it had in music and in poetry. The greater part of what were con- ventionally called geometrical forms, were in fact perfectly un- 5 and, if the leaf of a plant were examined, it would impossible to find in it anything approaching either to acircle or to à straight line. Mr. I‘Anson regretted that there had not been time for read- ing Mr. Griffith’s essay at greater length, inasmuch as, however interesting and valuable in itself, the portion which had been read had merely suggested some points which were not carried out in detail; lally the view of tracing the age of every building by the decoration of ita capitals. It would further be most desirable to trace the original t of some familiar orna- ments, such as the Greek honeysuckle (which was in fact as little like a honeysuckle as possible), and a peculiar flowing Byzantine ornament, the true of which was entirely unknown. Mr. Griffith had adve to the trefoil, a8 used in the early English period, but not to the twisted celery of the same era, nor to the peculiar knob or swelling lump (as he might term it) which was constantly represented in the rative foliage of the 13th and 203 14th centuries, It was not necessary that architectural orna- ment should involve a perfect knowledge of botany or botanical forms; but the vegetable form represented should at all events poan idea of life, or of an endeavour to break out into life. is effect was admirably realised in the Renaissance style, where the rushing of the sap might be almost seen through the fibres of ery ornament. The respective forms suitable for execution in wood and in stone might also have been referred to with advan- tage, and indeed the subject generally was by no means ex- hausted. Mr. TwIxIxO observed that there was scarcely any limit to the vegetation which might be introduced in panels, friezes, &c.; but it would be desirable to distinguish between those forms which were appropria for decoration merely, and those which could be properly applied to structural features, such as capitals and other essential members of a building. Mr. PAPwoRTH reminded the meeting that the pa r, as read, was but a small portion of Mr. Griffith’s essay, and he proceeded to explain the theory of that gentleman as to the steps by which the irregularity of vegetable types had been reduced to a legiti- mate and artistic re ity by the mediæval architects. This pon Mr. Papworth illustrated by a sketch of the five-petaled udor rose, given as conventionalised in Mr. Griffith’s paper, by inscribing a pentagon within a circle, and repeating the opera- tion with smaller circles and pentagons alternately. Mr. W. Bunazss said that, so far as his observation went (especially in France), there appeared to be an utter absence of geometry in medimval decoration, excepting the somewhat recurrence of leaves and bosses. In cornices, however, the foliage was always as conventional as ible. The orna- mentation at Beauvais was almost natural, the stalk of the plant being shown; but at the same time it was partially covered with leaves, and to a certain extent concealed, in accordance with the feeling of the age. So in the frieze of the portal at N oye, the stems were knarled, and not geometrical in form; and in the Sainte Chapelle, the horned caps were formed of bunches of stems put together. As a rule, he believed that the less geometry in the application of foliage to decoration, the better the effect. Generally speaking, he considered that the designers of mediseval decoration had drawn with a free hand. Mr. Pocock said that the distinction between natural and geo- metrical forms was clear and obvious. The most important question to them, as architecte, was how far they ought to con- ventionalise nature. Poetry had been defined as “idealising the real, and realising the ideal,” and he considered that ornamenta- tion should do something of the same kind. An individual plant might be too ideal, and it was then necessary to recur to the true type after which nature herself had formed it, and from that original to realise the object appropriately in the particular material employed. Mr. ASHPITEL cautioned the meeting with reference to “ con- ventionalism " in art, and referred especially to painting; to the *thunder and lightning" school in which the colours were mixed and applied as if with a broom; to the “ suggestive style," in which a shadow from outside the picture, or a portion of a figure was intended to convey & great intensity of meaning; and lastly to the “Pre-Raphaelite school,” in which high art was sup- to be reached, if the flowers in a lady's hand were wonder- y clever, although the painting of the figure might be abominably bad. Certain terms were used again and again till they became accepted, and did considerable mischief ; and of all others the term conventionalism required interpretation. The CHAIRMAN (Mr. T. H. Wrarr, V.P.) congratulated the meeting on the remarks which the careful labour and research of Mr. Griffith had elicited, and & vote of thanks having been passed to that gentleman for forwarding the extract from his essay, prepared for reading, the meeting adjourned. — —— uii————— At the general meeting of the Royal Institute of British Architects on the 7th ult, the following elections were made:— President: Earl de Grey. Vice-Presidents: Messrs. B. Ferrey, F. C. Pe and W. Tite. Hon. Secretaries: Messrs. J. J. Scoles, and C. C. Nelson. Ordinary Members of Council: Messrs. E. Christian, H. Clutton, J. H. Hakewill, P. C. Hardwick, G. O. Leicester, C. Barry, G. Godwin, J. J. Cole, J. Gibson, and J. Whichcord. Hon. Sec. Foreign Correspondence: Mr. I. L. Donaldson. Hon. Solicitor: Mr. W. L. Donaldson. Auditors: Mesars. W. G. Habershon, Fellow, and A. J. Baker, Associate. 204 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. DONCASTER CEMETERY CHAPELS. R. I. Jonxsox, Esq, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Architect. Tux Commissioners under the Doncaster Cemetery Act paring advertised for designs for laying out the ground selected, an for the erection of chapels and other buildings, plans were sub- mitted by fifteen competitors, from which those by Mr. R. I. Johnson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, were chosen by the Commis- sioners; and having received the approval of the Archbishop of York, the foundation stone of the chapel was laid on the 9th April by the mayor. e site of the cemetery is on the south side of the town; the ground slopes gradually to the south-east, with a substratum of gravel and sand. Its total extent is about seven acres and a-half, of which about two-thirds will be consecrated, and the remainder unconsecrated. A distinct chapel is intended to be erected on each portion. The chapels represented in our engraving, which are placed about seventy-five yards from the road, are s ted by an arch- way surmounted by a belfry, and affording shelter for hearses and mourning es; and a covered entrance common to both chapels, each of which has a small vestry connected with it. Their style is Curvilinear, and considerable similarity has been observed in their general arrangement. The walls are intended to be built of limestone, backed with bricks; all the dressings being of chiselled ashlar. The framing of the roof, the doors, T— — a — de a N 5 mE T — u^ — EN SS : < e. m ati aee ace — — desks, seats, and other fitti are to be of deal varnished. The floors are of black and red tiles. The lodge contains two rooms on the ground floor, with bed- rooms above; and adjoining it is a waiting-room or office. The gateway is arched over and surmounted by a cross: the gates being of oak varnished, with suitable hinges, &c. The estimate for the buildings, exclusive of laying out the grounds, &c., is 1450. Messrs. T. and C. Anelay, of Doncaster, are the builders, and Messrs. Appleby, Bradley, and Boddy are the contractors for planting and laying out the ground. —— — e Giles, ee has been examined alga plans before a parliamen committee, proposing to form a tunnel railwa from the London and Nortb-Westeit to effect a junction wi Hungerford-bridge, over which it would pass on to the South- Western, and from this point to on arches a branch line to London-bridge. In Oxford-street the tunnel would be 32 feet below the surface, and the tunnel itself would be 23 feet in height. It is proposed by the Hungerford-bridge Company to widen the bridge 50 feet, and by two girders in the centre to strengthen it. The cost of the tunnel bridge is estimated at two millions. L3 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. SUBTERRANEAN FORCES. By Tuomas Hopkins. In looking at the condition of the surface of the globe we inhabit, we see that it is far from being smooth or even. Ridges of land are found rising from the general level of the sea to various heights, their highest points reaching in Europe nearly 16,000 feet, in America 23,000 feet, and in Asia 28,000 feet; and below, the level of the surface of the ocean there seem to be depressions, in the form of basins or valleys, perhaps equal to the elevations of the dry land. In order to account for these differences, it is generally assumed that some force is exerted from below which raises the surface in a partial and irregular manner. The nature of this force is admitted to be unknown, indeed it is scarcely conjectured; yet geologista have furnished evidence that many parts now so much raised, were formerly below water, as the bed of the ocean is at present. And it has been shown further, that there have been successive upheavings and subsidings with long periods of time intervening. The upheaving force must, therefore, not only be presumed to have been great, but to have acted differently at successive periods on the same parts of the earth’s surface, the same parts having evidently been at one time forced up, and then allowed to subside. Not only have these forces been exerted in times long past, but they have been in action recently, and up to the present time. There are many parts of the world which present evidence of having been recently elevated, of which Scandinavia in the northern, and South America in the southern hemisphere, may be named as instances; and according to Mr. C. Darwin and otheis, one part in the Pacific ocean, and another in the Indian ocean, show pable marks of subsidence. The forces, therefore, which have produced the irregular elevations and depressions of the surface of the earth, may pre- sumed to be yet in action, as has been shown by Sir C. Lyall; and although during a single generation of man the effects produced may be small in geological periods they may be large. Humboldt says in Cosmos: If we could obtain daily intelli- gence of the condition of the whole surface of the earth, we should very probably arrive at the conviction that this surface is almost always shaking at some point; and that it is incessantly affected by the reaction of the interior against the exterior. The frequency and universality of a phenomenon which probably owes its origin to the high temperature of the interior and deep- seated molten strata, explain its independence of the nature of the rocks in which it manifests itself"— p. 199. Ofthe nature of the subterranean force we are confessedly ignorant. It has been supposed to be connected with earth- quakes and volcanic action, and steam has been pointed at as the possible agent which has produced, and is producing, such won- derful results. The expansive force of steam is undoubtedly great, and it is known to be ejected from active volcanoes in large quantities. In small eruptions from the crater of Vesuvius, it is seen to force up large quantities of heavy matter, and to eject them with such strength as to send them to a considerable height in the atmosphere, whence they descend and form a cone around the volcano. In this way, the crater, which in the year 1838 was said to be about a mile in diameter, and rather deep, is stated to have been filled up, and converted into a large cone; and recently a hole has been made by lava in the side of this cone. In larger eruptions great clouds have been formed over the crater appa- rently from the condensed vapour and ashes that were sent out. Water of a high temperature, mixed with steam, issues from the Geysers of Iceland, and in some of the large eruptions of the American volcanoes appearances indicate that immense volumes of steam are ejected with other matter. Humboldt says: “ Not only are whole districts of country ele- vated by them (earthquakes) above their former level, such as the Ulla Bund, east of the delta of the Indus, after the earth- quake of Cutch, in June 1819, but also that during their occur- rence various substances were ejected from the earth, such as hot water at Catania, in 1819; hot steam in the valley of the Mississippi at New Madrid, in 1812; noxious gases, mud, black smoke, and even flames, at Messina, in 1783; andat Cumana on the 14th November, 1797. The hot steam, in the Andes, which, during the eruption, issues from the crater and mingles with the atmosphere, condenses as it cools, and forms a cloud sur- rounding the column of fire and ashes, which rises to a height of 205 many thousand feet. The greater part of the vapour which rises m volcanoes is pure aqueous vapour.“ Cosmos, p. 225. Factslike these, together with ignorance of any other power capable of producing such effects, have been held to countenance the conclusion, that expansive force of steam is the power which immediately produces volcanic eruptions. And as these erup- tions ap to be connected with earthquakes, and certain ele- vations of land, it has been inferred that steam is the agent used by nature in raising portions of the crust of the globe, and pro- ducing its present state. But in what way is this steam formed? It can be only from the action of heat in the interior of the earth, and therefore must be presumed to be in some way connected with the heat supposed to exist below the surface. The progressive rise of temperature at increasing depths has induced a belief that at a distance below the surface, say from 20 to 50 miles, the terrestrial matter is so hot as to be in a liquid state, like molten iron; and if we can suppose that some of the water, which is so abundant at the surface, can, from time to time, find openings through which it can descend to this molten mass, it is easy to conceive that a large quantity of the water would be converted into steam, and the steam be raised to a high temperature, when it would exert a pe expansive force, and might produce earthquakes and up- eavings. In support of this ana it has been remarked that volcanic eruptions and earthquakes most frequently occur not far from the ocean; but it has received more. countenance from the consideration that no other subterranean force is known which seems capable of producing the effects that are presented to our view over the earth’s surface. In contemplating this subject, we may then consider that the interior of our planet is a mass of matter kept in a liquid state by heat, and that in some way water from the surface may pos- sibly reach this mass, and be converted into steam of so high a temperature as to give it great expansive force, and that it is such steam which, from time to time, produces the earth- quakes that shake the surface of the globe and force up portions of it, as has been recently seen on the west coast of South America. But how did the water descend to the interior heated mass ? The accidental breaking in of water through the solid crust appears to be a very uncertain and irregular operation, to pro- duce such extensive and long-continued results. Supposing that the water descended through cracks or fissures, from time to time, there must have been some force exerted capable of making these fissures; and where is it to be found? The great subterra- nean forces, though existing through countless ages, seem to act irregularly, being for a time apparently dormant, and then awakening with various degrees of activity, as if accidental openings were made for the admittance of water at certain times, to be converted into steam, which openings were subsequently closed. Now, what can be conceived to be the cause of the frac- tures of the shell of the globe, which at various times, and during successive ages, allowed the water of the surface to descend to the heated interior? It has been said that the crust is cooling, and that this cooling makes it contract and crack. But such con- traction would of itself consolidate the outer shell which is in a solid state, and would tend rather to close up than to open any fissures through which water might pass from the surface to the interior, and therefore a ual cooling of the external part of the globe is not likely to have been the cause of the successive admissions of water to the molten interior. Presuming that it is steam which exerts the furce that lifts the crust, we have then to look for the power that, through long ages has, from time to time, with irregular intervals, produced the disturbances which allowed supplies of water to furnish the steam, as no such power has yet been discovered. Among the great forces that are to be traced in the operations of nature, we may rank heat and gravitation as the principal. From the evidence we possess, heat may be presumed to exist in the interior of the globe, but as the temperature there is under going no sensible alteration: we do not see how it can, by its own action, operate to break the shell and elevate of it, 80 as to raise mountain ridges in the way in which they have been elevated. And we therefore naturally turn our attention to the other known great force—gravitation, and inquire whether it can be found in action in such a way as to be likely to be instru- mental in producing the results under consideration; and in order to do this, we have to endeavour to trace the action of gravity on the different parts of the earth. $0 206 Terrestrial attraction acts in the same way on every part of the mass of the earth, and causes it to press towards the centre; and this must take place whether the mass is liquid or solid; but in this operation there certainly does not & to be any tendency either to break up or to elevate portions of the crust. The earth, 5 is only a part of the solar ee and in every part of that system gravity is in action; eve „or part of Rb within it AGE upon every other body, or other part, according to its weight and distance. In addition, however, to the mutual attraction of all the parts of the earth, the whole body of itis attracted by the sun, and by the other planets of the system; and the moon, small as is her mass, on account of her contiguity, exerts a considerable amount of attractive force on the earth. The attraction of gravitation within the earth is therefore not a simple, but a complex operation; and on account of the varying distances from other of the different bodies in the solar system, the attraction of gravitation acts with dif- ferent force at different times, and some of the various effecta thereby produced may be traced. We know, for instance, that the sun and moon produce such dif- ferent effects on the water, and the solid land, that are near the sur- face of the globe, as to disturb their local relations to each other. Themoon attracts the water which is on the partof the earth nearest to herself with so much more force than she draws the land, as to make the water move from the land, and rise as a lunar tide; whilst the body of the solid earth is attracted with so much more force than the water which is at the farthest side of the earth, as to heave that water at a certain distance from the land. There is consequently, in every revolution of the earth on its axis a double tite produced by the separate and unequal action of the force of attraction of the moon on the waters of the surface, and on the solid mass of the earth. But if the moon’s attraction can produce these tides in the liquid water which is at the surface, may it not produce effects of analogous character on the liquid matter which is in the inte- rior? The crust of the earth being considered a shell, or hollow globe, the of which are held firmly together by cohesion, will obey the law of gravitation as a single mass, and the whole shell or globular arch will be drawn towards the moon according to the mean force of the attractive power of the moon upon it. But the fluid mass within the shell will obey the law of gravity as a fluid, each particular part being separately attracted, with a force roportioned to the distance of the part from the attracting dy. In our ocean tides the water nearest to the moon is drawn from the land, and the water that is farthest from the moon is left behind by the movement of the land; but the interior liquid mass will, at the same time, be all drawn together one way, though with different degrees of strength, according to distance and therefore will press partially against the portions of the solid shell that contains it. e farthest part of the molten mass may be considered to be drawn by the weakest force, which may be expressed by figure 1; the whole solid shell by a stronger force, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. represented by the fi 2, which will tend to move the shell faster than the liquid portion, No. 1, and dimi panier d to press against it, whilst the liquid mass, No. 3, being under the moon's strongest attraction, would be moved faster than the ahell, and, therefore, would also press against it. And further, as attraction would cause the interior molten mass to with increased force against the under side of the shell, in the part nearest the moon s o. 3), and also against the side farthest from it (No. 1), the liquid would be drawn from the outer portions of the inter- mediate of the shell, which outer 7 being then un- sustained by liquid within, would be left to press with their whole weight ward; and any part of the shell that had been previously ruptured P4 an upheaval might sink until it reached the molten mass. this way, the intermediate parta, if broken or cracked, would be liable to subeide twice in the twenty-four hours. Liquid water and melted rock have different degrees of fluidity, and may therefore not be acted upon by vity in precisely the same time and d ; but both are Raids, and attraction will exercise the same kind of influence on both. We are then at liberty to infer that in every revolution of our globe on its axis, the liquid mass which is contained within the solid shell presses with superior force against the under side of that part of the shell which is the nearest to the moon, and also against the under side of the part which is farthest from the moon, and with less force against those parts which are at an intermediate distance, and this unequal action travels with the surface of the earth in ita diurnal rotation. Now this ever-changing upward and downward pressure must have a tendency to crack and break the shell, and it would appear from a consideration of the forces in action that it would frequently do so but for the attraction of the earth iteelf, and the force of cohesion of the shell. These forces, however, in the present ordinary state of things, seem to be sufficiently great to counteract the intermitting influence of the moon's attraction, as the surface generally remains in an undisturbed, or nearly in an undisturbed state. But the attraction of the moon, though the principal, is only one of the forces which act in the way that has been described. The sun also attracts the different parts of the earth, according to the respective distances from each other of the various parta. In addition to the lunar tide in the ocean, there is a solar tide, because the sun, like the moon, exerts more force in drawing to- wards itself the water which is nearest to it, than in drawing the solid earth and that of the water which are farther off. And, notwithstanding the t distance of the sun, it must exert the same unequal kind of force of attraction on the different parts of the body of the earth, whether solid or liquid, that the moon does. The other planets of the solar system must also produce some similar effect, small though it may be; and accord- ing as these various bodies act in the same direction as the moon, or at some angle with it, they will add to, or subtract from, the upheaving power exerted by the moon upon the shell of the earth. We thus see that & force, considerable in amount, and varying from time to time, must be exerted against the interior surface of the shell of the earth, having a tendency to press it outwards and to produce cracks and fissures; whilst at other times, and alter- nately, the attraction of the earth itself will make the crust press strongly inward, the two forces producing, or tending to produce, in successive times an upward and a downward motion of the same part of the crust. The irregularity of these forces must be increased by the change in the relative directions of the lunar and the solar attractions during the passage of the earth through its annual orbit. In our summer the northern hemisphere is turned towards, and of course the southern hemisphere is removed from, the sun; the combined influence of the two bodies, the moon and the sun, will therefore be different in the same hemisphere in the summer from what it is during the winter. The moon also is sometimes over one side of the equator, and sometimes over the other, as much as 283°. Humboldt remarks that, * It seems highly probable that the action of the sun and moon which procure the ebb and flow of the ocean, is also felt in these subterranean depths. We may suppose periodic heavings and subsidings of the molten mass, and consequent variations in the pressure against the vaulted covering, formed by the solidification of the upper rocks. The amount and effects of such oscillations must, however, be small, and although the relative position of the heavenly bodies may THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL here also occasion ‘ spring tides,’ yet it is certainly not to these but to more powerful internal forces* that we must attribute the movements which shake the earth. That which is most difficult for us to conceive and to represent to ourselves is the boundary line between the fluid interior mass and the solidified rocks which form the outer crust; or the gradual change from the solid strata to the condition of 55 Cosmos, p. 162. The varying forces of attraction will undoubtedly have a ten- dency to b up the solid shell of the globe, just as the force of tidal water entering a frozen river tends to break up the ice that has been formed on its surface. A stream of molten lava, issu- ing from a volcano, allows the surface to cool and become solid; but, the flow of lava continuing, the liquid accumulates, and by its weight breaks up the crust, and forces its way onward, to go through the same process again, as long as the melted lava con- tinues to press with adequate force beneath the crust. And it is conceivable that the pressure of the liquid nucleus of the globe against the underside of the solid shel, under particular combi- nations of attractive forces may, from time to time, cause some weak parts of it to give way, produce a crack in the shell, or open a fissure that will admit water from the surface to descend to the molten mass. Even at present on the earth, with the water that is upon it, small as it is in quantity compared with the liquid nucleus, great disturbances are produced by the breaking up of material which bad been rendered solid by cold. When the ice, which by the cold of winter has been accumulated in the river St. Lawrence, is set at liberty by the solar heat of the sum- mer, it comes down in large quantities, but is occasionally im- peded in its course, and heaped up, until, gathering strength from its weight, it at last forces its way to the ocean with a sublime display of power. The water of the large Siberian river, we are told, on the approach of winter, is every year frozen, and then presents an obstacle to the descent of more water in the bed of the river; but the continued supplies from the south force their way over the adjoining land, and there freeze and accumulate to an immense extent until the heat of summer loosens the enormous mass, and sends it to the ocean. But these operations, grand as they may appear to us, are mere trifles com- pared with what may have been done, and may still be doing, by the large masses of liquid in the interior that are acting on the solidified shell of the globe. It may be said that we have but little evidence to sustain the view that has been taken of the fluid condition of our planet at a former period. But if from its shape we are justified in gatas | that it was formerly fluid, we must take that assumption with its consequences. Humboldt asserts that, “The geometrical form of the earth reveals its earlier condition—an ellipsoid of revolution, indicating a once soft or fluid mass.”—‘ Cosmos,’ 154. Its equatorial diameter is about 7925°648 miles, and its polar diameter only 7899°140 miles, making a difference of 26:508 miles, and this difference is held to be sufficient evidence of its once liquid state. We must then be prepared to contem- plate a state of things when the surface became solid by cooling, and when the cooling bad formed only a thin shell, which would be covered with water in every part, of nearly an uniform depth; the water itself being, at the same time, covered with an atmo- sphere of steam of a temperature in accordance with that of the hot water surface. The attraction of the heavenly bodies would then produce tides in the internal molten mass, and every one of these tides would break up the thin shell, convert more water into steam, greatly agitate the solid fragments, and mix them up in all conceivable ways. From the high temperature of the whole, heat would be radiated into space with great energy, and be lost to the planet, „ surface with rapidity as com- pared with more recent cooling. But the loss of heat from the surface would necessarily be accompanied by an increase in the thickness of the shell, and consequently with a less liability of its being broken up by the more feeble of the tidal movements of the interior liquid mass. At first, it must be presumed that any, even the weakest as well as the stronger tidal movements of that mass, would suffice to break the thin shell, when some of the heat of the mass would pass into fresh steam, be radiated into space, and the surface further cooled, until the shell became thicker, and at last strong enough to resist the force of a weak tide. But, the cooling process still continuing, a time would come when a lunar tide, with a solar tide acting in opposition to it, would not be sufficient to break the shell, but yet when it * Which he does not name. 207 might be broken by an union of a solar toa lunar tide. Aftera further time had passed, it might require the full amount of both these forces to produce a fresh break up, and at last the forces of other heavenly podies, acting in conjunction, might be requisite to produce the same effect. he solid shell of the globe, with its 1991 5 of cohesion, must by the action of terrestrial gravitation, made an arch, each part of which will tend to sustain the rest, the whole having the strength of an arch, ing according as the material is soft or hard. A portion of it, however, is not now solid land, but liquid water; and in certain parts there is reason to believe that the water occupies at the present time about five miles of the thick - ness, and must have occupied a part of the thickness from an early period. In some portion of this part, it may then be sup- posed that the solid shell would be most likely to give way under the action of the subterranean forces which have described. If cracks are presumed to be made in the crust of the earth, it is in, or near to, this part that they might be expected to be found; here then we have to imagine that fissures would be made, and that the water of the ocean would run down to the molten rock, and be converted into steam, which would exert its expansive force, lifting and shaking the earth. But when a portion of the crust was thus raised, the steam that was beneath it would ex- pand and cool, and in so doing lose some of its power. The great eat in the molten mass below would, however, soon renew the elastic force, and the crust be again raised, and these movements would tear and grind the ruptured parts, and might extensively shake the surface. Humboldt tells us that, The nature of the noise (of earthquakes) differs greatly, sometimes it is rolling, and occasionally like the clanking of chains. In the City of Quito it has sometimes been abrupt, like thunder close at hand, and sometimes clear and ringing, as if obsidian or other vitrified masses clashed, or were shattered in subterranean cavities. From the 13th to the 16th of January, it was as if there were heavy storm clouds under the feet of the inhabitants, in which slow rolling thunder alternated with short thunder-claps. The rain DERE gradually, as it had commenced.”—*‘ Cosmos, p. 196. We now have to contemplate a state of things somewhat dif- ferent to that which has been supposed to have previously existed. The shell of the earth, partially fractured and raised, with irre- gular cavities in its interior part, would have the underside pressed against by a mass of steam, interposed between the shell and the liquid nucleus, the steam being ready to escape by any opening that might be made, whilst the pressure downward of the heavy materials of the fractured arch would tend to close up any opening. In every rupture the weight of the broken mate- rials would incline them to descend, whilst the expansive force of the steam would impel it upwards. And, judging from results in the various upheavals that have taken place up to the present time, we have to conclude that in every disturbance the solid materials at last close up the fissures and terminate the particu- lar eruption. The earliest breaking of the erust, it would seem, must have produced a chaotic state of the surface, the solid ge being in- cessantly broken and agitated, and perhaps partially remelted by the hot liquid mass, for a long series of ages. But as the crust became thicker, firmer, and more elevated, the surface water would begin to act upon it by its own tidal motions. The more elevated solid parts would then be worn away, and the material would be washed into such hollows as existed, and all this might take place during a long time, while the eruptions of the molten mass occurred under the surface of the ocean. But, the same causes continuing in action, some of the solid crust would at last be raised above the water, when the ocean tides would act with 5 effect, washing more of the solid matter towards the ower ; In something like this way, it may be conceived that at diffe- rent times the solid shell of the earth has been broken and por- tions of it raised, and hollows formed below which are filled with very hot and highly elastic steam. At every successive irru tion of water from above, more steam would be 5 addi- tional expansive force created, and larger cavities formed, and the steam mo be decomposed and converted into its elementary The upheaving power would be exerted in the direction ofthe cavity, and the portion of the earth over it would be Bhaken and raised, as we find the parts of the surface are which constitute ridges and mountains; and these operations being repeated from age to age, might at last produce thc various ele- vations that exist at present. 30* 208 Part II. It may then be considered that we have, though in an imper- fect way, traced the working of forces which are adequate to pro- duce the elevations at present found on the surface of the globe; but there are also extensive depressions or subsidings of the sur- face. The continent of South America is presumed to have been rising for and it is believed that during the same time the Coral islands of the Pacific ocean have been sinking. The one change has apparently been contemporaneous with the other, and we naturally enquire whether the causes which have been deemed adequate to produce the one effect are sufficient to account for the other, as it is not likely that causes which are independent could, during successive long periods of time, produce contemporaneous effecta. In what way, then, can it be supposed that the forces which have been pointed out have produced the sinking of parts of the surface ? We have seen reason to believe that, through the influence of daily rotation and gravitation, the liquid interior of the earth exerts an intermitting power against the solid shell, and some- times forces parta of it upwards, leaving cavities filled with steam. This steam, having great elastic force, will press against the sides of the cavities according to their size and depth, laterally as well as vertically, tending to burst the cavities; and there being a a number of them, the pressure against each cavity will be dif- ferent to that which will be exerted against the intermediate parts. As disturbances proceeded, and renewed force was exerted, the underside of the solid shell would be more inclined to rise and become hollow in some parts, while other parts would be liable to sink from their gravity, and the inside of the shell might thus become the counte of what the outside is known to be,—the former having hollows where the latter has eleva- tions, and vice vered. We should then have to infer that in the interior portion of the solid shell, under the ridge of the Andes of South America, there are elongated cavities, and that in the deepest parts of the ocean, as well as under the area of the Coral islands of the Pacitic there are projections downwards beyond the mean of the inner surface, and perhaps pressing into the molten mass beneath. A body of steam existing between the interior surface of the shell and the molten rock beneath it, that steam would collect principally in the cavities, and would there exert its test force to burst the shell. And every disturbance of the shell by upheaval might not only raise the outside ridges and mountains, but also allow the intermediate parts that had sunk, to sink still lower, leaving the interval cavities greater, and the parts projecting downwards, lower. | During the whole of these operations the forces of attraction of the heavenly bodies might, in their various changes, tend sometimes to raise up one locality and sometimes another, whilst portions of the broken shell might sink down from their weight, and the alternation might go on for any period that may be imagined. All this time, the water at the surface, having a high temperature, would have great solvent power to act upon and dis- solve solid materials, as the ocean soul be like a large boiler full of water over an intensely hot fire, the water being kept liquid by the pressure of a dense column of steam. The nature of these complex operations, while the earth is re- volving on its axis, is such as to permit the fractures to take place in all directions, and therefore the operations may be sup- posed to have produced the numerous and irregular elevations that are now found on the globe, as well as those which existed in former ages. For it is not very difficult to conceive that when any part of the shell has been much dislocated, steam, the great upheaving power, might escape to an extent that would allow the mass above that part, or in a weak portion of a contiguous part thus partially relieved from the expansive force of steam, to begin to sink into the cavity below, leaving the upheaving force to act subsequently against the next weakest portion of the shell. In this way a part that had been once elevated might sink, and another part which had previously been depressed, might be raised, and these alternations might be repeated in various direc- tions. The existence of the forces, and their irregular modes of acting being recognised, it only requires time to produce the wonderful results with which geology has made us acquainted, and in the grand operations of nature such as are here treated of any time may be presumed to elapse. And it is desirable to remember that the attractive forces do not act on the mass of the earth precisely as they would if it were a globe. The density of the interior mass is spheroidal, like the surface, and each part of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. it will be acted upon by the heavenly bodies accordi density, as the motion of the moon is modified spheroidal form of the earth. It appears from geological evidence, that in time some of the cooled crust was raised considerably above the water, and a place was prepared for land plants and animals, and every successive elevation would enlarge that place. The shell, forming an arch, being now thicker, would be more capable of sustaining by its power of cohesion any part of itself that might be raised; and the same portion of the surface might be carried to as great a height as the strength of the shell would sustain, and each rising might, at a certain period, continue long enough to give a particu- lar character to the surface, and to constitute it & geological epoch. "This seems to have been the state of things in one of the earlier geological periods, when but little land was raised above the water, yet when much abraded material of the crust was washed into the cavities of the sea. From this time the uphea- vals seemed to have produced greater elevations and subsidings, the superior thickness of the shell enabling it to sustain the masses that were raised, whilst the alternations continuing some- ae raised a particular part, and at other times allowed it to sub- side. As stated in ‘Cosmos,’ “The oldest strata contain only marine plants exhibiting cellular tissue, the devonian strata being the first in which some cryptogamic forms of vascular plants are found. After the devonian strata and the mountain limestone, we come to the formation of the coal measures, which contain only cryptogamic plants.” (p. 269.) In the most ancient times, during the silurian, devonian, and carboniferous epochs, and even as lately as the triossic period, the portion of the earth su porting land vegetation was exclusively insular. At a su sequent epoch, these islands became connected with each other, forming numerous lakes and deeply-indented bays. Finally, when the mountain chains of the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Carpathians were elevated (about the time therefore of the older tertiary formations), the great continents possessed nearly their present form and extent. During the silurian epoch, when the cycadee were in the greatest abundance, and the gigantic suurians were living, the whole surface of dry land from pole to pole, must have been less than it now is in the Pacific and Indian oceans.” ‘Cosmos,’ p. 277. It has been contended by Laplace and other inquirers that we have not sufficient evidence that the interior of our globe is now in such a liquid state as has been described, that is to say, liable to be disturbed by internal tidal forces. Great pressure, it is known, tends to convert a liquid into a solid; and the pressure of the outer part of the earth on the molten mass in the interior, it is contended, might solidify that mass more readily than the cooling of the s would produce a thick shell. It is therefore asserted, that the solidification of the interior by pressure may have preceded the formation of a thick shell by cooling, making the interior a solid and not a liquid mass, when of course there could be no such tidal action as has been here presumed to exist. But, admitting the general effect that has n claimed for pressure in solidifying hot liquid matter, it still does not follow that the interior of the earth is to be considered solid. The force of the earth’s gravity is greater at the surface, because all the matter is then below, or on one side. In the deep interior parts the attraction towards the centre becomes less, a body bein there attracted by the matter that is above as well as that whic is below, but in opposite directions, and the attraction of any body so circumstanced towards the centre of the earth will be only to the extent that the latter attraction exceeds the former. When at the centre, the attraction would be equal on all sides, in other words there would be no attractive force in active operation, and consequently no weight and no pressure on a body so situated. From this central point, proceeding outwards towards the surface, attraction been to act, and would be in proportion to distance from the centre. Now the pressure of one body resting on another, or one resting on another, is in proportion to the force with which the pressing body is attracted, and as the attraction increases as we proceed from the centre towards the surface, so would the pressure of the incumbent material increase until at some depth it might be sufficient at a certain temperature to solidify the liquid matter in that part of the interior. The radius of the earth being about 4000 miles, say that at 2000 miles from the centre the incumbent pressure of the other 2000 is sufficient to solidify the matter in that part, we should then have a liquid nucleus of 2000 miles radius or to ita y the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 4000 miles diameter, surrounded by a shell rendered solid by incumbent pressure. But as we approach the surface, the incum- bent pressure of the thinner outer part would diminish, whilst the temperature might not be equally reduced—and here, at some certain depth below the surface, the heated matter of the interior might be a liquid mass, unsolidified by pressure. But the temperature of the interior of our planet is not known, and we have only an imperfect knowledge of the influence of pressure in solidifying liquids: we are therefore unable to speak with certainty respecting the state of the interior of the earth. From its form however being a spheroid, and not a globe, we infer with some degree of confidence, that it was once fluid; and volcanic action, 13 lava from time to time, shows that molten matter still exists at some depth below the surface; whilst as we descend the progressive rise of temperature with increasing depth indicates the amount of heat at certain distances below the surface, With these ascertained facts, as a foundation on which to proceed, we may then inquire into the probable way in which known forces must act, or are likely to act, on the interior mass of the earth. Taking the present state of the crust, as exhibited to us by geology, as evidence of the manner in which these forces have operated in times long past, we may proceed in our inquiry, and come to such conclusions as the facts and circumstances warrant. One of the most striking of these facts is that over a large part of the earth, molten matter exists at some depth below the surface, and this matter often rises and flows out through volcanoes; molten matter must therefore exist below. And as it shows itself at a great number of places far distant from each other, over all the earth, we are at liberty to infer that it is connected, or that there is a general liquid ocean of lava below the solid crust. Now, no mere reasoning on the supposed influ- ence of pressure in solidifying melted matter can be successfully urged against this conclusion. We are not acquainted with the effect that is produced by the pressure of the crust of the earth on the molten mass beneath it. The shell of the earth is an arch which may have a self-sustaining character, and may no more press on the liquid mass below it than does an arch over a river press on the water that flows beneath it. If, indeed, a separate cylindrical opening were to be made in this globular arch, and that opening were to be filled with matter, as a piston fills a cylinder, and the piston was allowed to move freely, it might then press with all its weight upon the molten liquid within, and sould undoubtedly tend to solidify it; the arch itself, however, may possibly exert no pressure, but may leave the heated mass in a state to be determined by its temperature, which may be sufficiently high to keep it liquid. Over large portions of the world earthquakes occur frequently, but even in the more civilised countries, accounts of them are not often recorded in such a way as to admit of their being collected: nevertheless, something has been done in this way. A list pre- pared by Mr. R. Mallett has been published in the volumes of the British Association, from which it appears that earthquakes are of frequent occurrence in many parts of the world, and that their actions are very various, from slight tremblings to formid- able vertical upheavingsand extended undulations, accompanied by different sounds, from a shrill metallic ring to distant rumbling thunder, altogether indicating the existence of some disturbing force below that is irregular in its operation, acting against different kinds of rocks. The accompaniments of earthquakes are, in fact, such as may be considered likely to result from an internal liquid mass pressing irregularly against the underside of the earth’s shell, that shell having in the lower parts cavities, or perhaps local arches formed by ruptured falling masses. And the tidal wave of the interior molten mass, which has been pointed oat, travelling with the earth in its daily rotation, and acting on the steam contained in the cavities, would be likely to disturb the broken parts of the shell in all conceivable ways, shaking it, sometimes raising a part vertically or opening a fissure longitudinally, and at other times allowing the ruptured eke to collapse and subside. The known frequency of such isturbances furnishes reason to presume that the primary cause is never entirely at rest. Some of these operations disturb at the same time a large extent of the surface of the globe. Humboldt tells us that “the great earthquake which on November 1, 1755, destroyed Lisbon, waa felt in the Alps, on the coast of Sweden, in the West India Islands, on the great lakes of Canada, in Thuringia, in the flat country of Northern Germany, and in small inland lakes on the 209 shores of the Baltic. It has been computed that on that day, a portion of the earth's surface, four times greater than the extent of Europe, was simultaneously shaken.” ‘Cosmos’ p. 197. It is known that certain substances, such as water and iron, increase in volume when crystallised by abstraction of heat, and that in so doing they exert great expansive force; it may therefore be thought that such crystallisation is going on in the interior of the earth at the surface of the molten mass, to an extent that will enlarge the nucleus and make it crack the shell But, considering that we have no reason to believe that an irregular, or even measurable cooling is taking place in the interior mass, such force cannot be deemed adequate to produce the results that are experienced even in upheavals and still less in subsidings; yet expansion, by producing a strain on the solid mass, may possibly assist the tidal wave of the nucleus to rupture the shell. When lava flows from volcanoes, it is evident that some force must be exerted to raise it to the height from which it often issues; and as already stated, it has been presumed that steam, in some way, has penetrated beneath the mass below, and by its expansive power there forced up the lava that flows from the vent. But the effects that are observed may be produced in another manner, the tidal wave of the interior mass being still considered the prime mover. If steam of a very high tempera- ture existed in a cavity adjoining that from which the lava flows, the elastic pressure of that steam on the surface of the molten mass might force the lava to rise and overflow, until sufficient space was left to allow the steam to become weak by expansion. Lava may, however, possibly be forced out of the volcanic crater in another way. A part of the crust that is subsiding may descend, not only to the surface of the molten mass beneath, but may also press into it with force, and cause adjoining lava to rise in such craters as may be near the part. It may be that the portion of the shell which is subsiding, being a broken part of the globular arch, is not fully sustained by the mutual pressure of every part of the arch, and the broken part may descend with the whole weight due to its thickness, leaving cracks or faults in the crust, whilst the weight may sink it to a considerable depth in the liquid lava and force some of it to rise in the nearest open- ing. The subsidence of a detached mass, very deep in the low part of the crust, leaving the adjoining parts undisturbed, would dislocate the more deeply-seated strata; and these dislocations would be likely to ramify upwards, producing the slips and faults that are so numerous in mines. The first or earlier subsiding below, would create the “master fault” of the miners, which they say generally swallows up the smaller ones nearer to the surface. if the tidal wave of the interior molten mass can be presumed to break the solid shell in the way that has been described, various results may be produced at different times in dislocating the crust; but steam appears to furnish the primary force that raises the surface.* When earthquakes occur, attention is commonly directed to the state of the atmosphere, as if the cause of the phenomenon might be found in it, but no palpable connection has been traced between them. The action of electricity has also been particularly noticed, and the equilibrium of that subtle fluid has sometimes been found to have been disturbed at the time of earthquakes; but that was probably an effect rather than a cause. “I have (says Humboldt) felt shocks in serene weather as well as in rain, and during a fresh east wind as well as during a Storm. Even the regularity of the horary variations of the magnetic declination, and of the pressure of the atmosphere, were not disturbed on the days of the earthquakes. My obser- vations were made within the tropics.” ‘Cosmos,’ p. 193. Sir C. Lyall, in his valuable book on the ‘ Prina plea of Geology’, advances some objections to the hypothesis of an internal fluid, and suggests that heat electricity, chemical changes, and molecular disturbances, may have produced the alterations that have taken * While writing this, newspapers give the following account:—*' Broussa, April 11.— Yesterday eveniug, shortly before eight o'clock, two or three violent shocks of eartb- quakes were felt here, and caused universal terror amung the inhabitante. Every one called to mind the fearful scenes which had occurred hardly a month since. In five minutes from that time, every public monument and building in Broussa was a heap of ruins. No stone house has resisted the terrible shocks. ormous masses of earth and rock were detached from the flanks of the mountains.—Noon: The night has been fearful. Shocks of earthquakes have not ceased to be felt, and are still recurring. More than 150 have been counted, of ter or leas violence.” The recorded occur- rences here point at an upheaval and dislocation, followed by repcated subsidence of the broken parts. It is to be regretted that such phenomena are not more minutely an intelligently noted, with their bearing on some hypothetical vicw of the nature ef movement. 210 place. But the evidence brought forward is very inconclusive, and high authorities say that their action cannot account either for the external form of the planet, or the spheroidal distribution of the ponderable matter of the earth at present. The same writer attempts to prove that disturbances of the earth’s crust in early periods were the same, both in kind and degree, as those now exerted. He says: “It is presumed that the forces formerly employed to remodel the crust of the earth were the same, in kind and energy, as those now acting" (p. 12.) “It was contrary to analogy to suppose that nature been at any former epoch parsimonious of time and prodigal of violence.” Vol. I. p. 129. And that “a certain disturbance of the crust confirms the uniformity of the action of subterraneous forces, instead of their greater violence in the primeval ages.” p. 132. This, in a certain sense, may be admitted to be true, but not in the sense in which he is understood, namely, that the pheno- mena have been the same in all ages. The t primary forces of nature may be the same, without the surface matter acted upon by them being in the same condition, and therefore the result produced by the forces may be different. We know that certain changes on the surface of the earth are constantly taking place at present, through both the diurnal and annual motions of the planet. The water which is at one time liquid becomes solid, not because there is any change in the forces or laws of nature, but on account of the altered position of the earth with relation to the sun. Parts of the Arctic ocean, for instance, are liquid in the summer and solid in the winter, merely because their position in the solar system has been changed; and we do not know but that the whole system may, in time extremely remote, have had its summer, and may be now passing slowly towards ita winter. Below the stratified crust, continuous un- stratified rocks are found which, from the shape of the earth, we presume once were liquid at the surface. But the disturbance of that surface must have been then very cifferent from what it is now, when a cooled crust exists: this would, no doubt be admitted by Sir C. Lyall. A geologist mav, indeed, look upon that crust as an ordinary observer does on the ice of the Arctic ocean. This ice is often broken by the movements of the remaining water, in one form and manner when the ice is thin, and in another when it is thick, until at last the ice may be strong enough to resist the assault of all but the strongest forces of the water; just as the shell of the earth when thin had small power of resistance, compared with that possessed by a thick shell. Only admit that the surface was once liquid, and has since become solid and thicker, and it follows that the disturbances pro- duced by the natural forces would be different, though the forces themselves continue the same. Professor Dana examined the crater of the large volcano Kilauea, in the Sandwich Islands, and was much surprised to find that the issuing streams were apparently independent. He says: “The boiling pools in the bottom of Kilauea show no stom oles in their conditions; one may sink 100 feet, while another is overflowing; the smaller pools may boil at their ordinary level and overflow, when the lake 1000 feet in diameter has sunk 100 or 150 feet below the bottom plain of Kilauea.” However difficult it may be to prove the way in which these results are produced, we are obliged to presume that there are walls of separation between the openings, through which the various streams reach the surface. h stream may have its separate vent or fissure, and may be acted upon by an elastic force. In the month of March 1838, explosions from the boiling lava of a small crater situated in the large crater of Vesuvius, took place at irregular intervals of from five to eight minutes. The explosion threw steam and masses of lava into the air, after which for a short time the cauldron was still. It then began to move, like a liquid beginning to boil, and the motion increased in violence until the mass of the surface was thrown out by steam as if by an explosion of gunpowder. And this took place during weeks, whilst outside of this small crater, but within the large one, gases and steam were issuing with various degrees of is from hundreds of cracks and openings. From such facts as these we may suppose that down to some certain depths volcanic products frequenti issue through sepa- rate channels; but the prime moving force which produced cracks and fissures in the shell of the earth, must be presumed to be deep-seated, because the effects often extend over a large area. If there be truth in the hypothetical view which has been here taken, we may reasonably look to astronomers for information respecting the operating causes of particular earthquakes, up- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. heavals and volcanic eruptions. When such disturbances take place, if the tides of the ocean show that great effect is produced on them by the heavenly bodies, to those same bodies we might attribute the disturbance of the liquid interior of the earth; and a careful examination of our tide tables, and of the situations of the heavenly bodies that ponio the tides, may possibly show that there is such a coincidence in the times of occurrence of the two classes of phenomena, as to lead to the conclusion that they are produced by a common cause. Careful registration, also of the seismometer, in conjunction with observations on the move- ments of the heavenly bodies may possibly throw new light on this obecure subject. In treating on such topics, it ought not to be required, or expected, with our imperfect information, that conclusive evi- dence can be adduced. The great agencies in operation, in disturbing the surface of our planet are too obscure to admit of that being done at present. That there have been, however, ncies of a very powerful character in action the present state of the surface of the earth proves. And that they are now in operation to some extent, is evidenced by the changes that are frequently 5 and beneath the surface. All that appears possible to be done at present, is to trace the action of e forces that are known to us which seem to be connected with the phenomena, and to consider whether they are adequate to the production of the wonderful results that are presented to our view. In such cases as these we are reduced to the necessity of reasoning from the known to the unknown; of making such use of our present limited knowledge as may lead us on to the acquire- ment of more. Astronomers find that gravitation produces irregular movements among the heavenly bodies; in the tides of the ocean, we have proof that it causes changes in the relations of the land and the water; and in the absence of positive know- ledge on the subject, we may presume, with some confidence, that the internal fluid is affected by gravitation, in the same way that the liquid mass is at the surface. We are then at liberty to conclude, that the present state of the external portion of our globe may have been caused through the aggregate power of gravitation exerted by the heavenly bodies in their various conjunctions. When all or the greater part of their forces of attraction act together in the same direc- tion, they may now be able to break up and cause the elevation of some portions of the shell; and when such conjunctions away, either a period of repose may follow, or there may bea subsidence of the part. Supposing this view to be substantially correct, we may infer that all those great movements and disturbances of the earth's surface which are apparently the most irregular, and which xnl io us to be accidental, are necessary effects of the workin of those simple but powerful laws which govern the material universe. Throughout that universe, we may believe that nothing can occur which is accidental; no movement takes place without an adequate cause. Motion and power are propagated through the whole; one part acts upon another according to inflexible law: and when we speak of an accident, the word means no more than that we are ignorant of the force that produced the pheno- menon. Every material movement, from the breathing of the gentlest pp to the outbreak of the fiery volcano, and the upheaval of the solid shell of the globe, must be, we presume, a result of the working of those laws whose operations never cease throughout the wide realm of nature, some knowledge of which it is the privilege and the happiness of man to acquire, and his noblest ambition to increase. — — —Ááà— — —- ARCHITECTURAL PUBLICATION SOCIETY. Tux annual meeting of the Architectural Publication Society was held on the 10th ult., Mr. A. Ashpitel, F.S.A., in the chair. From the year 1852-53, there is a balance of 267. 15s. 10d., which added to the total income, amounts to 470l. 8s. 4d. for the year 1853-54. Of this sum 237“. 19s. 8d. only is expended, leaving a balance of 232/. 8s. 8d. for further publications. The probable income for the year 1854-55 is anticipated to be at least 420l., for which the works consisting of illustrations are now in hand. It was stated that there was much difficulty in obtaining copies of the earlier nnmbers of the publications, but which are now being bought up by the secretary, for the purpose of supplying members with complete sets. — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. May 1.—JAMES Simpsom, Esq., President, in the Chair. The discussion was renewed on Mr. BARTON'S Paper On the Econo- mic Distribution of Material in the sides, or Vertical Portion, of Wrought-tron Beams,” and was continued throughout the evening. Attention was directed to the recent erection of a s sion bridge for carrying railway trains across the river, immediately above the Falls, at Ni * The span was stated to be 822 ft. 6 in., and the height of the railway track platform above the river was 250 feet; with & lower platform, for common road vehicles, suspended beneath that for carry- ing the three tracks for the railways. ere were four wire cables of 10 inches diameter, each containing 3640 wires No. 9, W.G. The ultimate direct strength was 12,400 tons, —and the ultimate supporting strength of the cables was 7000 tons. The total weight of the superstructure was 750 tons. The first freight train which passed over was purposely extended to cover the whole length of the platform; it consisted of 20 double cars, each weighing 7 tons, and catrying 10 tons of freight, with an engine weighing 26 tons,—making in all 866 tons. The ordinary camber of the platform when unloaded was 2°75 feet, which, under a load of 366 tons, was reduced to 1:93 foot. Under the ordi ciroum- stances of the traffic 10 cars would constitute a full train. ere did not appear to be any undulatory motion even when the cars attained a good speed, and there was an entire freedom from all vibration. A few eavy teams on the lower platform caused a greater amount of trembling than the passage of a full train on the upper platform. This bridge had been designed and constructed by Mr. J. A. Roebling, the engineer - in- chief, at a cost of about 500, 000 dollars. The same engineer, who was also a manufacturer of wire ropes, had built a suspension aqueduct at Pittsburgh, and was now constructing another suspension bridge for carrying the Lexington and Danville railway, acroes the Kentucky river, by one span of 1224 feet, at an elevation of 300 feet above the water. Allusion was made to a Paper recently read before the Royal Society by Mr. W. H. Barlow, wherein it was shown, that under the existing theory of beams, in which only two elements of resistance—tension and compression—were recognised, the strength of a beam of cast-iron could not be reconciled with the resulta of experiments on the direct tensile strength, if the neutral axis was in the centre of the beam. A series of experiments had been made with the view of determining the position of the neutral axis, and the results showed that the extensions and com- pressions proceeded in an arithmetical ratio, from the centre to the upper and lower sides of the beam; and that at any given distance on either side of the centre, the amount of extension was equal to the amount of compression. The position of the neutral axis being thus ascertained to be in the centre, it was shown that not only the ultimate strength, but also the amount of extension and compression with a given strain, indicated the existence of another element of resistance, in addi- tion to the resistances to extension and compression. Further consi- deration of these resulte, and investigation of the action of the fibres under different degrees of extension and compression, induced the con- viction that the effect of the lateral action, tending to modify the effect of the unequal and opposite strains in a beam, constituted, in effect, a € resistance to flexure” acting in addition to the resistances of tension and compression. The questions raised by Mr. Barton's Paper were shown to be, the ractical value of different modes of constructing the middle rib of any m, and the mathematical principles upon which its proportions depended. k was contended, that the practical value of each of the methods in common use depended upon the amount of knowledge applied to its details in construction, and as they all possessed important merits, it was necessary for the engineer to decide for each particular case which he would use, as unavoidable practical considerationg often interfered with the pure application of abstract pet In the discussion of the subject, it had been generally assumed that any change in the mode of constructing the middle rib, necessarily involved a change in the mode by which the strains were to be mathe- matically examined. It was now contended, that such a conclusion was erroneous, that no division of beams into classes, having different mathematical principles, could be admitted, without leading to confu- sion and error; that one simple principle or rule was applicable to every form of beam that had been devised—oommencing with the simple square bar, through all modifications of form, up to beams with open trussed sides. It was contended, that the natural direction of all strains transmitted through the middle rib was one parallel to the top and bottom, and that they would always follow this direction unless diverted from if | by the peculiar construction of the middle rib. This was illustrated by a square bar, cut through the horizontal plane of its length, in which, when deflected, a movement took place in the relative ition of the ns in contact, the ends of the upper bar projecting beyond those of e lower. * A deecri of this bridge, from an American paper, will be found in the Journal for last mon p. 160. 211 It was ed, that if these surfaces were stuck together, so as to prevent this movement from taking place, then the top portion would be brought into compression and the bottom into tension, and the force tending to overcome the adhesion of the upper and lower bars was equal in amount to the tensile and compressive strains at the centre. Again, if, instead of attaching the together, a connecting medium were introduced, which held them some distance apart, the strength of the beam would be increased in like proportion; but the effect upon the middle rib would remain precisely the same, viz.: to resist the tendency of the top and the bottom to move in opposite direc- tions parallel to each other. It was then contended, that the simplest mode of ascertaining the amount of strain on the middle rib of any form of beam, was to ascer- tain that which was acting in compression and in tension at the top and the bottom, and then to consider, that exactly the same was transmitted through the rib, from the centre to each end, tending to tear through the connection of it with the top and the bottom; this aggregate amount of strain, as compared with that on the top and the bottom, never varied, but the distribution of it over the | of the rib varied accord- ing to the position of the load. For a beam supported at the ends and loaded between, the formule, S= P- and S = 8 D gave the horizontal strain at the centre of the top and the bottom, for a central and an uniform load respectively; i 85 W = total load, L = clear bearing, and D = effective depth; these also gave the horizontal strains upon one-half of the middle rib, which in the former were uniform throughout the length, and in the latter increasing from zero at the centre, in the ratio of the ordinate of two diverging lines, to the points of support, where they were greatest. Both these formulz, applied to the same beam, also included every case of à moving load. This subject had been ey reet ate in a Paper by Messrs. Doyne and Blood, laid before the titution in 1851, when formule for all cases were given.* It was contended, that to enter into theoretical discussion on any other directions which the strains might be supposed to follow, was only a waste of time, because whether the natural direction was the one con- tended for, or not, the accuracy of the conclusions were not affected by it; for when the value of the force conveyed through any particular channel had been ascertained, its effect in that direction must be the same, whether it had been resolved into it from another channel, or not; there was therefore no objection to assuming, that the theory laid down was correct, and its adoption much simplified the consideration of the question. It might, however, be added, in support of this theory, that in a diagonally trussed beam, such as the trellis or the Warren girder, wherever the forces conveyed through the trusses met, the resultant was parallel to the top and bottom. The greatest advantage of the plate beam over the Warren girder, and the trellis beam, consisted in the perfect uniformity with which the n was brought upon the top and bottom, throughout the entire ength. e remarks upon the distribution of the strain through the middle rib, were intended to apply to beams having parallel tops and bottoms; any alteration in this condltion duas a proportionate change in the distribution of the forces, though not in their aggregate amount. The advocates for solid riba, claimed, as an advantage, that the mate- rial in the rib added considerably to the strength of the beam, and in ractice this was generally true—sometimes to a very important amount. f the rib was always constructed of the exact theoretical proportions, then there would be no additional strength supplied by it; but as various practical considerations often rendered it necessary to make the rib much thicker at the centre than was theoretically required, then in & solid side all surplus material assisted the beam to the extent of nearly 50 per cent. of its value, when placed in the top and bottom, which was not the case in beams with open sides. In ordinary cast-iron beams, where there was of necessity & great excess of material in the middle rib beyond the theoretical amount, the additional strength supplied by it was frequently so important, that it could not be omitted from the calculation. Particular attention was called to this by some experiments, made in 1847, upon large beams, Saving a clear bearing of 19 feet, a bottom flange of 9 by 1} inch,—a middle rib of 19} by 1} inch, and a top flange of 3} by 1} inch; these two girders broke with 50 and 54 tons respectively, laid on the centre. The ordinary rule then in use, which did not take the middle rib into the calculation of strength, gave as the breaking weight of these beams 26 tons of the centre. A long investigation, and a great number of experiments induced the following conclusions:—That when the top flange was not of & less sec- tion than one-seventh that of the whole beam, the middle rib affected the strength to the extent of one-half the value of its material, as if placed in the bottom flange;—that when a beam was loaded on one side of of the bottom flange only, it became necessary to increase the section of the top flange to about one-third the whole section of the beam;—and, * See Journal, Vol. XIV. (1851), p. 596. 212 that when these proportions were attended to, the following rule would be found correct: Area of bottom flange + Half the area of the middle rib X Depth between the centres of the top and bottom flanges X Constant number 28 -= Length of bearing (all in inches) = Breaking weight on the centre, in tons This rule gave 54 tons for the beams above mentioned, and it would be found to apply with equal correctness to any other proportion of beam, provided the ii flange was large enough. The investigation alluded to, extended to the examination of every form of beam, and the construction of simple formule for them, and the details were promised to the Institution on a future occasion. It was submitted, that in the case of the vertical rib of a beam being thick enough not to require strengthening by angle-iron or other bracing, the whole strain was horizontal, and no diagonal strain existed ; but relative merits of plate or trellis sides for a girder, it was essential to developed in a plate, when placed between two systems of particles constituting the upper and the lower webs of a girder. It was neces- sary also to direct attention to the usual modeof arriving at the position girder, and if the ordinary presumption were true, that the material in the vicinity of the so-called neutral axis were useless, or might be removed without impairing the strength of the beam, it was evident, that by the same reasoning, a line of particles might be removed from the vertical rib, throughout its entire length, without inflicting on it any injury. This was, however, so manifestly inconsistent with fact, as not to be In short, it would appear that throughout the whole area of the vertical rib of a plate beam, every particle was exposed to an infinite variety of strains, both of compression and extension, at angles to each other; or in other words, every particle was performing a double amount of duty. This view appeared to enable a comparison to be established between the nature of the strains existing, respectively, in trellis girders and in plate beams. In the trellis girders, one system of lines was devoted exclusively to bearing compression, whilst the other system was entirely devoted to resisting extension. If the trellis lines were there- fore increased in number until they formed a continuous plate, it was clear that the vertical rib would be divided into two portions, —one solelv resisting compression, and the other extension. Now, since the Power of à plate to resist extension could hardly be affected by being exposed at the same time to compression at right angles in the line of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. tension, it would seem reasonable to conclude that a larger amount of material was required, when arranged aa a trellis, than when disposed in the form of a plate. This view might be further illustrated, by refer- ring to & piece of open trellis work, where it was evident that at each intersection of the bars, double the amount of material was uired, — one half of the thickness being under compression, and the other half, at right angles,being under tension. This view was not urged with the object of disparaging the system of trellis structures, but rather as exemplifying the position previously assumed in favour of the system of plate structures. These views were brought forward, to some extent, without that premeditation required by so intricate a subject, and chiefly with the object of directing the attention of the profession to the question, as it appeared evident that beam bridges were about to supersede all other systems of construction. It was, therefore, extremely desirable to subject all the systems to the same rigid scrutiny as the trellis and the truss had undergone in the hands of Mr. Doyne, whose valuable Paper, presented in conjunction with Prof. Blood in 1851, left little or nothing more to be written on the subject, and the a of the experiments there given had been satisfactorily tested subsequently to the reading of the Paper. Navestigstions of the principle of the Warren girder, with & view to adapting it to positions similar to the Conway and Britannia bridges, demonstrated the inapplicability of the system beyond a certain span. Such beams did not present greater facilities for transport or for con- struction than plate girders, and so far as might be judged from the information laid before the meeting, if the same official rules had been adhered to, as had for so long prevented the use of the Torksey bridge, the Boyne girders would have required considerable strengthening, and the bow-and-string trussed beam bridge, which had a deflection of 3 inches, would never have been permitted to be used at all. Still it was contended, that by employing the proper system for the various situa- tions and spans, and adopting proper proportions for the material, excellent bridges had been and could be constructed, both on the War- ren and the trellis principles, but better than either by using the plate stem. Ín reply to the objections urged against the positions assumed in the Paper, it was contended that the allegation of the strains in a plate beam being altogether horizontal, could not be maintained, inasmuch as it was opposed to the simple mathematical proposition, that a vertical weight could not be held in equilibrium by strains which were only horizontal; that it was therefore absolutely necessary for a diagonal or oblique strain to exist, in order to effect the resolution of a vertical force into a horizontal direction. If this was conceded, and also that the compressive strains in a plate beam were carried (as in all plate beams yet constructed they were actually carried) by vertical pillars, the oblique resultant must be sought for in the tensile strains passing through the plate sides, and thus the plate would be doing the diagonal tensile work in the beam; but it had been contended, that the plate was taking both horizontal and diagonal strain, and that the plate did perform the double duty, which the trellis system could not perform. The simple reply to this was, that the first authorities on plate beams, and who had given such interesting information on the subject, had never proposed to obtain any definite advantage from the horizontal strains in the sides; that, in fact, they were not, in practice, calculated on as thus affording strength, and that therefore practically they were not of any value, inasmuch as they did not save any material, nor would it be safe to adopt any other practice, with the present amount of knowledge of the actual lines of the strains in plate beams, and this was confirmed by a closer examination of the subject, for if it was conceived that a portion of plate was acted upon by both diagonal and horizontal strains, it could not be considered aa capable of bearing in both directions as much as it would in one; and that so far as the iron was acting for horizontal strain, 80 far additional material must be provided for the diagonal strain, whilst at the same time the portion acting horizontally was acting at a dis- advantage, from not being at the bottom or the top of the beam. This last point was put forward as a probable but not an absolute determina- tion of the effect of these crossing strains, but it was sufficient to render the advantage of a continuous rib very doubtful as regarded horizontal strains. The iron lost at the intersection of the lattices, had been looked upon as a matter which increased as the lattices approached each other, and might, if the lattices were very close, cause a loss of about fifty per cent.; but it was submitted, that the author of the paper did not contemplate greater loss in this way, than in the Boyne viaduct, in which the amount really lost in the sides from that cause was rather under one per cent. It had been said, that the angle of economy for bracing was not determinate, and where plate beams were concerned this was admitted to be indeterminate, so far as the present knowledge extended, and in this consisted one great advantage of the trellis beam, inasmuch as both the angle of economic bracing, as well as the amount of strain in the trellis, could be investigated with mathematical correctness. The statements in the Paper, respecting a saving of 33 per cent. in the sides, were not in any way modified or withdrawn, and the angle of 45°, which was assumed for the investigation of the plate beam, had been so assumed because it was the angle which gave the plate beam most THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. advantage, and it was contended, that the saving in practice was over that per centage. It was contended that the tubular beams now being constructed for the Victoria bridge, over the St. Lawrence, which had been adduced as examples of excellent proportions of material, might be used for demon- strating the saving which would have been effected by the adoption of trellis sides. The weight of a tube, for a span of 242 feet, had been stated to be 484 tons for a double line; and that if for comparison, it was increased to what it would be for a similar span to the Boyne, or 264 feet, the weight would be 530 tons; now the beam, as actually completed, was only 386 tons; the difference had been attempted to be accounted for by the Boyne bridge deriving strength from its being a continuous beam, whilst the Victoria tubes were to be independent, and also by the Canada tube being 30 per cent. stronger than the Boyne trellis. This explanation of the difference, it was contended, was not satisfactory, inasmuch as no such difference could arise from the fact of the conti- nuity of the beams being calculated on; and that the calculation of 30 cent. greater strength did not agree with the statement, that the ictoria tubes were calculated to bear a maximum load of 1 ton per foot on each line, and with this to be strained to 5 tons per inch of ten- sion, and 4 tons per inch of compression. These being exactly the conditions of the Boyne bridge, the strain of 44 tons originally calculated on for compression, having been calculated with certain allowances for rivets, and for variation of points of inflexion beyond that which could occur, and which made the actual result some decimals of a ton under 4 tons per inch; so that there was no difference as to the strength of the top and the bottom. The question of the comparison in this case might be brought to a closer issue, and in examining the sides alone, where the effect of the beam being continuous did not alter the amount of material required, it would be seen, that if the amount about to be used for the sides of the Victoria tube of 242 feet span, was 173 tons, against 91 tons in the Boyne viaduct, and then, that the portion was deducted for the additional 22 feet, no fairer comparison could be made, than between this span of the Boyne viaduct, as actually completed, and the newest design for a tube by the very best authority on the subject. It must be admitted, that some strength might be derived from the additional weight thrown into the sides of these beams, but inasmuch as the amount of gain was not known, it was practically useless, and it was therefore preferable to save the amount of material, rather than to place it where it was only of doubtful advantage. Hence it might be con- tended, that in a trellis construction it would not be required at all, and thus, in the case of the Boyne bridge, the additional iron required to convert it into a plate structure, similar to the Victoria tube, would be 82 tons—being 90 per cent. above that which was used. May 8.—The discussion being renewed, it was urged, that the com- parison between the Boyne continuous beams and the Victoria detached tubes, must have arisen from a misunderstanding, and was not tenable, inasmuch as it had been expressly stated that the latter were constructed for only one line of rails, and in the 5 statement the weight had been doubled, with an adequate allowance for the extra length; this, of necessity, involved the weight of four sides, whereas in a struc- ture intended for a double line of railway, the two existing sides would have been sufficiently strong, inasmuch as from practical considerations, the thickness of metal in the sides as now constructed, was in nearly double what was required by calculation; hence credit should be given, at least, for dispensing with the weight of one side, if not with that of two sides. The comparison also as to the effect of the continuity of the beam, was entirely erroneous;—it was stated in the Paper, that by actual experiment the point of inflexion was 45 feet inwards from each int of bearing; thus, for estimating the tension and compression of the foto and top webs, it should be based on a span of 174 feet in the Boyne beams as compared with 243 in the Victoria tubes, which latter were all independent of each other. The total space covered by the centre and two side openings of the Boyne bridge was 526 feet, and the total weight was 688 tons; for the sake of simplicity, this bridge might be considered as divided into three openings of 175 feet each, with & weight of metal of about 229 tons each;—assuming, therefore, 229 tons as due to a span of 175 feet on the trellis principle, the weight of a beam of that description of equal strength, for a span of 264 feet, would be about 510 tons; a difference of only 19 tons as compared with the tubular principle, without taking into account the advantage of continuity in the Boyne structure, on the saving above alfuded to in the sides, which might be effected in adopting the tubular principle for a double line of Re. But the comparison of two isolated instances of bridges was a very unsatisfactory mode of testing & mechanical principle, as in the practical application many cireumstances must influence the engineer, and induce considerable apparent anomaly in his practice; still less, then, must it be possible to institute any valid comparison between the practice of any two engineers. It was argued, that it was absurd not to credit a principle with a saving, even although in practice engineers might, with a view to extra security, fix the proportions of the other parts independently of that consideration. In the case of the trellis and the Warren girders, the sides obviously only served to connéct the top and bottom strains, and 218 independently of this, as they were in no respect self- rting, the material in the sides only added to the load on the bridges er, in the tubular principle, the sides in many cases not only supported them- selves, but added to the general strength of the bridge; and therefore whatever might be the amount of strain they could sustain, so much must be considered as added to the ultimate of the bridge, or credit be given for it in abatement of the load. Now the experiments made by Mr. Doyne had confirmed the theoretical conclusion, that the metal in the sides of a tubular beam was doing half the duty the same amount of material would have performed, if it was situated im the top or the bottom webs, and these iments were shown to be made under circumstances precisely identical with the disposition of the material in tubular beams. Generally assuming that the weight of a tube might be divided mto three equal portions, of which the sides constituted one portion, it followed from these premises that as the material in the ver- tical rib was performing one-fourth of the duty imposed upon the top and bottom webs, and consequently, for the purposes of compari- son with the trellis and other principles, that the saving of one-fourth of the united weight of the top and bottom webs might be effected, still placing the bridges so constructed on an equality as regarded ultimate strength; but the one-fourth of the weight of the top and bottom obviously exceeded by 50 per cent. the saving alleged to be made by placing the trellis bars at an angle of 45°. As to the economical use of material, it was however urged, that as only 10 per cent. of the total weight of a bridge was involved under these three systems of construction, it was practically immaterial what rinciple was adopted, but under the considerations of the quality of the ridge, it could not be denied that in stability, small amount of deflee- tion, facility of execution, and general safety, the tubular principle stood pre-eminent. The opinion advanced that there was not any neutral axis, or point where the particles were free from strains of extension and compression, was objected to, and it was argued, that in the line dividing the forces of extension from those of compression, there must be a neutral line, point, or axis, having no strain, except that of the friction of the par- ticles, or resistance to flexure, as shown in the experiments made by Mr. W. H. Barlow. The position, that beam bridges were about to supersede aH other of construction, was also demurred to, and it was contended, that while admitting the great talent displayed in the construction of the Conway and Britannia bridges, tubular girders generally were examples of an imperfect system of ing a railway over a large opening, and that they should only be adopted under peculiar circum- stances. It was contended, that the greatest amount of strength was obtained with the least material, either by an arch, which acted by compression alone, or by a suspension bridge, which acted by tension alone. A girder might be compared to an arch with a tie substituted for the abutments, as in the bow-and-string girder; thus adding a weight to the arch in order to form a substitute for the abutment, and this additional weight im a large span formed by far the greatest portion of the girder; — or a girder might be compared to a suspension bridge without any back chains, the top metal being introduced, as in the case of the Chepstow bridge, to receive the compression as a substitute for the back chains; thus adding to the weight of the girder to such an extent as to prohibit the use of girders for large spans. The trellis and the Warren girders, as well as the tubular beams, were similar in their action, inasmuch as the forces of tension were balanced by an amount of metal to resist compression, which formed with the sides the greater weight of the girder, and for this reason it would require ten times more weight of metal than the chains in the Niagara bridge, to substitute a girder for a chain bridge of that span, and even with that amount of metaland strength, the bridge would be so injured by its own weight that there would be some doubt whether the constant strain would not destroy it. It was argued, that engineers in this country had too hastily con- demned the chain bridge for railway purposes; bridges for ordinary roads were liable, from the movement of a crowd, to as trying strains as railway bridges, and by having a girder parapet to spread the weight of the engine, and a girder platform to resist the side strains of the wind, engines might safely be carried over very large spans, without imposing any undue strain per square inch on the chains. It had been assumed, during the discussion of May 1st, that the idea of the movement amongst the particles between the top and the bottom webs, giving rise to an infinite variety of strains, passing through every point of the vertical rib, both of compression and extension, was incor- rect, because the beam when deflected had changed its form, and consequently the relative position of the particles was altered. This might have arisen, in the argument, from a point being selected at some distance from the vertical mid-section of the beam; if, however, attention was confined to any ono point in the vertical line of mid-section, say at the upper point of the top web, it was clear, that when deflection did take place, this point absolutely moved in depression only in the vertical line, but as every point in the lower web had moved to a greater dis. tance from that vertical line, so it was clear that an infinite number of 31 214 lines of extension had taken place. By a similar train of reasoning, selecting any pointin the bottom web, and considering the movement taking place among the particles of the top web in compression, a similar variety of compressivestrains would occur, —each particle therefore under- going simultaneously compression and extension. It was contended, therefore, that a beam could not be divided into two regions, one solely of compression, and the other entirely of extension; hence, therefore, it seemed unreasonable to apply the term 'neutral axis,'as indicating & position in a beam where portions of matter became practically useless. As to the assumption of the trellis work being increased until the bars formed a continuous plate, it was submitted, that as no exact limit had been specified for the proximity of the trellis bars, there could not be any impropriety in assuming, by way of illustration, that state of things, with the view of showing, that in trellis work every particle of material was only undergoing one description of strain, and consequently the strength of material was not so efficiently employed as in the side of a plate beam, where it appeared incontestable that every particle waa simultaneously performing two duties. After recapitulating the leading features of the Paper submitted to the Royal Society by Mr. W. H. Barlow, and which had been quoted from atthe last meeting, it was argued that the actual position of the neutral axis being there established, the resistance at the outer fibre of a beam could be estimated trom the weight required to break it, when applied transversely. In cast-iron the resistance at the outer fibre was 40, 000 lb., while the tensile strength was only 17,000]b. A bar broken by direct tensile strain was broken without flexure; whilst a bar broken by trans- verse strain must first be bent. The experiment showed, that of the 40,0001b. total resistance at the outer fibre, 23,000 lb. was required to bend the beam, and 17,000 lb. to overcome the tensile strength of the metal. rIn open girders the ultimate resistance was between 17, 000 Ib. and 40,000 Ib., and it was found by experiment to increase as the ratio of the depth of metal to the total depth of the beam increased. n an open girder, in which the depth of the metal was half the depth of the beam, the resistance at the outer fibre was 28,000 lb., and the experiments traced the resistance gradually up to 40,000 Ib. in the solid In wrought-iron, the resistance to flexure was less in proportion to tensile strength than in cast-iron. Nevertheless, it was an important element of strength even in wrought-iron; the resistance at the outer fibres, ina solid beam, being 50 per cent. greater than in an open girder, depending for its strength solely on the resistance to extension and com- pression. Mathematicians had applied the axiom, ut tensio sic vis, in the case of transverse strains in which continuous fibres were unequally strained, without considering the lateral action arising from the cohesion of the particles: this it, was argued, required modification. In reply it was observed, that throughout the consideration of the subject the experimenter had evidently proceeded upon the assumption, that the strains in a beam were all horizontal, and that a point called the ‘ neutral axis" must exist. This point was stated to have been ascer- tained by microscopic observation; it was admitted that these observa- tions might have been faithfully taken, but it did not follow that there were not other strains than those which were supposed to act horizontally, and which might add very materially to the strength or rigidity of the beam; in short, it would appear that the best mode of rendering the microscope available for ascertaining the true directions and intensities of the strains brought into play, would be by describing a series of circles, s0 as to occupy the whole surface from the centre to both ends of a beam; this, it was contended, would be the most obvious mode of determining the force and direction of the various strains; for it was evident that in the direction where the strains were greatest the diameters would be increased, and the circles would each assume an elliptical form, showing by the elongation and diminution of the diameters the true amount and direction of the strains. This mode of investigating the subject had been for some time in contemplation, and some steps had already been taken towards its execution; and it was anticipated that in the course of the next session the resulta would be laid before the Institution. It was contended, that in the experiments alluded to the measure- ments made on beams, with and without strain, showed that there was a neutral axis asregarded position; but it was admitted that there was not any point exempt from strain, and that the neutral axis retained its position, not because of the strain there, but because of the antagonistic strains neutralising each other at that point. The term „resistance to flexure” has been employed, because the resistance it represented did not arise without flexure, and it increased with the flexure. It was not asserted that this resistance acted in lines pon to the length of the beam; on the contrary, it arose from the teral action of the particles on each other when unequally strained, and therefore to a greater or less extent in every direction. Drawings were exhibited of the bridge designed in 1850 by Captain Moorsom, M. Inst. C.E., and for which he obtained the Engineering prize from the Prussian government, for the proposed great bridge in- tended to have been erected over the Rhine, at Cologne. The bridge was intended to have been on the lattice principle and constructed of wrought-iron; with three openings, two of 600 feet span each, and one, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. an opening arch, of 100 feet span. The total length of the beams was about 1380 feet, and that of the bridge, from end to end of the arched | approaches, was upwards of 2000 feet. The width was to be 50 feet, and the soffits of the beams were to be 45 feet above the high-water line, and about 65 feet above the bottom of the river. The ultimate strength of the beams, of 600 feet span, was calculated at 11,500 tons, distributed over the two. The quantity of metal in each of the large beams was 13,514 cubic feet of wrought-iron, or about 2896 tons, being about 4°83 tons per running foot for a width of 50 feet. It was contended, that this trellis bridge would have been a more advantageous employment of the material, than if disposed as tubular beams of the same span. The rule for calculating the strength of cast-iron beams, given at the last meeting, was taken exception to, as not being so correct as the old rule, known as Professor Barlow's formula 7600 constant for cast-iron, X sectional area X 4 times the depth > all in inches, — the clear 8 gave the breaking weight on the centre in lbs. By this rule the break- ing weight of the beams, stated to have been 26 tons, would bave been 47 tons. In reply it was stated, that the rule referred to was in effect nearly the same as that which had been given previously; both would give nearly the same results, provided the top ge was sufficiently large to act as the fulerum upon which the remainder of the beam must be broken in tension. Another edition of the rule referred to was— Total area of beam, x Depth from top of beam to centre of gravity of the section x Constant number of 25 Length of bearing (in inches) gave the breaking weight on the centre in tons, when supported at each end. This rule was approximately correct, but would be found to give some- times too low and at others too high a result, whereas the rule given at the last meeting would be found correct for all cases. It was contended, in closing the discussion, that the question resolved itself entirely into the relative value of the vertical middle rib, whether of the trellis form, the Warren truss, or the plate beam,—the top and the bottom remaining the same in all cases; practically, the principal saving, in using the trellis system, must arise from the opportunity of employing merchant bars instead of plates, and in the truss, in intro- ducing a certain quantity of cast-iron; against which, independently of all other advantages, must be put the facility of construction, and of being raised entire to its position possessed by the plate beam. As to the so-called ‘neutral axis,’ if by that term was meant a portion of material not performing any duty, it must be admitted that though there might be a point of reduced action, yet that all the particles in a plate beam were doing more or less duty at all times, and in that sense there was no neutral axis. Many practical considerations induced the employment of the tubular plate beams, and the result bad shown, on all the occasions of their use, their peculiar etficiency, especially as they had chiefly been employed in situations where it would have been impracticable to have established the scaffolding indispensable for the construction of the trellis beams; therefore any attempt to draw comparisons between the systems failed in the essential point of identity of situation and circumstances. May 15.—The Paper read waa a Description of the Landore Viaduct, on the line of the South. Wales Railway." By L. E. FLETCHER, Assoc. Inst. C.E. The Landore viaduct was described as a timber structure, erected for the purpose of carrying the line of the South Wales Railway across the valley of the Tawe, about three miles above the spot where that river fell into Swansea bay. The entire length of the viaduct was one-third of a mile, or 1760 feet; the opening in the clear of the span crossing the river, measured between the piers, was 100 feet; and the span of the truss itself, from centre to centre, 107 feet; the spans of the remaining trusses were 73 feet, 64 feet, 50 feet, 42 feet, and 36 feet respectively. The height from the surface of the river at low water to the line of rails, was 88 ft. 6 in.; and from the bed of the river to the top of the structure, 110 ft. 6in. The transverse width from out to out of the truss of 107 feet span, was 35 feet; and that of the other trusses was 29 ft. 2 in.; the clear width between the parapets being 28 feet. Some of the local causes rendering the erection of the viaduct necessary were,—the number of openings required; the height of the line of rails enforced by the Act of Parliament; the marshy character of a consider- able portion of the ground, which rendered it unfit for the foundation of a high railway bank; and the high rate of compensation demanded for the land. Piles were used for the foundations of the supports in the marsh, and also for that of the truss crossing the river, as the construction of masonry piers in that position would have rendered cofferdams n i The viaduct terminated at both ends in masonry abutments, the intermediate supports or legs being all of timber, with the exception of THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL five masonry piers, which from local considerations were found desir- able. The roadway was generally carried on the top of the trusses, but in the case of the span over the river, on account of the headway required, the trusses rose above the roadway, which passed between them. All the trusses were constructed of timber, with wrought-iron bolts and cast- iron shoes; wrought-iron straps being, in the larger spans, introduced to take all the tensile strains. The drawings, illustrating the form of the various trusses, and giving the detail of their construction, showed that the whole structure was very carefully framed. Cast-iron shoes were fitted to the end of ev strut, —the eyes of all the tension straps were bored out, the pins farmed: and the holes in the castings were bored to receive them;—cast-iron washers, six times the diameter of the bolts, were used throughout the work, instead of wrought-iron. | It was pointed out that in the structure, the timbers on which the transverse rigidity depended, were not subjected to the alternate strain of compression and extension;—all the tensile strains being taken by wrought-iron tie-bolts, and timber only being employed for the struts. This was thought to be superior to the ordinary mode of diagonal bracing, in which & waling was merely bolted to the face of the upright to be stiffened. Such an attachment, with the bolts at right angles to the line of strain, was not able to develope the whole power of the diagonal, either in extension or compression, and must tend to work loose from the alternate action, and thus to allow the structure to vibrate. The care that had been bestowed upon the framing and all the details, was calculated to add to the permanent stability of the work, and to prevent the vibration to which these timber structures became liable after a lapse of time, particularly as the structure was not sub- jected to the constant strain of a dead weight, but rather to the severe and intermittent strain caused by the passage of railway trains, which inevitably produce a certain amount of motion in an elastic material: which was not unfrequently shown in timber structures, by the nute working loose. The scaffolding for the various trusses was referred tu as having been skilfully and successfully executed by Mr. David Hughes, who acted as manager for Mr. George Hennet, the contractor for the work, and by whom it was executed in rather more than two years; being opened for traffic on the 18th of June 1850. In considering the strains and stability of the structure—together with the cost of construction and maintenance—it was shown, that the viaduct was calculated to carry 1 ton per lineal foot on each rail; the wrought-iron tie-bars to bear a strain of 5 tons per square inch; and the compressive strain upon the timber was about one-sixth of a ton per square inch. f Without supports or planking, the weight of the trusses were as follows:— pan. Per foot run. : 107 feet ............... ent.. £23 0. 0 „0 . 9 15 0 04 00 „ merosak 9 2 6 C n 2 0 0 The trusses of 107 feet span deflected about J- inch under the weight of a luggage engine, and immediately regained their normal position. Those of 73 feet span deflected about 14 inch under a load of 125 tona, laid over 36 ft. 6 in., at the centre of the span on the south line of rails only. Those of 42 feet span deflected about 4-inch under a load of 110 tons, laid on one line of rails only, and dispersed from the centre of one span to the centre of the next span, so that the centre of gravity of the load was directly over the legs or supports. The expenditure upon the structure was was 28, 720l.; the cost per foot run (the average height from the surface of the ground to the line of rails being 55 feet) was 16/. 6s.; the cost per square foot on plan, in the clear between the parapets, was 12s.; that of the entire structure, per superficial foot of area of elevation, measuring from the surface of the ground to the line of rails, the area being 103,600 square feet, was 5s. 6d. per square foot of the area; and the cost per cubic foot of the entire structure, was 2:3d. The exact quantities of cast and wrought iron, and timber in each truss, were given in the Paper. Under tbe head of cost and maintenance, it was shown that this viaduct had carried the regular traffic of the railway for five years, and on a recent examination, the whole structure exhibited no sign of settle- ment or decay in any part, and the line of the parapet was as correct as on the day it was first erected. The maintenance of the viaduct, as well as that of the adjoining portion of the completed South- Wales line, was under the charge of Mr. William Owen, of Gloucester, who stated that no expenditure had been necessary for its maintenance since the day of its completion. The direction of the portion of the line in which the viaduct waa situated, was confided during its construction by Mr. Brunel, the engineer-in-chief of the line, to Mr. Robert Brodie, assisted by Mr. Samuel Jones, of Neath, and the whole of the drawings and details of construction were worked out by Mr. Fletcher, the author of the Paper, who set out the work and superintended its execution from the com- mencement of the contract to its close. 216 The second Paper read was On the Infltration of Salt Water to the Springs of Wells under London and Liverpool." By F. BRAITHWAITE, M. Inst. C.E. In the Session 1848-9, attention was directed to the remarkable differ- ence in the chemical constitution of the water in three wells at Tring, Watford, and Camden-town, which on analysis by Mr. Phillips gave the following results in grains to the imperial gallon:— Carbonate of lime. Soda salta. C . 2˙5 Watford ll . t 2:8 Camden-town ...... ........ NIL. Quae irinDoRo 417 The opinion then and still entertained by the author waa, that the soda salts in the Camden-town well were to be ascribed to the infiltration of sea water, consequent upon the water-level in the well being 40 feet below Trinity datum— the absence of it in the other wella being due to the level of the water in those positions being far above that point. It had, however, been lately asserted, that it was physically impossible to make, out of the chalk water and sea water, a water corresponding to the chalk water under London. This position the author denied, and in corroboration of his views, he cited the following analvsis of the water from three wells, showing the number of grains in an imperial gallon. Carbonate of lime. Soda salts. Camden-town ............... Nibh. nsi 417 Minories ...................-. 1. giscvesenees 38:3 Trafalgar-square ............ 9:90. du eera 63:27 The report of Mr. Robert Stephenson, M.P., on the Liverpool water 5 gave the analyses of twenty-one samples of water obtained from ifferent wells bored into the sandstone under that city.“. These analyses displayed very variable quantities of thc chloride of soda, and were sufficiently conclusive as to the fact of the progress of the salt water into the wells, and showed that the tendency ot the river water inland was slightly preponderating over the pressure of the fresh water in the sandstone towards the Mersey. The author concluded by inviting attention to the eventual prejudicial effect on animal life, from the pre- sence of these salts in chemical solution in water used for drinking. Mr. Simpson, as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, gave a conversazione on the 29th ult., at the house of the Insti- tution. Earl de Grey, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects, received the council and office-bearers at dinner on the 25th ult., and the members of the Institute and other societies the sume evening at a conversazione. The St. Mary’s ship canal at the Saute, connecting Lakes Huron and Superior by navigable waters, has been completed. The work was commenced in June 1853. The condition of the sea embankments already executed for the Ulverston and Lancaster Railway is satisfactory; during the heavy autumnal gales of last season, the portions completed sus- tained no damage. United States Railways—The Lexington and Danville is pro- gressing rapidly to completion. It will be a valuable feeder to the Covington and 5 road. This line will at an early day be completed on to Nashville, thus giving a direct railway communication to all the South from Cincinnatti. By a resolu- tion of the board of directors of this line, the wire suspension- bridge across the Kentucky river is to be called and known for ever as the Clay Viaduct,’ in honour of Henry Clay, the great father of internal improvements in the United States" It is an appropriate name for a magnificent work of art. ——Mr. Bangs, managing contractor of the line across the peninsula of Florida from Amelia Island to Cedar Keys, has commenced the works. ——On the North Missouri Railway, the road for the reception of the rails is to be completed to St. Charles by the 17th inst., and the whole work is to be finished to the junction with the Hannibal and St. Joseph road, a distance of 1674 miles, by the Ist of September 1856. It is confidently expected that the road will be in operation by the Ist of next July to St. Charles. The whole cost of the road from St. Louis to the Iowa line—228 miles —is estimated at a little over 9,000,000;. The Mobile aud Ohio Railroad is the continuation of the Illinois Central Railroad from Cairo to Mobile. It passes through portions of the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama, and is 527 miles in length. Detached portions of the road have been under construction for several 1 and an effort is now making for a rigorous prosecution of the uncompleted parts, with a view to an early opening of its entire length. * Bee Journal, Vol. XIII. (1850), pp. 190, 284, 257. 31° 216 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. RIFLE FIRE-SHOT OR SPINSTER——Capt. J. Norton, Inventor. Fro. 1, represents the Spinster, showing its hol- low base before the slow match is screwed in. Fig. 2, the coarse threaded screw with the layers of slow-match attach Fig. 3, the Spinster com- plete for use. Fig. e represents the shot after having entered thirteen inches into hard deal planks at & distance of 20 yards, and showing how completely it has received the impressions of the rifle, caused by the expand- ing power of the exploded The four projections on the cylindrical sides of the shot are only slightly elevated, in order to allow the shot to enter freely into the rifle; they have sufficient hold in the grooves of the rifle to ensure the rotatory motion round the Jong axis of the shot when a small charge of powder is used. ARCHITECTURAL EXHIBITION. A theatrical performance was given by the Vanbrugh Club, at Miss Kelly’s Theatre, May 2nd, in aid of this exhibition. The house was full, and upwards of 30/. added to the treasurer’s account. An Occasional Epilogue,” written by Mr. Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A., was given after Mr. Bourcicault’s comedy of * Love in a Maze.” LORD MINIVER and COLONEL BUCKETHORNE enter. LoRD MINIVER. Par la sembleu/ From bad to worse one fares; I brave your verdict now, instead of theirs. COLONEL BUCKETHOBNE. Yes, ‘tis our art all folly to pursue. And hold up character in mirrored view; To watch each feature as the shadows fall, And give a laughing photograph of all. may each hearer, as our scenes they ecan, Become a merrier and a wiser man. But more! to-night the histrionic band Lend to another art a helping hand. That art, which lifts the mighty dome on high; Points the tall spire towards its kindred sky; Marshals the colonnade in long array; oe abonner uel a holy fane; tends the nave, and vaults the length'ning aisle; And crowns with mighty tow'rs the noble pile. Lorp MINIvEE. To all the sister arta in other lands, Kings or Republics held their helping hands; Doges and Emperors offered aid to all; The church, the palace, lent its friendly wall; But here, our niggard State will scarcely spare Half that abortion in Trafalgar Square. Think of the statues huddled up in gloom— Think of the horrors of the little room— And wonder not, that of the Sisters three, Who sing, alas! around no golden tree, The weakest gets the smallest, scantiest due, And comes to-night to crave support of you. COLONEL BUCKETHORNA. Give her attention; every art must be Seen, or it pines in cold obecurity. Like tender flow'rs, she needs of light the aid, And cannot flourish in a chilly e. "WM es, of Popes or Emperors as will, The best of patrons is the Public sl; While minds and gen'rous hearts abound, And brilliant eyes—like those I see around— COLONEL BUCKETHORNE. All arts their true protectors here may view; All arts may place their confidence in you. Lord MINIVER. Ours tried by true, and yet most gen'rous laws. Still hopes to gain your favour i applause, The weight of the Spins- ter, with the screw and slow-match, is one ounce and three-quarters; the charge is three and a-half of Hall’s rifle- powder; and the extreme range is 800 yards, when adapted to a rifle of 14-bore. This fire-shot made of iron — - = = d and applied to rifle-cannon, can be charged with Valenciennes Composition, which cannot be extinguished, and will burn with intense heat after 5 object into which it is causing the iron-shot* to become in reality red-hot shot, an thus becomes far more efficient than the present red-hot shot, without being attended with the inconvenience and danger of & furnace to prepare it. * The shot may be formed of two parta zinc, and one block-tin; this mixture, by the intense heat, ran like liquid fire. NOTES OF THE MONTH. The trustees of the Leamington National Schools are desirous of receiving designs, &c. on or before the 11th inst., for the erection of their schools, with dwellings for master and mistress; cost not to exceed 1300/4. A premium of 10V. 10s. will be given for the approved plans. The Burial Board for the parish of Camberwell are desirous of receiving, on or before the 11th inst, plans, designs, and esti- mates for a cemetery. The party whose plans are approved will receive 3l/. The corporation of Warrington are desirous of receiving, on or before the 8th inst., plans, &c. for a market-hall and shed; cost not to exceed 5000/. A premium of 25l. is to be given. The Burial Board of Lincoln offer the following premiums for a cemetery:—10J. for an episcopal chapel and a dissenters’ cha in separate and distinct buildings (cost not to exceed 500. each), a lodge, a dead-house, and boundary-fence, with estimates; &. for the second-best ditto; 107. for laying out and ornamenting the ground; 6“. for the second best ditto. The Burial Board for the parishes of St. Thomas, St. Edmund, and St. Martin, Salisbury, are desirous of receiving designs, &c. for a new cemetery, on or before the 4th inst.; premium, 30V. The Burial Board for the parish of Halstead, Essex, are desirous of receiving designs, &c. for a cemetery, on or before the 14th inst.; premium, 204 The Burial Board for Berwick-upon-T weed offer a 15. for designs, &c. for a new cemetery, on or before the cost not to exceed 15000. Architects are invited to submit desi be erected on the Lincoln-road, Peter sittings. Messrs. Maugham and Fowler's designs for a new corn-exchange, Horncastle, have been approved by the shareholders. The Burial Board of Burnley have awarded the first premium of 257. to Mr. Thomas Worthington, Manchester; and the second, of 15l, to Mr. Thomas Adams, of Grimsby, for their designs for the new cemetery. There were twenty-two competitors. Mr. Archibald M. Dunn has obtained the premium in the competition for the cemetery of St. Nicholas parish, Newcastle- on- Tyne. The Dudley Board of Guardians have awarded the first pre- mium for the workhouse to Mr. G. B. Nicholls, West Bromwich; the second to Messrs. Bidlake and Lovatt. The Burial Board of Heywood, Lancashire, has accepted the designs of Mr. Barry, of Liverpool, for their cemetery, &c. Tbe borough of Blackburn have awarded the first premium of 350i. to Messrs. Morgan and Horne, Huddersfield; the second, of 150l., to Mr. P. M. Coogan, Engineers De ent Public Offices, Liverpool; and the third, of 50l., to Mr. Hamilton H. Fulton, Westminster, for their plans for the sewerage and drainage of the borough. The awards are in accordance with the report of Mr. Bateman, C.E., which we purpose giving in our next number. mium of e 6th inst.; for & new church, to rough, to contain 700 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL The Highway and General Committee have recom- mended to the council of the borough of Blackburn, Mr. Hugh Wilson to fill the office of corporation surveyor. He was for- mery of Liverpool, and lately engineer at Caraccas, Venezuela, South America. There were thirty-eight applicants. | Mr. John Kershaw has been appointed locomotive superinten- dent of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway Compeny. Sir R. L Murchison has been appointed director of the Geological Survey Museum, vice Sir H. de la Beche, deceased. The decoration of the Town Hall, Birmingham, under the superintence of Mr. Ingram, is proceeding rapidly. The works ill be completed in time for the approaching festival. The ceiling is covered with a series of designs in strict accordance with the architecture of the hall the ribs having tasteful arabesques. The gilding of the cornices si progressing. Mr. Weale, of High Holborn, the publisher of architectural and engineering soria is declining the retail trade. The first rtion of his stock, with the copperplates and copyrighta, is to te sold on the 4th inst., and two following days. The base line of verification for the grand trigonometric surve of India, commenced in September 1852, has been comple The survey began in 1800, under Colonel Lambton. A series of lectures commences on the 21st inst., at the Archi- tectural Museum, Cannon-row, Westminster. A classified cata- logue of the works in the museum has been published, edited by Mr. S. L. Pearson. There are at present 3500 casts in the museum. An historical picture, representing a meeting of engineers and men of science, which took place at the Menai Straits pre- vious to the floating of one of the tubes of the Britannia-bridge, i by Mr. John Lucas, is now on view at Messrs. Graves, 6, Pall-Mall, previous to its being engraved. Mr. Stephenson is seated at a table with plans before him. On his right are Mr. Edwin Clark, chief-assistant engineer; Mr. Latimer Clark, assistant-engineer, and Admiral Moorsom, chairman of the Chester and Holyhead Railway. On his left are Mr. C. H. Wild, assistant-engineer during the floating; Mr. Alexander Ross, resident engineer of the Conway district; and Messrs. Locke and Brunel, volunteer assistants. hind him are Mr. Frank Forster, resident engineer to the Bangor district; Mr. Bidder; Mr. Hemmingway, contractor; and Captain Claxton, RN. In the background is the bridge. The Fifty-First Exhibition of the Society of Painters in Water- Colours is now open, and contains 322 works. Mr. W. Colling- wood has three interiors of mansions: “The Library, Levens, Westmoreland” (17), having a fine oak chimneypiece; the Hall at the same place (82), with a good ceiling; and “The Absent” (219). Mr. William Callow has several architectural drawings; as also Mr. J. Burgess, jun. Mr. W. C. Smith's “The Golden Horn, Constantinople, from the Cemetery of Pera” (190), is inte- resting at the present time. In continuation of the historical illustrations presented at the Princess's Theatre, Mr. Charles Kean has produced Shakspeare's “ King Henry the Eighth,” information being sought from the best authorities to give effect to the architecture, costume, and detail, in order that a true and perfect mirror of the history and manners of that age should be presented to the public. Among the scenery is the “Old Palace Yard,” taken from a drawing by Antony Von den Wynyrede, a.D. 1543 (Sutherland Collection, Bodleian Library, Oxford); the Council Chamber,” being a re- storation of the Painted Chamber at Westminster, from Capon’s * Vetusta Monumenta; “Room in the Palace of Bridewell,” introducing a chimneypiece designed by Holbein (from a drawing in the British Museum, by F. Fenton); and “Interior of the Church of the Grey Friars, Greenwich" A moving panorama is introduced, representing London in the reign of Henry VIIL 85 C. Kean sustained the part of Queen Katherine with great ect. The Paris Exhibition is making steady ii ag towards the completion of the di ge Iu the course of a few weeks, in the main buildi ; all will completed. There has not been that amount of skilful organisation introduced into the French Exhi- bition which characterised the wonderful display of 1851. The French Imperial working staff has been deficient from the com- mencement, and there is à marked distinction between the Eng- lish artisans and the working men of Paris—the determined energy of the former standing out in bold contrast to the slow 217 indifferentism of the latter. The displays from the potteries of Messrs. Minton and Co., Rose and and Messrs. Daniel, are very attractive, and will be likely to carry away the prizes in their respective Wi wir The silver goods and jewellery of Messrs. Hunt and Roskill and Messrs. Garrod equal their former endeavours. The electro-plating of Messrs. Collis and Messrs. Elkington, of Birmingham, will sustain their reputation, and the bronze works of the latter equal anything in the Exhibition. The Sheffield silver and plated goods are not yet displayed. The French decorators are in great strength, and display much taste and beauty—their cabinet work deserves all praise, and the large bronze doors which attracted so much attention in 1851 are again objects of great interest. There is not eo great a display of large bronze works and other figures in the nave as in the great London Exhibition, but there are some spirited works of art in bronze and sculpture well worthy of attention. The staircases are enriched by numerous specimens of stained glass. In textile fabrics, the competition is great. The carpets are very gorgeous in colour. The Shettield department gradually developes itself. The insufficiency of the old markets of Paris has been felt since the first revolution, but never entirely remedied. A project of Messrs. Balfort and Callet now seems to be approved. V poses the almost exclusive employment of cast-iron. According to this plan, the general surface of the central market will occupy 60,000 métres, of which 30,000 métres will be under roof. The markets will comprise two t sections, 5 by a boulevard 30 métres broad. The entire area of the building will comprise ten pavilions, where will be sold all kinds of animal and vegetable produce, wholesale and retail, and which will occupy an area of $4,000 mètres, with 4000 mètres roofed-in. As the whole of this space will be occupied underground by vaults and cellars, the surface of these establishments will be doubled. Beneath these cellars will be constructed subterranean streets, with three lines of double rails for three railroads connected with the central connecting-lines around Paris, and another subterranean viaduct which is to be made under the boulevards du Centre and de Stras- burg. The pavilions will be constructed of iron pillars, support- ing a roof of 1 zinc. The ventilation of the whole has been care- fully attended to. A new suspension-bridge, erected over the Passaic river above the falls at Paterson, New Jersey, U.S, fell on the 3rd ult., when a test of twenty tons was applied to it. OBITUARY. Jan. 31, at Mire Ads red Melbourne, Frederick W. Gil- christ, C.E 33; late iv April 21, pog sedg Dy tha acddunal discharwe of « revolver, Hector Gavin, M.D., F. RC. S., aged 39; one of the three sanitary commissioners sent out to the East. He was one of the founders of the Metropolitan Sanitary Association. In 1849, during the prevalence of the cholera, he was medical super- intending inspector under the General Board of Health. am 26, at his residence, 15, Aldersgate-street, London, William Devonshire Saull, F.G.S., F.S.A., F. R. A. S., and Membre de la Societé Geologique de France, aged 72. April 28, at Islington, Henry English, of the Mining Journal, F. G. S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. , April 29, John Edgar Gre of Manchester, architect, in the 42nd year of his age; he was a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and Honorary Secretary of the Royal Insti- tution at Manchester. , , April 29, at Briarly House, Folkestone, John Wilson, artist, 81. May 10, at his residence, 43, Upper Gloucester-street, Dublin, John Kelly, architect, aged 40. May 17, George Spencer, of 2, Harleston-place, Albany-road, Camberwell, surveyor and builder, aged 81. Lately, at Toulouse, Madame Jaquotot, aged 83, the famous paintress on porcelain. Her very first works a great notice, and in 1800 she was appointed teacher of the Manufactory of Sèvres, and successively raised to the rank of first artist of the Cabinet of the King. Her works are very numerous. . Lately, at Berlin, Jacob Schlesinger, the restorer of pictures of the Royal Gallery; a man unsurpassed for his ability and genius in restoring pictures. Rauch, Humboldt, Schinkel, and Boisserée were his friends. 218 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. COMPOSITION OF BETONS NOT ATTACKED BY SEA WATER.* By M. Vicar and Sox. Tue difficulty of compounding in the moist way double silicates of alumina and lime, capable of absolutely resisting sea-water, induced my son and myself to endavour to form double silicates of magnesia and alumina in the same way. We have succeeded beyond our hopes in very numerous cases, and under certain conditions easily realisable as to the chemical composition of the 5 to be employed, and with proportions of magnesia far ess than those of the lime used in such cases. If it were then possible to obtain magnesia at a price available in public works, the problem of the formation of inattackable betons would be resolved. According to the opinion of M. Balard, one of our learned chemists, and a member of the Academy, the mother-waters of salt-marshes, of which no use is made, might furnish this base at the desired price. We hope that the publicity given to this note may induce the companies who own our salt-works to try this extraction of magnesia. The cheinical processes, which will have to be applied on a large scale, we theoretically know. Acad. Sciences, Paris. — —À——— —— NEW PATENTS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW AMENDMENT ACT. Dated February 16. 313. B. Gower, Stratford, Essex — Improvements in cannons and pieces of ordnance, aud in shot and prujectiles for cannons and pieces of orduance Dated February 23. 400. J. Norton, Dublin—Improvementa in the construction of cartridges for fire-arms Dated March 1. 455. T. Kennedy, Kilmarnock, Ayr—Improvements in wadding for fire-arms Dated March 5. 491. C. L. Fowle, Massachusetts, U.3.—New and useful improvements in machinery for sewing cloth, leather, or other material. (A communication from E. A. Forbrish, Massachusetts) Dated March 6. 495. P. M. Parsons, Duke-street, Adelphi—Improvements in fire-arms and projectiles Dated March 7. 506. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in the manufacture of hard india-rubber, and of articles composed of that material. (A communication from C. Morey, Paris) Dated March 9. 539, W. Smith, Salisbury-street, Adelphi—Safety harness. (A communication) Dated March 14. 572. E. V. Gardner, Norfolk-street, Middlesex Hospital—Improvements in fu &3h-pits, flues, and fire-places, whereby smoke is prevented, fuel more perfectly con- sumed, and its heating value greatly economiaed Dated March 15. 583. N. Robinson, J. Lister, and H. Stevenson, Bradford—Improvemente in looms for weaving cocoa-nut matting and similar fabrics Dated March 96. 657. J. B. Dechanet, and A. D. Sisco, Paris—Improvements in the process of manufac- turing metallic tubes and pipes, and in the machines or apparatus used for that )Jurpose 685. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South Improvements in the manufacture of gloves. A communication from F. J. P. Bouvier, Grenoble, France) 661. J. Britten, Birmingham —A new or improved machine for sweeping or cleaning chimneys 662, J. McKinnell, Glasgow—Im provements in ventilation 655. W. Bartlett, Bradford-street, Birmingham—Improvements in ventilators 659. W R. Burnham, New York, U. S.—Improvements in the construction of pro- jectiles 671. J. Marland, Leeds—Improvements in preparing for and in sizing and warping woollen and worsted yarn 672. C. Armbruster, Andermach, Rhenish, Prussia, and O. Laist, Pfeddersheim, Grand Duchy of Hesse—Improveinenta in the manufacture of sulphate of soda 673. J. Shaw, Lees, L. Harrop, Oldham, and J. Fielding, Lees—Improvements in machinery for spinning and doubling cotton and other fibrous materiala Dated March 27. 675. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, Sonth— Improvements in the mode or modes of transferring designa on to woven, textile, or other fabrics, or on paper, and in the machinery used for such purposes. (A communication) 71. €. Goodyear, Avenue Gabriel, Champs Elysées, Paris—A new method of moulding india-rubber and gutta-percha. (A communication) 679, A. Turner, Leicester—Improvements in the manufacture of elastic fabrics Dated March 28. 681. F. G. Mulholland, Vincent-square, Westminster—An improved mode of con- structing fireproof and waterproof rooting, flooring, and covering for general purposes 683. J. Higgin, Manchester—The use of a thickener for mordants and colours for printing woven fabrics, which thickener has not been hitherto used for such pu 655. W. Erutchison, Tonbridge Wells, Kent—Improvements in manufacturing artificial atone, and in giving colour to the same 687. J. Revell, Dukinfield, Chester—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for propelling vessels 6x9. G. H. Nicoll, Dundee—Improvements in laundry stoves cal. W. H. Gauntlett, Danbury, Oxfordshire—lmprovementa in apparatus for cutting ^ er pulping turnips and other roota * From the *Journal of the Franklin Institute.' Dated March 29. 698. F. W. Mowbray, Shipley, near Leeds—Improvements in bearings for the axles of railway-wheels, and of other axles or shafts, which improvements are also applicable to axles or shafts, and other like rubbing surfaces 695. F. J. Anger, Stamford-street, Blackfriars-road—Improvements in the preservation of vegetable substances 697. W. Brown, Catherine-street, Cornwall-road, Lambeth— Improvements in the manufacture of sheet metal casks and kegs 699. A. McDougal, Manchester—An Improved method of consuming smoke in steam- engine or other furnaces or fire-places 701. A. Dalgety, Deptford, Kont 2 noe in steam-engines 703. R. Johnson, W. W. Johnson, and R. Johnson, jun., Waterloo-place, Commercial- road—A new and improved covering for surfaces, Linings, roofs, and spaces Dated March 80. 705. A. Bere, Lille, France—Improvementa in stcam-boilers 707. W. Crozier, Sunderland —The better extinction of fire 109. W. Tytherleigh, Birmingham —The application of a certain well known process to the covering of iron, in sheets or bars, with copper or copper alloya, whereby he produces a new and useful product 711. M. Prentice, Stowmarket, and T. Richardson, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—Improve- ments in the manufacture of manures 713. M. Prentice, Stowmarket, and T. Richardson, N ewcaatle-upon-Tyne—Improve-- ments in the manufacture of manures 716. T. W. Bunning, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—An improvement in steam-engines Dated March 31. 717. A. Shanks, Robert-street, Adelphi—Improvements in hand drilling machines 719. J. B. Surgey, Lidlington-place, St. Paucras—lmprovements iu instruments for threading needles 721. R. Hardman, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improvements in looms for weaving 725. T. R. Crampton, Adelphi—lmprovements in lovomotive and other steam-boiler furnaces. (A communication) 727. T. Hedgcock, Caveudish-grove, Wandsworth-road, Surrey —An improved quadrant for taking solar altitudes for latitude without aid of marine horizon, and tor ascer- taining the true longitude Dated April 2. 129. F. Phillips, Downham, near Brandon, Sutfolk—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for distributing manure, sowing or depositing seeds, and effecting the workiug and cultivation of land "E J. IM lor, Spring-grove, Hounslow—An improvement in the manufacture of covers or boo 733. R. S. Newall, Gateshead-on-Tyne—An improvement in the standing rigging of ships and other vessela 735. G. W. Friend, High Holborn—Improvements iu umbrellas and parasols Dated April 8. 787. F. T. Botta, Paris—Improvements in the method of, and apparatus for, beer brewing 739. H. Chapman, Kingsland—An improved clectro-mechanical apparatus for supply- ing and adjusting the electrodes used in the production of the electric light 141. P. R. Jackson, Salford—Improvements in machinery for making patterns and for moulding therefrom 148. W. H. Tooth, Pilgrim-street, Kennington-lane, Surrey—Improvements in the con- struction of floating vessels, and in the machinery and steam signals connected there- with, and in the application thereof to other purposes 747. J. Cowen, Greycoat-street, and J. Sweetlong, Earl-street, Westminster—A locomo- tive land battery 749. F. Joyce, Upper Thames-street—Im provements in the manufacture of percussion- caps and other primers 751. S. Greenwood, Sunderland—Loprovements in machinery for making rivets, bolts, puts, and other similar articles Dated April 4. 153. J. Crowley, Sheffield —Improvements in the manufacture of malleable cast-iron 165. L. A. M. Mouchel, Paris—An improved method of joining pipes, tubes, and ducts. (A communication) Dated April 5. 757. W. Goostrey, G. Hulme and C. Hough, Chedderton, Stafford —Improvemente in machinery or apparatua for manufacturing paper s J Lenceria. Sheffleld—Improvements in the manufacture of table and other ike knives 761. C. Goodyear, Avenue Gabriel, Champs Elysées, Paris — Improvements in self- inflating pontoons and life-preservers 763. J. E. Frost, Goswell-street—An improvement in ball or float-cocks 166. H. M. Holmes, Derby—lmprovements in the inanutacture of tyres for wheels 767. A. H. A. Durant, Tong Castle, Salop—An nnproved axle and axle-box for carriage- wheels, shafts, axles, or general bearings of machinery Dated April 7. 769. W. B. Hays, Cambridge-street, Pimlico—An improved breakwater 771. H. Gerner, Moorgate-street—Lmprovements in polygraphic or writing and drawing apparatus 113. J. Hull, Liverpool—Improvements in the machinery and apparatus for grinding corn 775. R. Husband, and G. Mallinson, Manchester—An improvement in the manufacture of hat-plush 777 G. Walker, Belfast—An improvement in power-looms Dated April 9. 119. W. Tuer, W. Hodgson, R. Hall and S. Hall, Bury, Lancaster—Improvements in: looms for weaving 181. D. Cope, Birmingham—LImprovements in the manufacture of metallic spoons, forka, and ladles 182. W. Bull, Ramsey, Essex—An improved instrument for slicing or cutting turnips and other vegetables 783. A. E. L. Bellford, Peer sues aprove mente in pumpe. (A communication from J. H. McGowan, jun., Cincinnatti, U, 8.) Dated April 10. 784. W. Ricketts and T. A Stepney—Improvemente in pioducing ornamental desigus on painted or japanned table-covers 785. S. Fielding, jun., Green, Rochdale—Improvements in apparatus for oiling or lubricating the pistons of steam-engines 186. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvements in the construction of steam-boilers. (A communication from M. S. Boutigny, Paris) 787. A. Chaplin, Glasgow—Improveinents in steam boilers and in the combustion of + uel 788. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or ap tus for combing wool and other fibrous substances. (A communication from V. Brosser, Beauvais, France 789. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-ficlds—{mprovements in machinery or apparatus for preparing cotton and other fibrous substances. (A communication from J. Beugget, Wultlingen, Switzerland, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 790. L. Monzani, widow and administratrix ef W. T. Monzani, late of St. James's- terrace, Blue Anchor-road, ai was PP i gam in folding-stools and folding- chairs. (A communication from her late husband) 191. Lord C. Beauclerk, the Riding, Northumberland —Improvements in machinery for subsoil ploughing tilling and Dated April 11. 792. J. Edge, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improvements in steam - engines 798. J. Addison, Basinghall-street, and D. Sinclair, Oxford-street—Improvements in the manufacture of bayonet-scabbards, VVV and holsters 794. C. Blunt, Wan , Essex, and J. J. W. Watson, Wandsworth—Improvements a the compete of artificial fuel, with the machinery employed in the manufacture ereo 795. L. Oudry, and A. Oudry, Paris, France—Improvementa in preserving wood, metal, and other substances 796. J. Alderman, Deninark-atreet, Middlesex—Improvements in the construction of ustable couches, chairs, and other similar description of furniture for invalids 797. J. Fletcher, Facit, near i in and applicable to machines for spinning and weaving cotton, wool, and other fibrous materials 798. F. 8. Hemming, Birkenhead—Improvements in the construction of buildings, which improvements are particularly applicable to military and other hospitals 799. J. V. M. Dopter, Paris—Improvements in printing fabrica 801. S. Holt, Shaw-heath, Stockport—Improvements in weaving plush or piled fabrica 802. G. F. Wilson, C. A. Hanson, and J. J. Wallis, Belmont, Vauxhall —Improveiments in the manufacture of lamp candles, and in candle-lamps for holding the same 808. P. A. Devy, Old Jewry-chambers—Improvements in the construction of coke ovens. (A communication) 804. G. F. Wilson, and G. Payne, Belmont, Vauxhall—An improvement in ornament- ing glaas 805. à L. Norton, Holland-street, Blackfriars.—Improvements in separating wool and miner saima) fibres from vegetable matters, and in drying wool and other animal res 12. Dated April 809. A. T. Richardson, and G. Mallinson, Manchester—Improvementa in the manufac- ture of c*rtain piled fabrics 810. F. Wilhelmy, Dusseldorf Prussia—Border paddles for steam-boat wheels 811. I. Vernon, West Bromwich, Statford—An improvement or improvements in the alide-valves of steam-engines 812. W. Terry, Francis-street, Aston, Birmingham—Improvements appertaining to breech-loading fire-arms 818. A. Cunninghame, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture or production of sulphuric acid and sulphates of iron and alumina 814. J. Laleman, Lille, Frauce—Improved machinery for combing flax and other similar fibrous materials. (A communication) Dated April 18. 815. J. B. Bagary, and C. Parron, Paris—New or improved knitting machinery 818. J. Templeton. Glasgow — Improvements in the manufacture of pile fabrics 818. J. Revell, Dukiufield, Chester—Iinprovements in machinery or apparatus for po vessels 819. T. Wimpenny, Holmfirth, York, and J. Wimpenny, Rawtenstall, Lancaster— Improvements in machiuery or apparatus for drawing and spinning wool, or wool mixed with other fibrous sv bstances 820. J. Jarman, Masborongh. York—Improvements in horse-shoes 821. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street—Improvements in the treatinent of fatty and resinous matters, aud in preparing them for the mauufacture of candles aud other articles. (A communication) 822 T. Hill, Walsall—Improvements in the manufacture of horse-shoe and other nails. (A cominunicatiun) 823. G. Turner, Northfleet, Kent—Improvements in the construction and fitting of tents aud inarquees Dated April 14. 824. J. Denoual, Samares Lodge, St. Clements, Jersey—Improved means of enveloping medicinal preparations with soluble substances 825. J. Armstrong, Normanton Station, Wakefield, and J. Livingston, Leeds— Improvements in certain parts of the permanent way of railways 826. W. Gossage, Widnes, Lancaster—Improvements in the manufacture of certain kinds of ED 821. J. A. Herbert, Waterden-place, Guildford, Surrey—Improvementa in propellers for vessels, which are denominated the conical propellera. (A communication froin W. D. Jones, Pokeepsie, and H. Winfield, New York, U 8.) 828. W. Reid, Holehouse, Neilstone, Renfrew—Improvements in the treatment cleansing, starching, and finishing of textile fabrics 829. T. Kennedy, Kilmarnock, Ayr—linprovementa in shot or projectiles 830. G. I. Sculfort, Mauberge, France—An improvement in screw-wrenches Dated April 16. 831. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-strvet, Finsbury—Improvementa in the production of a felted tissue, applicable to replacing leather in the manufacture of cards. (A communication) 882. R. M. Ordish, Copenhagen—Improvements in the permanent way of railways $33. R. Husband, Mauchester—Improvements in the manufacture of hat-plushes of spun ailk and other spun yarns 834. H. Holmes, Clifton-road, Maida Vale—Certain processes of treating the human body by gases, vapours, and electricity, and for certain apparatus for obtaining and applying the said vapours, and electricity, to the above or any other pu 835. E. H. Ben Heybridge, Essex—An ünprovement in the construction of harrows 986. J. Cowley, Qacnnington Paper Mills, Gloucestershire, and D. P. Sullivan, Stock- well, Surrey —linproveinents in the manufacture of paper 837. G. Beard, Birmingham —An improved label and stamp setter 838. W. Bull, Lupus-atreet, Belgrave-road, Pimlico—Lmprovements in bearings, bushes, and other surfaces, in or upon which shafts, axles, or other bodies move or revolve, also in the said shafts, axles, and other moving or revolving bodies Dated April 1T. 839. A. W. Callen, Camberwell, J. West, Guernsey, and G. W. Lewis, Bristol, U. S.— Improvements in the construction and fittings of vents, especially suitable for military 840. J. A. Lecomte de Fontainemorean, South- street, Finsbury— Improved machinery for manufacturing nails, bolta, rivets, aud other similar articles. (A communica- tion 841. P. A. Devy, Old Jewry Chambers—Improvements in the frames of swing looking- lasses, A communication) 842. R. Milligan, Harden, Bingley, York—An improvement in the manufacture of e of wool, mohair, or alpaca 219 847. R. C. Clapham, Ardrossan, Ayr—Improvements in the manufacture or production of the salts of baryta and of artificial iron pyrites, and in the application thereof in the manufacture or production of salts of sods or other alkaline salte 848. C. Foster, Warrington, Lancaster—Improvewnts in etfecting communication by signals upon railways, and in the apparatus connected therewith Dated April 18. 849. H. Woodhouse, Stafford—Improvementa in the construction of crossings for the permanent way of railways 850. F. L. H. Danchell, Arthur-terrace, Caledonian-road—Improvements in apparatus for increasing, exhausting, or regulating fluids and indicating pressure 851. L. Dameron, Paris—Improvementa in the construction of carriages 852. J. Fordred, Hampstead —Improveinents in the production of reflecting surfac:s, and in the application of reflecting surfaces to decorative and useful purposes 853. J. Kay, Bonhill, Dumbarton—Improvements in preparing and printing textile fabrics and other surfaces 854. R. Bridge, Chadderton, Lancaster—Improvements in power looms 855. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-tields—Improvementa in machinery or apparatus for moulding aud casting fusible or plastic materials, and in coveriug or coating articles with such materials. (A communication) 858. B. Cook, Summer-row, Birmingham—Improvements in the construction of horse- shoes, and which said improvements are also applicable to the shoving of asses, mules, and oxen, when such are used a» aniinals of draught, such shoes being applied in each case without the use of nails 857. W. Madeley, and T. Hanlon, Manchester—An improvement in or applicable to air looms 858. J. Lawson, and 8. Dear, Leeda—Improvementa in machinery for combing and cleaning flax, tow, wool, and cotton, and other fibrous subatances 859. F. Russell, Cuinberland Market, Regent's-park—Improvements in hanging window-sashes 861. W. V. Edwards, Swindon, Wilte—An improved economic portable boiler and cooking-apparatus Dated April 19. pril dis D. Seed and E. Taylor, Broad-street, Lambeth—Improvemente in the manufac- ure of soap 863. T. Lees, Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in metallic pens 864. E. Howes, and W. Howes, Birmingham—Improvements in carriage-lamps 866. J. Hindle, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus used in the process of printing woven fabrics 867. W. Bishop, Old Fish-street Hill, Upper Thames-street—An improved mode of ornamenting writing-papers 868. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improved machinery for crushing and grinding mineral and other substances. (A communication) 870. W. Jones, Rhodes, near Middleton, Lancaster—Improvements in printing calico and other fabrica 871. P. Lear, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.—An improved method of arranging and operating horizontal submerged propellers 872. F. Jacot, Rue du Jeuneuse, Paria—An improvement in the manufacture of starch and in obtaining and treating the gluten 873. W. Savory, Gloucester—Improvements in machinery for crushing grain and other substances, and for cutting chaff 874. J. Atherton, W. Boyes, and W. Lancaster, Preston—Improvements in temples i os i in the manufacture of textile fabrics 875. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in the manufacture of articles of hard india-rulber or gutta percha, or compounds thereof, and in coating or cover- ing articles with the like materials. (A communication) 816. J. H. Johusun, Liucolu's-inn-fielda—Improvement in railway breaks. munication) (A com- Dated April 20. 877. J. C. Pearce, Bowling Iron-works, near Bradford—Improvements in making the joints of pipes and other articles 878. L. Tardieu, Rue de l'Echiquier, Paris—A new mode of producing letters and figures for sigus, show-boards, fronts of shops, houses, and other places 879. W. Ryder, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improvementa in certain parts of machinery for alubbing and roving cotton and other fibrous substances 880. H. Macé, Paris—Improvements in transferring colours or metals in design, an and froin paper and stone on to surfaces. (A communication from L. A. C. Macé, Parvis 881. C. L. V. Maurice, St Etienne, Loire—Improvements in carbonizing coal, and in apparatus to be employed therein 882. J. A. Manning, Inner Temple—Improvements in effecting the agitation of fluids, and solid matters contained therein 883. J. Lord, Rochdale—Improvementa in temples for power-looms 884. S. C. Lister, Bradford —Improveiments in treating the rhea-plant so as better to prepar its fibres before being spun 885. H. Allen, Novelty Iron Works, New York, U.S.—Improvements in the valves of steam and other engines 886. R. Bright, Brutun-street, Westminster—Improvemente in lamps and in lamp- wicks 887. W. L Bonnets, Wolston, Warwick—An improvement or improvements in sved- drills 888. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improved machinery for manufacturing bolts and other like articles. (A communication) 889. J. Drury, Paddock, near Hudderstield—Improvements in steam boilers for pre- venting explosion thereof Dated April 21. 890. E. Pettitt, Manchester—Improvements in preparing and spinning cotton and other fibrous substances, and in machinery for such purposes 891. W. Gerhardi, Manchester—Iinprovementa in apparatus to prevent the lapping of of straps round shafts 892. W. Hadfield, Manchester—Improvementa in looms for weaving 894. J. Barnet, Minories—Improvementa in amiths' hearths. (A communication from J. A. Petry, Liège) 895. W. P. Sharp, and W. Weild, Manchester—Improvemente in the manufacture, and in machinery for the manufacture of spun or thrown ailk threads 890. J. H. Johuson, Lincoln's-inn field s—Irmprovernenta in the consumption or preven- tion of smoke. (A communication from R. Garcon, Paris) 897. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or ap fur spinning cottun and other fibrous materials. (A communication from Mossrs, Con- stant, Pengeot, and Co., Andincourt, France) 898. W. Winter, Carlton-hill, Nottingham—Improvemente in the manufacture of warp looped fabrics 899. W. A. Edwards, Brook-street, West-aquare, Lambeth —Separating certain metals from metallic substances 900. W. C. T. Schaetfer, Bradford —Improvemente in the treatment of the waste wash watera of wool and other mills 901. S. Walsh, and J. H. Brierly, Stannary works, Halifax, and Noble-street, Cheap- side—A clasp or fastner for belts, bands, or straps Dated April 23. 902. A. Balan, Paris—Iinprovements in transporting passengers and goods 903. J. Whitworth, Manchester—Improvementes in ordnance, fire-arms, projectiles, and machinery for tbe manufacture thereof 220 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 904. J. Wright, Sussex-terrace, Islington and E. Brimble, Cheapside—Improvements in the manufacture of stays or corsets, and inthe means or method of fastening the same ee OF and J. Templeton, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture of figured a 906. A. Jenkin, Kell-on-the-Moselle, Prussia—Improvements in furnaces for the reduc- tion and calcination of lead and copper ores 907. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improved machinery for separating substances of different specific gi (A communication) 908. W. Gossage, Widnes, Lancaster—Improvements in the manufacture of certain 4 Dated April 24, 910. J. Taylor, King-street, Westminster—Im provements in propelling vessels 911. W. W. Ric , Birmipgham—An improvement or improvements in reapeating or revolving fire-arms 912. J. Horsfall, Lancaster—Machinery for mitreing moulded and other sashes . 918. J aoe and G. Hunter, Leyamill, Forfar—Improvements in stone cutting inachine 914. F. McKenna, Salford, Lancaster—Improvementa in power-looms for Toar 915. r J. Utting, Wisbeach, Cambridge—Improvements in land-rollers and clod- crushers "s M. A. Muir, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture of moulding of railway chairs 917. C. P. Smyth, Hill-side-crescent, Edinburgh—Improvements in astronomical and geodefical instruments 918. C. Jordan, Newport, Monmouth—An improvement in discharging cannon Dated April 25. 921. L. A. Avisse, France—Improvements in lubricating revolving shafta of all descrip- tions, and also the axles of railway and other wheels 923. J. Wallace, jun., Giasgow—lImprovementa in bleaching, washing, or cleansing textile fabrics and materi 324. M. Mason, Dukinfield, Chester—Improved machinery or apparatus for manufac- turing sole-tips and heels for clogs, boota, or other coverings for the feet 925. J. J. Victory, ee Apparatus for marking out curved lines upon wood and stone, specially adapted to the marking out of hand-railings, together with improved machinery for boring and sawing wood 926. J. Black, Hampstead-road—Improvements in axles, shafts, and bearings 927. J. Hunter, Liverpool—Improvements in the distillation of turpentine and other resinous substances. (A communication) 928. A. E. L. Belford, Easex-street—A new and improved machine for planing screw- nuts and bars of any prismatic form. (A communication) 929. A. E. L. Bellford, X-8treet—An improved saria eae (A communication) 930. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street —Improvements in the manufacture of seamleas garments or other useful articles of felt. (A communication) 931. A. E. L. Bellford, KEesex-street—lImprovemente in scales or machines for weigh- ing. (A communication) 932. J. B. Wilkin, Helston, Cornwali—Improvementa in stamping and dressing or "indo ores of any kind, but more especially tin ores 933. A. E . Bellford, Kasex-street —An improved chaff-cutting machine. (A commu- nication 934. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—A new and improved lock for sliding doors. (A communication) 935. S. Draper, Lenton, near Nottingham—Improvements in apparatus for retarding and stopping railway trains -Improvements in engines or machines for 987. J. Jeffreys, Kingston Hill, raising, diffusing, or injecting fluids 938. E. Yrankian „ Owen’s co Manchester—Improvements in the treatment of certain salts, commonly called alums, to obtain products therefrom 939. G. A. Hudart, Brynkir, Carnarvop—LImproved machinery for obtaining motive power from running waters 940. J. Peabody, Old Broad-etreet—An improved construction of hay-making machine. (À communication) 941. J. Silvester, Smethwick, Stafford—Improvements in spring balances, and in their connection and adjustment to ateam valves 942. G. A. Huddart, Brynkir, Carnarvon—Improved machinery for obtaining and applying motive power April 26. Dated 943. J. Elce and J. Bond, Manchester—Improvementa in casing, guarding, and pro- tecting revolving shafts and mill work in general ; 941. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury — Improvements in apparatus for preventing the escape of fluida, which he calls phragm obturator. A communication) ‘ 945. A. E. L. Bellford, Easex-street—A new combination of slide-valves and ports for the induction and eduction of steam or other elastic fluid, in steam-engines or other engines of similar character. (A communication) 945. W. Shears, Bankside, Southwark —An improvement in cases or magazines for gun- powder or other explosive preparations or compounds 947. T. H. Burley, Ohio, U. S.—A new and useful machine for making dovetails Dated April 27. 948. R. P. Coignet, Rue du Bac, Paris—Improvemente for rendering tissues water- f TON 245. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-atreet, Finsbury — Application of certain primitive producta to the manufacture of bearings, and all parts of apparatus subjected to friction. (A communication) 950. A. Crosskill Beverley, York — Improvements in machinery for turning and spreading cut grasses or hay 951. T. Page, Middle Scotland-yard—Improvements in ordnance 953. J. C. G. Massiquot, Paris—Improvementa in lithographic presses and inking- apparatus connected therewith 955. H. Collett, Grosvernor-street, St. Peter’s-street, Islington—Improvements in pumps, or machinery for raising water or other fluids 955. E. Myers and J. W. Potter, Rotherham, York—Improvements in stoves for warming apartments 957. R. Clark, Strand, and J. T. Stroud, Suffolk-street, Birmingham—Improvements in lighting, applicable to table, street, signal, and other lamps, as also for the construct- ing, denoting, and regulating the signals and burners of lighthouses Dated April 28. 958. T. Knowles and J. Knowles, Manchester—Improvements in steps and bolsters to be used in machinery for spinning, doubling, winding, and similar processes 959. D. Warren, Exmouth, Devon —Improvements in obtaining and applying motive wer 960. F. J. W. Packman, Puckeridge, Herts—Improvements in projectiles, in projec- tile instruments, and in the means of charging the same 961. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improvement in file-cutting machinery, (A communication) 962. W. E. Carrett, Sun Foundry, Leeds, York — Improvements in motive-power engines 963. 9. Marsh, Store-street, Bedford-square—Improvements in the construction of pianofortes, for rendering them more portable kinds of soap 964. R. . 8.) 968. A. Buchanan and J. Barclay, Catrine, Ayr—Improvements in beetling or finishing textile fabrica, 910. P. Depen, Rut d ado aris -Improvemeate in dyeing: tei QE oe im. provementa is applicable to the 5 Su (A communication) 971. J. Torbitt, Belfast — Im ments i ; c F retarding railway trains a eee! uten, pfade Hab tq eni in stat “How ef manm szperatme 977. G. Fisher, Cardiff—An improved buffer for railway 1 978. L. W. Wright, Birmingham—Improvements in locks 979. W. Banks, H. Hampson, and 7 1 Banks, Bolton-le-Moors, Lancaster—Improve- or apparatus for bleaching yarns or thread, either in the cop or d aide, ( commerce aam pton—Improversents in the purifying processes of alcoholic 981. W. Hemsley, Melbourne, near oe in cutting warp fabrics S. Naruto renee Santen mus s.r Damm, Dang Fe Ts i qat mad 786. H. ee ja Lambeth and J. Gilbert, Hackne -road—Machi eR "m v. TUS nt rin nee td wher is ebay de. or finishing textile fabrics i 8 988. M. A. C. Mellier, Rue de Seine, St. Germain, l manufacture of paper Paris—An improvement in the 990. J. Burgess, jun., Birmingham—A new or e er tting, ding, and reefing vessels’ sails 992. J. Platt, Oldham, and J. Taylor, Hollinwood—Improvem ts in looms i Dord Mad provements in for weaving 998. T. Horton, Birmingham—An improvement in the manufacture of charcoal and 994. F. Fletcher, Birmingham—Im vements in water-closcta 995. W. H. Marka, London—Sign ling the approach of vessels at sea 996. R. CIN Lyons, France—A machine for manufacturing stretchers of umbrellas 998. J. Lacassagne and R. Thiers, Lyons, France—An electro-metric : : g. and electro-motive purposes regulator for 995. J. Hamilton, jun., James-street, Liverpool—Improvements in the construction of 1000. D. Dalton, Chester—Im rovements in furnaces f. inp i i up d and other stones aad ores or the smelting iron ore and 001. J. tman, Cornhill—lIm rovements in the submerged propellers p manufacture of screw and other Dated May 5. 1002. R. Midgley, and G. Collier Halifax—Improv paring yarns et and other purposes ' ee ee NE 1004. A. Brandon, Paris—Improvements in heating and warming a paratus 1905 15 i we ve d 3 dd Birmingham—Improvements in forge hammers . H. G. A. Peco e de l'Echiquier, Paris—A i . hiq new mode of generating power 1010. J. P Pyle-house, Totterd vid ON method . J. Pearson, Pyle-house, To own, near Bristol— of fastening tyres on wheels : Tmprovements in the 1012. D. Foxwell, Manchester—Improvementa in machin para making wie oe and in s ee thereof CAT md 1014. E. Tyzack, Abbey Dale Works, Sheffield —An improvement in hes 1016. J. Hands, Epsom, Surrey—Improvements in boiler and other Pani and flues 1018. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fielda — Improvements in the manufacture of F paper and cardboard. (A communication from F. J. Bérendorf, Paris: 1020. J. H. Johnson, Lincolu's-inn-fields— Im rovements in the consumption or prevention of amoke. (A communication from k. Bo i 1022. J. Lewis, Holborn—An improved soap —— 893. H. Sckoofs, Saint Giles, near Brussele—Improvements ; ? attaching artificial teeth, gums, and palates—Apri z: in making, fixing, or Birmi 909. H. J. Iliffe, and J. N cwman, Dirmingham—Improvementa in the manufacture of 1067. A. Warner, New Broad-street —Improvements in combining sheets its alloys, with lead, tin, zinc, nickel, gold, silver, platinum, or alloys 9 these metals. or some of them, with or without the addition of copper, antimony, EnnATUM.—In Mr. Hopkins's paper “On Subte P above the woodcut, for «4 eave” read “leave.” Tranean Forces, p. 206, five lines = —— Vꝙ— ũ— ͤ — —ꝛ————— — 9900 3: 09) 8 ? 4. : * = at ($3 [er os (| IE Bui lm, — mein e un- eu M 60 pa9029303| T. ri 90090090 s eO O aed - SIRE TE y x * | BUT ja — — = 20999 vv Tt — < T9 - La XT Qo “+ + PU 1, nt^ rr A * — — NORTH EASE och GOOG LE rece LAL LEY CUTHBEI $ Y kavn DE M . an WELLSG.HYDROPATHIG RT BRODRICK, ARCH" A Rites TI 8 fom | [3 zi iot 4 = tii A pn zi fnm 1 Ant "Up A "e | à „% inen mana n — quem. 14 5 pua Uu | "nti nui rmt in . rene ^ t A5 ra = rios | i Y3Y3 rtf NM x" ye Y uu Li mi ^ iri EU c OUT TET — 1 Y 3s RUNI t l die * Niet e ee | Wm igi qua n "m nn Jenn ep 92 Uh "E E 13 BAD lots, | la Ü | [3 wu i auen "" Eu » M à i vi iit Ely doo) UL Te — . — L ET amt È Bis Tee WOTT Am pete en * " TT 2d t ESTABLISHMENT tte d L oe — — eat aE AU Tr "I" m "Qu * E zy | fs Hum uns * 7 an d gar T ats rj Eo wet d? ^ DUE DIU aL 4 "TES 1-7 Danus Ld nuum man JR Jobbms. Digitized by Google EDI THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL ILKLEY WELLS HYDROPATHIC ESTABLISHMENT. (With an Engraving, Plate XX.) Tuis building, now in course of erection at Ilkley, on the banks of the Wharfe, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, from the designs of Mr. Cuthbert Brodrick, architect, of Leeds and Hull, is intended to meet the increasing demand for suitable accommo- dation at this now much-frequented watering-place. The style of architecture adopted is the Italian Palazzo. The ground story, with the quoins, and dressings to the principal openings of the upper floors, is rusticated; and the principal features of the design being kept broad and massive, the whole harmonises with the romantic scenery of the immediate neigh- bourhood. The building is almost square in plan, and is three stories high. A recess in each front breaks the horizontal lines, and the projections so formed at the angles being carried up a story higher, adds much to the effect, and also provides the means of obtaining an extensive view of the beautiful valley of the Wharfe. On the north and east sides of the building is a bold rusticated terrace, which gives additional importance to this part, and effectually overcomes the difficulties attending the differences of level of the site. The whole of the external walls are constructed of freestone obtained within a very short distance from the building. The interior arrangements are simple and convenient. The principal entrance is on the south side, and communicates by the vestibule with a corridor extending round the building and parallel with each front. Rooms are situated on either side of the corridor; and the centre of the area of the ground floor is occupied by a ious billiard-room, the space above which is entirely open. This arrangement, while affording ready access to the various apartments, admits also of the corridors being well lighted. The rooms on the ground floor are principally dining , drawing, and sitting rooms; those of the upper floor are chiefly, appropriated as bedrooms and bathrooms. The kitchen and offices connected therewith are situated at the north-east corner, in the basement, the space enclosed by the terrace being also made use of for this purpose. The accompanying plan will fully explain the arrangements of the ground floor. GROUND PLAR. mmm i e! and References to Ground Plan. G. Physician's Room. H. Consulting Room. I. Ladies' Drawing Room. K. Coffee Room. ; L. L. Corridors. A. Dining Room. B. Upper part of Kitchen. C. Drawing Room. D. Billiard Room. E. E. E. Sitting Rooms. F. Vestibule. — . — No. 256.— Vol. XVIII. —-Jurr, 1855. Norman conquerors, the 221 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE PRE GOTHIC AGE IN GERMANY. . By C. F. Hayrwarp. [Paper read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, April 30th.] THE position which the architecture of the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuri nerally known by the com- prehensive term Romanesque—holds midway between the classic severity of earlier ages and the aspiring freedom of Gothic con- struction, gives it the peculiar interest of being a link of the t chain which connects the old with the new civilisation of urope—the close of Roman splendour with the early dawn of mediseval art. From the Romanesque buildings of the twelfth and preceding centuries, we learn how the t transition took place from the classic characteristics of breadth, | horizontality, and repose, to the airiness and upward tendency exhibited in the early. Gothic structures: a change which, from first to last, occupied the space of 1 a thousand years in its accomplish- ment. Though extensively practised in these islands by our omanesque style received such an impress from their hands, and was so deeply imbued with their spirit, that it has retained their name among us as a distinctive appellation. It is to the Continent, therefore, that we must rather look for the purest characteristics of the Romanesque, and especially to Germany, which, though borrowing its original ideas from ita subjected Italian estates, was amongst the firat to carry them out with individual design, and the last to forsake the cherished forms, and yield up its sturdy “ Rundbogen" for the novel and more graceful “ Spitzbogen, or pointed arch. Along that great highway, the Rhine, many a flourishing cit was planted by the enterprising sons of the mistress of the world. And now on its banks stand clustered those venerable creations of Christian art, which far excel the few traces remaining of Pagan work and classic decline. Not only, however, on this te but throughout Central Europe, are to be seen traces of is once popular style, modified in accordance with local cireum- stances and individual feelings.“ Distinct from, though closely allied to the Lombard edifices of the same date, and the examples of Byzantine influence exhibited at Venice and Ravenna, these Romanesque buildings claim equal kindred with the rival forms adopted in the buildings of the early Christian Church, the flat- roofed Basilica, and the domed temple of Byzantium And it need excite no astonishment to find such clear traces of the chief . features of each when we remember that both were founded at the same time—for the same object—on the ruins of the same development of art. Greece perfected the trabeated system of support. It was adopted at Rome, with the addition of à new, and apparently, antagonistic principle—arcuation. Timidly at first, though boldly afterwards, the two were blended till confusion became the result. Order succeeded under the artistic hands of the Lombards; and the style, furt improved and eli! as by their German conquerors, became the great and noble Roman- esque, which, extending its influence from central Germany towards the north andgthe west, in after ages returned to invigorate the productions of its original country, the south. But, independently of their prominent position in the pre-Gothic age, and of their connection with Rome and Byzantium itself, constructively, artistically, and historically, these Romanesque edifices have a grandeur and a character of their own, and a strong claim on our attention by reason of their independent majesty and truth—a claim which has, indeed, been duly acknowledged in the well-known works of our countrymen, Hope, Whewell, Willis, and Pettit. Althou h the t of many parts of these Romanesque build- ings ma found in Byzantium—in the works of Greek artista, who had studied the arch and column at Rome itself—yet some ticulars of their arrangement and construction may be derived m the early Basilicas of Rome. To the former may be referred the vaultings, the apsidal * terminations at the ends of the nave and transepts, the semi-domed roof, the piers, the open cupolas and windows, as well as some peculiarities of detail. To the 1 Being extracts from the Essay for which the Medal of Merit was awarded in 1854. $ See Puttrich’s Work on the Architecture of U Saxony, from the 10th to the 18th century. See also the Works of Moller for illustrations of the buildings described in this paper. 3 Yet we have in the majestio ruin of the Basilica of Constantine at Rome two VCC towards tbe Forum, and one towards the but this is of an age just p the birth of Byzantine art. 32 222 latter may be attributed the Latin cross shown in the longitudi- nal and transverse arrangement of the piers and arches—corre- sponding to the marble avenues of the Basilica, some arrangements of the apses, and many examples of flat roofs, carried by plain walls pierced with small round-headed windows. Indeed the campanile of Santa Francesca Romana (Rome a.D. 836) may serve as a type of those subsequently erected on the borders of the Rhine. The connection with the Byzantine types can be directly traced through the relation of Ravenna to that SE In 802 Charlemagne erected the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle (on the spot where a previous church was built in 543), in imita- tion of San Vitale, at Ravenna; and although this cathedral was altered in 983 by Otho IIL, yet enough remains of the base of the central capli to indicate the style of the rest of the church, At this time in England, St. Pauls, Canterbury, Peterborough, and St. Alban’s had been founded. Did the various edifices still exist which were successively erected on the site now occupied by the cathedral of Cologne, we should have a complete series, com- mencing from the year 94 of our era. Here Charlemagne built a church in 814 (a little later than that at Aix), another was erected in 873, and destroyed in 1248, in which year the present edifice was commenced. It is through the works of the Lombards, in the church of S. Michele, at Pavia, and elsewhere, that we must trace the connection with the Basilican type. In Italy this form is naturally reproduced in most of the ecclesiastical edifices of this period. The church at Pavia dates from 720 to 750; and St. Castor, at Coblentz,? was consecrated in 836, by one who lived much at the former city. Not to mention that curious example at Lorsch (of which only a fragment now remains), consecrated in 774, in the presence of Charlemagne himself, we have, in the above-quoted instances, sufficient proof of the origin of the architecture of the Rhine. We shall see how it flourished for the next three centu- ries, and, how, at the close of the twelfth and commencement of the thirteenth centuries, it attained its full growth under the poe care of Frederick Barbarossa, at the very time when e was burning and laying waste the rebellious cities of Lombardy. The less disturbed times in Germany, producing fewer warlike or palatial buildings, gave opportunity to its artists to lavish their talents on the ecclesiastical edifices of prince-bishops, and the results can be traced even as far as Liege, in the Netherlands. Proceeding now to examine the particular arrangements which the three great cathedrals of Maintz, Worms, and Spires exhibit, we find that the grand central nave was universally adopted, generally vaulted in a semicircular form; though pointed vault- ing was very early introduced. The nave-piers are large and plain, and the arches round. Sometimes there is a triforium, but always a clerestory, with windows as in the aisles, narrow and round-headed. here are transepts at Loth ends, often with apsidal terminations, which are also seen at the east and west ends of the nave. Over the junction of the nave and transepts, we find a light, open cupola, generally polvgonal, not domical. There are towers on each side of the apse. If only four, they are very nearly alike in size; though the eastern pair are somewhat smaller. if each transept also has towers they become little more than turrets, though still of bulk and elevation enough to assist in the grand effect of grouping—as may be seen at Cologne, Maintz, Worms, Spires, Andernach, Laach, Boppart, and Cob- lentz. The high altar is approached by many steps, being raised over a crypt, half sunk in the ground, and generally supported by vaults on columns, exhibiting the best details. The entrance is sometimes through a cloister,” surrounding a square court. At Laach Abbey this exists entire. At Aschaffenburg there is an exquisite specimen of a cloister-court, though it is not now the chief approach. Many large churches have undergone such alterations, as to exhibit at present but few of these peculiarities of plan. At Augsburg, the tower alone remains; at Nuremburg aud Munich, only portions of these general arrangements are shown; while around the latter city, and scattered over the whole plain south of the Danube, there are numerous little eouutry churches which evince their relationship to this class of the Romanesque by their towers alone. Schwartz Rheindorf 4 Itself copied from an earlier one, by Adrian I., A.D. 772. 5 It is impossible not to see in Pavia the origin of the Rhine churches.“ - Gally Knight. 6 "ouis the Pious consecrated St. Castor in 836; it was rebuilt in the latter part of the twelfth century, but some parta were preserved. 7 Compare the Atrium at San Clemente, Rome; at San Ambrogio, Milan, A.D. 881; and at the Cathedral at Salerno. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. stands alone, with its peculiar double church—an upper and a lower one—under the same roof, & grand central spire, and hipped gables. It is, moreover, the best example of the circum- scribing galleries. The cathedral of Bonn, being of the transi- tional period, is much Gothicised, and has some remarkable windows—which the church at Boppart also has. At Sinzig there is an admirable group, very much resembling that of St. Croix, Liege. The position of all these edifices was well chosen. Level tracts of country are more advantageous, perhaps, for the display of grand edifices than very undulating surfaces. The cathe- 8 of Maintz, Spires, Worms, &c., derive an imposing effect from the flatness of all around them, while the cathedral of Bamberg, raised on a slight hill overlooking the city, obtains additional grandeur from its terraced front. Limburg is finely placed; but the secluded site of Kloster Laach is extremely beautiful, surrounded by abundant foliage, which extends over the 3 hills, and encloses the still waters of the adjoining e. The constructive requirements for carrying the flat roofs, peculiar to the Italian and Basilican type, were simple; but in vaulting such spans as that of Spires (15 feet) more care was requisite. Large piers, generally square, with pilasters or semi- shafts attached in front to carry the vaulting, bear the arches of the nave,—but between these great piers & smaller one is often placed, which, with the corresponding halves attached to the sides of the great piers, carries subordinate arches, and is con- tinued upwards to form clerestory compartments beneath the great arch of the nave. This arrangement permits the sub-divi- sion of the vaulting of the aisles (which are generally half the width of the nave) into two squares; and so long as only the semicircular arch was used, the square was necessarily the plan of every compartment or vault of the nave. When the pointed arch was introduced, greater freedom in this respect was obtained, and we see it used in the transverse arch at Maintz, and both longitudinally and transversely at Worms and Bamberg. The square vaulting of the aisles, and the intermediate piers were continued however long after this improvement, and Į consider this subordination of arches to be a feature, which, like the orders of tracery at a later period, gives great effect and lines of shadow, hardly to be expected in buildings with mouldings of so plain a character. The caps of these vaulting shafts are often boldly carved, as at Spires and Laach, and the latter even now retain some remnants of the colour with which they were originally covered. The impost mouldings of the arch piers are large and plain,—those of the subordinate ones are often not carried round the face in front. Most of these great churches have only a plain wall above the nave arches, or they sometimes exhibit smaller decorative arches beneath the clerestory. A gallery called * mannerchor" or “ mannhaus,"* formed with large openings and a floor over the vaulting of the aisles, has a decided corre- spondence with the triforium—a great feature of the later styles. England has many examples of the triforium, but Boppart, Andernach, Sinzig, and a few other smaller churches, are all the examples in Germany; and it is decidedly a Byzantine feature, as is also the vaulting of the apses by semi-cupolas, instead of the poe vaults which succeeded. "The position of the apse has n already mentioned, but it remains to state that smaller ones were occasionally built in the east wall of the eastern tran- septs, as at Laach and Sinzig,—(like the Basilican tribunals,) and in this case there are no north and south a The towers vary much in form, being square, polygonal, or round, and occasionally passing from one form to the other at the dividing stages; but their construction, or constructional ornamentation, is always the same. At the angle of the square, a strip of wall projects very slightly from the face. These flat pilaster strips; or incipient buttresses, are united several times in the height of the tower by flat bands or a series of mouldings, carried on corbel tables of small round arches. In the panels thus formed, round-headed openings, single, double, or united under one common arch-head, are inserted. Sometimes, in the centre of the wall, à flat strip corresponding to the projection at the angle, is carried up to join the horizontal string, and ia often continued above it to the very top of the tower. The two series of panels thus formed are pierced by windows. This system (a decided Lombard importation, and seen later in our own Norman and early English) is carried out in every wall. Cornices and eaves courses are supported on corbel tables of 5 Whewell, *' Architectural Notes on German Churches," pp. 91, 93. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. round arches. The apses, whether round, semi-octagonal, or semi-decagonal, are decorated in the same manner, the aisle and clerestory windows occupying the panels. Occasionally modified and varied round rolls are carried up the walls, and tied by horizontal rings of mouldings round the tower itself; a series of larger arches is sometimes carried round the walls on corbels only, without any vertical lines of support from below.“ When it was required to cover a round tower with a roof of a poly- gonal form, the transition was easily accomplished by one or more of these projecting arches or a and in this arrange- ment we sometimes observe a point in the arch coinciding with the face of the wall, exactly as the Byzantine pendentive. The system was carried out even further by the introduction of the trefoil-round arches and multifoils of pointed as well as round forms, in later examples. Wherever we meet with a building of the Romanesque period we have this characteristic, common enough with us under the term corbel-table. The Normans used carved blocks, as well as corbel arches, and their succes- sors carried out the principle. But in Germany these corbel arches seem to have been so highly appreciated that many com- lete Gothic towers are formed in this manner, which seems to m peculiarly applicable to brick constructions. The two towers of the Frauenkirche (Cathedral) at Munich, 318 feet high (built 1488), and other churches of the same city, have bands of orna- ments of this character in carved or moulded brick. The Lom- bard churches, of course, show this aystem more or less, and even in the revival we see it carried out in unmatched boldness in the cornice of Florence Cathedral, and in the Campanile of Giotto, to say nothing of the extent to which it was employed in Italian brick work. In almost all the modem buildings in the neighbourhood of these early examples this feature is reproduced. In the towers or walls of Laach Abbey, nearly all the peculiarities above- mentioned are to be seen, and the little detached tower in the grounds adjoining may serve as a model to illustrate this. Exceptions prove the rule, and the church at Boppart, which is peculiar in many other points, has no vertical strip in the two towers, but one immense horizontal one, in the shape of a gallery, connecting them at the base of the spires. In the roofing of these towers a peculiarity exists which has not been directly imitated in any succeeding style, the walls being finished with very high pitched pediments, the horizontal side or base of the triangle having mouldings similar to those which form the raking cornice of the roof. Here we see a rem- nant of Roman art, which was never carried further, the gable of & higher pitch, without the horizontal base, being universally adopted. The square ends of the walling, in any position, are finished in this manner, and the pitch of some of these pediments in the transept ends, is still more in accordance with the classic type. The polygonal walls of the apses have often each face terminated by a pediment, and octagonal towers, as at Sinzig, St. Croix, Liege, and even the walls which support the immense spire at Bonn are finished in the same fashion. The ridges of the roof being carried up from the apex of these pediments, meet together at an acute angle, and thus form a kind of spire, termi- nated by a vane and an ornamental cross. The flat surfaces of the roof between the sides of the pediments and the ridges of the spire are consequently of a diamond shape, and when scored with the diagonal lines of slate roofing, have the appearance of being ornamented with scales, the slates being always rounded at the corners. The angle of these roof ridges varies, but it is eee acute, and more so the nearer the whole approaches the form and character of the spires of a later period. In England, we have but one solitary eee at Sompting in Sussex; ut it is a perfect | nga of the Rhenish tower and spire. Whether the spires of St. Martin, Cologne, and Schwartz eindorf are original, is uncertain, —but if so, they are the pre- cursors of our common Ripper broach spires, being octagonal on a square base. Along the banks of the river Maine, at the Pfarr- kirche at Aschaffenburg, the villages of Erlenbach, Miltenberg, &c., are seen small, but more elaborate specimens, in which the octagonal spire is complete, with a rib springing from the base as well as from the apex of the pediment. On the borders of Switzerland, by the Lake of Constance, and the upper part of the Rhine—thence to Schaffhausen,—these forms occur, varied according to circumstances. But the pedimented spire is not the 9 Compare the tower of the isolated Chapel at Laach with the tower of the Church of Sompting, Sussex, of about equal proportions. 30 Damaged by fire within the last few months. 223. universal roofing for towers, but it is reserved for the better class, or the most important of a group. The ordi eaves roof forms a square spire on a square tower, or a polygo one on & polygonal base. The example of Laach gives the latter form on two circular towers at the west end and eastern cupola; and the former on the two at the opposite end, while the square form of the west cupola, being the most important feature, and the highest of all the six, has four pedimented faces, Many exam- ples of (now) isolated towers, occur on the Rhine, one large one near the mouth of the Lahn, nearly opposite the castle of Stolzenfels. It is to be remarked that during the whole of this period the character of the spire was essentially that of a roof or covering for protection, and it is not till a much later date that we see it assuming a more important ornamental character, and constructed solidly in stone. The later we see it, the more resemblance it has to those succeeding constructions, which were consummated in such masterpieces of Gothic lightness and skill as Freiburg Minster. But there is yet another class of small country church towers, which are found in the plains round the cities of Augsburg and Munich, on the Danube, and towards the mountains of the Tyrol and Switzerland, of a form so common that twenty or thirty may be counted in a day’s journey, and sumetimes when an extensive view is obtained, at least half a dozen can be seen at once. aa i and Pasing are two of them, and they have simply two gables, instead of four, and an ordinary high pitched roof. The earlier examples have pediments and not gables. Some on the Rhine have a small gable in the centre of the tower, but this yee is best seen in the four elegant spire-capped towers of Bamberg cathedral, which are carried up eight stages, and finished with gables and spires of a pink colour (copper) sur- mounted by an elaborate gilded cross. Seven of these stages have corbelled bands and round-headed openings. An elaborate doorway is placed in the lowest stage on either side of the semi- decagonal apse, which is itself excessively rich in carved mould- ings. The plain eaves roof of this apse, terminating on a cornice, not on a corbel table, butts against the face of the large gable forming the end of the nave wall, whose raking lines are carried on a corbel table of round arches, and which is pierced with plain round openings. This gable has its base at the upper string of the fourth stage of the towers, and is finished like the spires with an elaborate cross. The eighth, or upper stage of these towers is of a later date, and corresponds to the chief part of the western towers to be further described. 'The plan of this upper stage is square, with the angles chamfered off,—or, rather, with semi-octagonal turrets added thereto, formed of shafts carryin oe arches. The spires correspond in plan, being octagonal, but having the four sides at the angle less than the others, and the ridge does not spring from the apex of the gable which crowns each face of the tower. These gables exhibit a great deal of most beautiful work, and are formed by a boldly moulded and sculptured cornice, which is carried horizontally round the top of the semi-octagonal augles. The face of these gables is also elaborately pierced with three round arches, the centre one running to the top, and having a pinnacle inserted in its opening, and at each side above the other opening, a quartrefoil panel. The apex of each gable is crowned by an ornament, and the richness and lightness, com- bined with boldness of detail and elegance of proportion of the whole, are unsurpassed by any building of this class, Yet the towers at the opposite extremity are even more worthy of atten- tion, as they have been rebuilt in this later style from the fourth stage, and so possess four stages of the form just described as terminating the twin towers at the east. The lightness of these open angular turrets when seen in detail from the interior of one of them, or at a distance, when the sun setting behind them detaches the shafts and arches from the body of the tower, is an architectural triumph worthy of the Serm B style of art. The interior effect of the Romanesque churches is mainly due to the use of the open cupola, which is placed at the junction of: nave and transepts, and though of various forms, always gives dignity and power. Acknowledged to be the redeeming feature of the Classic Renaissance, the grandest of tho Byzantine and of the Romanesque, it is a matter of surprise that its value seems never to have been duly recognised in the later Gothic. The question of the Gothic dome has been frequently raised of late, and it is not impossible that the present century may see it satisfactorily solved. | 32° 224 At Laach, the eastern cupola is octagonal; the western one is square with pediments and a spire. At Sinzig, at St. Jacques, and St. Croix, Liege, the central cupola becomes a tower—octa- gonal, with imented faces, and a spire with ridges at the „ not at the apex of the pediments. At Worms, there is one cupola over the transept at the east end (flanked by round towers), which is octagonal, having an ogee shaped roof (not the original covering). Spires cathedral has an additional circular one at the west end, but it is difficult to say how much of this is original, on account of the many disasters which have happened to this portion of the edifice. The cathedral at Maintz has an octagonal cupola at one end, of a highly mixed character exter- nally; the ba being decidedly 8 with the usual gallery; then a stage of later work, upon that another, with a parapet of a different style—the whole crowned by a smaller octagon, finished with Renaissance work; but the whole being built of the same peculiar red sandstone, has by no means an incongruous appearance at first sight. The west fronts of many of these buildings are peculiar for the box-like form of the walls at the base of the cupola, carried down to the ground in square masses, and having a lean-to roof against the sides of the cupola wall itself; such is the case at Laach, where the heaviness is relieved by the gallery under the eaves of this lean-to roof. A church at Worms, St. Paul’s, with a front partly in ruins, has a different arrangement, and though some- what altered by succeeding styles, bears evident marks of the Romanesque. A parallelogram is set lengthways before the body of the church, with its cornice and roof elevation towards the street, and it gable ends (on raking corbel tables) towards the north and south. In the centre of this roof rises an octagonal cupola. On the north of this (and probably formerly on the south also), behind the block of the front, is a round Romanesque tower with four vertical bands and a cupola, at the base of which there are four pedimental lucarnes, or gabled dormer lights, placed upon the upper string or cornice, and not being part of it; & series of smaller ones ranges above these lights. A church at Strasburg, St. Thomas, also has much of this arrangement in its west front, but a square tower, instead of an octagonal cupola, rises in the centre of the roof of the parallelo- ic block, over a round-headed door and circular window. he gable ends have more openings and a central buttress for ids of the height, with an open gallery at the base of the raking ines of the gable, which has no corbel arches. In this tower, one stage above the apex of the roof is evidently Romanesque, with a cornice and corbel table, and an angular stair turret; but it is finished with later Gothic work of a plain character. Another church at Strasburg exhibits remains of this style. The front of St. Peter's church at Munich, though much altered, presents a similar arrangement, but here the tower also is parallelo- mic. Nothing contributes so much to the lightness and gracefulness of character which some of these buildings possess, as the open eries surrounding them on the exterior,!* and in many cases in the interior also; this latter arrangement, shown in the mannerchor or triforium, has been previously mentioned. Small shafts resting on appropriate bases, and carrying grotesquely carved and foliated capitals, support small round arches, and form between themselves and the wall a passage way round the building, of which the church at Schwartz Rheindorf, is an exquisite example. The detail of the little columns will generally more than repay the trouble of ascending to examine them; every cap is different, and though uently of grotesque design, often wreathed with delicate conventional foliage of bold and effective execution.!? The cloisters very commonly contain shafts doubly set, as at Laach; an arrangement in which we recognise a close connection with the architecture of the south, as the Roman- ue of Provence, Lombardy, and all Italy, present this feature. he window openings are of a very plain character; generally single, though sometimes double, or placed side by side; with or without an enclosing arch; in 3 or as a triplet, having the centre opening er than the side ones, and a round arch enclosing the whole. The wheel windows, large and small, though not a very numerous class, would in themselves form a very interesting study; in some, plain flat tracery is decidedly developed, akin to what may be found in Italy, when “Gotico 11 Compare San Donato at Murano, Venice; 88. Giovanni e Paolo, Rome; San Fedele, Como, Chiaravalle, near Milan, &c, 12 There is a tall tower-gateway at Spires, which íllustrates the effect of these open galleries beneath cornices most happily; it is in iteelf a noble structure, THE CIVIL ENGINEER ‘AND ‘ARCHITECT'S. JOURNAL Tedesco” was first imported at Assisi, A.D. 1228. But, besides these, the later examples, though still comparatively early in the style, exhibit a wonderful play of fancy in the form and ment of small openings. The little isolated tower at Laach contains & curious variety—trefoil, quatrefoil, fan-shaped, quatre- foil in a diamond, trelobed, and octagonal; but these are chiefly small openings placed beneath the round arches of the corbel tables. In such transitional buildings as Bonn, Limburg, Sinzig, and Boppart, the aisle and clerestory windows exhibit a curious complexity of form, independently of the pere tracery of the circular and wheel windows. The principle on which they are formed seems to be the surrounding a plain arched opening with splayed round foils, extending beyond a semicircle, the splay being continued below, as usual, parallel to the window jambs. A clerestory compartment at Boppart has a pair, each under a round-headed arch. and connected by a square lined trefoil. The lower windows in the choir resemble the common escutcheon of a lock, but the range above has long round-headed openi enclosed in a round archivolt, supported on shafts, which sais also carry each side of the round or pointed archivolt, and this mural arcade is continued round the polygonal apse, grouped into one round and two pointed arches to each window, a double or clustered shaft being placed at the angle, or where two groups are connected. The arrangement has quite an Early English effect, and the date is of about the middle, though the body of the church and towers date from the commencement, of the 13th century. The doorways, though generally of a plain character, are more often decorated than the windows; there are some elaborate specimens to be found at Bamberg Cathedral, in the eastern towers on each side of the apse. They are composed of diminish- ing orders of roll mouldings, carried on shafts set in the angles of the wall; most of these shafts are plain, though some are fluted and zigzagged as in our own Norman work. The two innermost archivolts exhibit star ornaments, and the capitals are enriched with carvings of angels and foliage. The north-east doorway, which is more elaborate, is formed like a porch, with a projecting corbel table, cornice, and roof. It displays eleven pair of nook shafts; the caps of six pair are carved to represent human forms, the remaining five have ordinary moulded and foliated caps. The north-west door is of the same character. On looking closely into the details and mouldings of early German churches, we recognise the propriety of the term “Romanesque.” In the cornices we find the hollow and round alternating, with the dividing fillet constantly occurring, while all the base mouldings follow the Attictype. The capitals, we admit, though individual and spirited designs, and of great variety, are often carved after Classic models; but the simplicity of the whole, and the richness attained, without the sacrifice of this t virtue, is a principle certainly not copied from the later efforts of the Roman empire. We cannot doubt that the interiors of these churches received the best decoration of the age. De Lassaulx, in his remarks on St. Gereon, Cologne, speaks of a church on the spot in 695, “named after the Golden Martyrs, probably because this church, like many others at that period, contained mosaic pictures on a gold ground;” and “Bishop Carentius is celebrated in a poem, as the restorer of golden temples.” The present decagon of St. Gereon is decorated with colour; traces of colour also remain on the caps of the shafts, &c., at Laach Abbey. It cannot be sup- posed that large vacant spaces of wall would remain undecorated with fresco, when we remember how they were assigned in the Basilicas and Italian buildings of the same class as these, to display the powers of the artist. The spirit of revival in the present day and the spread of the arte at Munich, the S of a state which possesses the largest Romanesque Cathedral, at Spires, have been the means of restoring this last-named building to something like its former grandeur, if not indeed surpassing in completeness any previous period of its existence. aving now arrived at the limits proposed for this paper, it is not without regret that I leave the theme, desiring to carry the sketch still further through the transitional period to the com- plete establishment of Gothic architecture in Germany—in the mighty cathedral at Cologne, at the very time when Romanesque artists were at work upon the church of St. Cunibert, A.D. 1248. But one building of the transitional period deserves a passing notice; though the churches at Bonn, nef the Enger ite an Sinzig—to say nothing of the later parts of the edifices, at . THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. ia Coblentz, Andernach, &.—would each furnish ample materials for a separate essay. The apse of the church is all that remains of the once dA er Cistercian Ab of Heisterbach, begun 1202, completed 1233. Semi-octagonal above, but semi- circular below, it is divided into an upper and lower stage by & string of mouldings. The upper story is composed of five stilted und arches, pierced as windows, on shafts running into the ing and forming a five partite vault, the groins meeting at the apex of the chancel-arch. The lower stage consists of five eorresponding arches on detached shafts—but these arches are pointed. The shafts stand upon a low wall The aisle wall is continued round the inner wall of the apse; and the passage thus formed is iteelf divided into two vaulted aisles by & series of detached shafts. The vaulting over these double es with the outer walls supporta the buttresses, which resist the of the semi-octagonal vaulting of the apse. The whole arrangement is very pleasing, and the detail is worthy of remark. But I must not further continue this subject, however enticing, though I cannot but feel the imperfection of my sketch of the phase of Romanesque art which characterised the architecture of the Pre- Gothic Age in Germany. Mr. HAYrwARD, in some further remarks, said that he had been careful in deriving the origin of the Romanesque style from the antagonistic principles of the Basilican style at Rome, and the style of Byzantium itself. He did not derive the Romanesque of other countries from Germany, but spoke of its peculiarly grand development in that empire, and referred to some dates in support of his views:—S. Sophia, Constantinople, and S. Paul, without the walls, at Rome (both before a.p. 400) might be taken as the two from which the Romanesque style sprung. S. Vitale, at Ravenna, was copied from S. Sophia, and the churc at Aix-la-Chapelle, from S. Vitale. Charlemagne died in 814, and if he built the parts now remaining of Aix-la-Chapelle, and was also connected with Lorsch, he must have introduced the style into Germany. With regard to the churches of Pavia, he believed that the peculiar style of the ornaments and carving indicated a date very soon after the decline of the Roman Empire. S. Giula, Brescia, S. Frediano, Lucca, and many other churches were assigned to the same period as the churches of Pavia—the 8th century; and the connection between Pavia and the Carlo- vignian sovereigns of Italy in the 8th century atforded, as he believed. & good reason for the introduction of Lombard archi- tecture into Germany. Coblentz followed about 30 years after Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the 10th century the great cathedrals of Worms, Maintz, and Spires, were founded, in all of which parta of the original work remained. In the island of Torcello, near Venice, the cathedral and a neighbouring church, S. Fosca, each presented the distinct types of the Basilican and the Byzantine styles, although ascribed to about the same date. The year 1100—the age of the Ist Crusade, is the great central date for . the Romanesque development—while in England, Tewks- bury Abbey, the cathedrals of Gloucester, Worcester, Durham, Salisbury, Canterbury, Norwich, and the curious brick church of St. Botolph’s Priory at Colchester, were in course of erection. Jn Italy, the Cathedral of Modena, &c. In Sicily, that of Messina, &c. At Jerusalem, the Chapel of Godfrey of Bouillon. On the Rhine, Laach Abbey, Maintz, Worms, and Spires Cathedrals, are supposed to have been in progress. 1125—a quarter of a century later, is the date of the apse of S. Donato at Murano. 1150—after the 2nd Crusade, we have in England, Iffley and St. Sepulchre's, Northampton. In Italy, the Baptistry of Pisa. On the Rhine, the Church of Schwartz eindorf. 1175—In England, the Galilee, Durham, and parts of the Temple Church. Jn Italy, the Tower of Pisa, and just before 1200, the Cloisters of St. Paul’s without the walls, and St. John Lateran, Rome. In Germany, the Chapel at Murrhardt. 1900—just after the third and before the fourth Crusade In England, parta of the cathedrals at Lincoln, Ely, and St. Albans. On the Rhine, Boppart, Limburg on the Lahn, &c. 1210—In England, E Salisbury. In France, Amiens, Notre Dame, Paris, 1220—0n the Rhine, Coblentz, Sinzig, Heisterbach, Gelnhausen; at Cologne, 8t. Gereon, &c.; and in the Breisgau, that marvel of the next style, Freiburg Munster, commenced after the Sth Crusade. 225 1230— We have the return of the Germán influence, southwards, and in Italy, the Church of San Francesco at Assisi, the first built in the style of the Gotico Tedesco. Thus we see that the great consummation of the style at Boppart and Limburg, was about the year 1200, when England had made & great advance upon the Romanesque. After that period came Heisterbach, &c, and the style went on improving till the German taste was re-imported into Italy, m the Church of S. Francisco, at Assisi, about the year 1230. There could be no question that that church was built by German architects and German workmen; it was the first really Gothic church in Italy, and the parent of all the others. — ÁÀ—— CONSUMPTION OF SMOKE. THE following is a digest of the information with regard to the operations of inventions for the consumption of smoke, which has been elicited by the inquiries of the General Board of Health among persons who have employed inventions for this purpose, and forwarded to Viscount Palmerston by the General Board. General Board of Health, Whitehall, July 20, 1854. In accordance with the request of Viscount Palmerston, con- veyed in Mr. Fitzroy's letter of the 31st day of October 1853, the Board have instituted very extensive inquiries among those acquainted with the means for the prevention of smoke, a great part of the evidence thus received being given in abstract in the Appendix to this Report. m the evidence thus obtained, it appears that smoke has been entirely prevented, in many cases, in that large class of furnaces used for boiling, as for steam-engines, brewers’ and dyers pans, &c, without any alteration of the furnace, where it had in the first instance been well constructed and carefully attended to, and that it is easy very considerably to diminish the smoke commonly emitted from such without any extra- ordinary care, by alterations neither expensive nor troublesome, if the furnace is not very badly constructed. It also appears, from this evidence, that in many such cases smoke has been prevented by good stoking alone, and by slightly opening the furnace door after putting on coal, and that smoke from all furnaces may be much more greatly diminished. If to good stoking be added one of the many contrivances for admit- ting air above or beyond the fuel, smoke may be very generally prevented, except when the fire is first lighted, and for short intervals after adding fresh fuel. It also appears that where particular circumstances have ren- dered the prevention of smoke from bituminous coal difficult, many manufacturers have found it advantageous to resort to the use of smokeless fuel that produces no more smoke than can readily be consumed. It also appears that smoke from almost all fires, such as those for warming rooms and cooking, for bakers' ovens and pottery kilns, aay he very considerably diminished and in many cases entirely prevented, for that has been accomplished in several instances of each of the different kinds of fire. Besides the information thus derived from & large number of rsons interested in inventions for the prevention of &moke, the Board have also received returns from fifty-six firms which have adopted various means for the diminution of smoke. These returns refer to a far larger number of furnaces than fifty-six, as most of the firms in question use several furnaces. From this table it will be seen that in almost all these cases very consider- able success has attended the efforts to reduce smoke. The reply to the question, “ Have you succeeded in diminishing smoke?” has in twenty-three cases been simply yes; in eighteen other cases the answer is to the same effect, e. g. “almost entirely,” “not more smoke than a private house,” com dee Ca: when the fire is first lighted.” Others seem to have been less completely successful, and make such replies to the question as “ partially,” considerably,“ “ yes, to some extent,” &c. Three only of those to whom queries were addressed seem to have. entirely failed. After such instances of success it is impossible to deny that smoke may be prevented. Numerous cases indeed of partial and some of complete failure have occurred, but these only show that 226 prone means have not been used, or that the means employed have not been adapted to the particular cases. It has been commonly asserted that the requisite heat cannot be maintained without producing smoke; this difficulty has been experienced by only eight of the fifty-six firms which have sent returns. Some state that the difficulty has been slight, others, that increased heat has been occasioned in equal time with less fuel, and this, indeed, appears to be the u result. The effect upon the consumption of fuel has not been accu- . rately observed, but in a e majority of cases a considerable saving has been effected. twelve only of the fifty-six has there been no saving; in three consumption has increased; in nine it is stated not to have been ascertained; in thirty-five the saving is variously estimated from five to fifty per cent. The explanation of this great disparity appears to be, that means for the prevention of smoke have often been accompanied by changes in the boiler, which may have been the chief cause of the saving. In other cases smoke has been prevented by admitting air in excess, which has carried otf part or all of the additional heat produced by more perfect consumption. The degree in which the prevention of smoke has been effected is also various. Unexceptionable experiments show that in some instances it has been all but perfect, while in these cases there haa been at the same time a great saving of fuel. Mr. Houlds- worth of Manchester, for example, with Williams's Argand fur- nace has obtained a saving of from ten to twenty-five per cent. and sometimes even from twenty-five to thirty-five per cent. A saving of one-half of the fuel now used might be obtained by altering some of the worst furnaces and boilers into the best. Messrs. Dirk and Co. who state that the furnace for which they were agents (namely Williams's expired patent of 1839), has been successfully introduced in above 2000 cases. This is one of the many plans, and perhaps the best, for admitting air beyond the fuel. It has been highly recommended, apparently justly, both for its scientific and practical merita. G. F. Wilson, of Price's Patent Candle Company, reports that their company succeeded in preventing smoke by using anthra- cite coal with a fan, but when the supply of that coal became irregular and costly, they resorted with complete success to various patented processes. They now use Jukes's, Hall's, and Hazeldine's furnaces, three patented methods for carrying the coal slowly from the front to the back of the furnace. At Liver- pool the company has fourteen furnaces of thirty-five horse power each, and nineteen at Vauxhall and Battersea, all it is stated, giving perfect results. . *You will not wonder after the above,” adds Mr. Wilson, * that it seems odd to us to hear of the impossibility of consum- ing. smoke, and to see people, so regardless of their pockets, sending good fuel up their chimneys:" Mr. Wilson regards these three inventions as so nearly equal in utility, that he would be guided in his choice of either by their cost and durability. “Our smoke consumers" says he, * do as much work with small coal as the old furnaces did with large" The saving with the same fuel appears to be about twelve per cent. At Messrs. Truman, Hanbury, and Buxton's, brewers, Jukes's furnace has been used for four years, with great economy and success. Twenty years ago, viz, May 24, 1834, a patent on a similar principle was granted to Captain Bodmer, an eminent engineer of Manchester. Samuel Halls patent has been successfully worked in many instances, among others, at Woolwich Dockyard. It is said to be expensive. Ihe use of smokeless fuel has been adopted by many persons as best adapted for their particular cases. Welsh coal, coke, and various patent fuels are used. These act, by producing very little smoke, and that little is more easily prevented than under ordinary circumstances, but unless there is sufficient quantity of air above the fuel, there is great waste with these fuels, as well as with common coal. . At the present prices, anthracite is stated to be an expensive sort, of fuel, and sometimes there has been a difficulty in procur- ing it at all. It is, however, expected, that the supply will in future be more regular, and the price lower, and many persons have found it to their interest to use this sort of fuel. A striking instance of pretty general success is presented by the case of chester, a local act for which borough requires that “ furnaces shall, in all cases where the same shall be practi- cable, be constructed so as to consume or burn the smoke.” -THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. Joseph Heron, Esq., the town-clerk, in his communication on this subject states, that the practicability has been so often proved, and is now so easily demonstrated by reference to existing works, that it is no longer disputed, but taken as admitted before the justices.” In proof of the great improvement effected by the operation of the law, Mr. Heron copies a table showing the duration of smoke from twenty chimneys, as observed before the act came into operation, as contrasted with their present state. From this table it will be seen, that at that time, fourteen of these chimneys emitted smoke during more than four and half hours out of nine; that six only emitted smoke fur a shorter period; that three smoked almost without any intermission, i. e., more than eight hours out of nine; that five smoked more than seven hours, and eleven more than five, and that none smoked leas than one hour and fifty minutes. Mr. Heron now reports that the present state of the mills named in the table may be described in one word as most satisfactory; dense smoke is hardly ever seen, and smoke of any description is very rarely and only for very short periods observable from any of their chimneys. If ever seen to an objectionable extent, it 1s the result of careless- ness on the part of the stoker or fireman, and an intimation from the Town-hall at once secures the attention necessary to abate altogether the nuisance. Many instances in proof might have been given; for example: Messrs. Cook and Co. (of the Oxford-road Mills ) made many experiments for preventing smoke previously to the year 1845, and on being then summoned before the justices dec they had done all in their power to improve the state of their chim- neys, and despaired of being able to make less smoke; they promised, however to persevere, and try if anything further could be done, and the result soon was and has been since, that a stranger now looking at their chimneys might, and probably would, suppose that the mill was not working. It is understood this satisfactory working of good apparatus, which before had failed, was obtained by making a emell addition to the fireman’s weekly wages when he succeeded in preventing smoke, and a large deduction when he failed. Mr. Heron does “not intend to say that the smoke nuisance is entirely abated. Much has been done, and the practicability of doing more has been abundantly proved, but of course in many cases difficulties are encountered, arising either from the want of boiler room, or the want of money to make the n altera- tions, which it is difficult to surmount, and even where the alterations have been made, constant attention and watchfulnese are required." The Board regret to learn that with all the improvements effected, Manchester is still a very smoky place. One main difficulty in effecting the object in question is the want of means to secure the attention and watchfulness required. It has been aa esta that it would be highly useful for this purpose to keep a number of constables on the constant watch. a few men were stationed upon some of the highest buildings in London, for example, such as the Monument or the Victoria Tower, a very small number would be sufficient to keep all the chimneys of London under constant observation, and the officers would be near enough to identify any cases of breach of the law. It is only by some such plan of constant watching that this grievous nuisance can be quickly abated. Mr. Heron concludes by saying, “I feel that I may say, without fear of contradiction, that the result of our own expe- rience has at least proved beyond dispute, that in few, if in any cases, can the impracticability of 5 be with pro- priety urged in justification or excuse for the nuisance.“ From a man who has had such excellent opportunities for forming a correct opinion as the town-clerk of Manchester, such a state - ment is of the utmost importance. It is completely confirmed by the results of Mr. Houldsworth’s extended experience. Mr. Houldsworth has proved by his own practice, that the duration of the nuisance of dense smoke from furnaces, of even the most simple and common construction, can be reduced from forty per cent. of the whole time to five per cent. at little or no cost for the alteration of the furnaces, and with a positive saving of coals. He, therefore, represents that there need be little hesitation in bringing legislative pressure to bear sufficiently to lessen the evil in a great degree at once; while, if time be given for the ual replacement of the old by new boilers, with double urnaces, and an union of the flues close behind the bridges, and provision for the admission of air at that point, the smoke nuisance may be almost entirely abated, and the manufacturing THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL towns free from the reproach. Little, however, will be done without smoke inspectors to warn and teach, and to initiate legal proceedings where parties are refractory. From the communi- cations received it appears, that nearly perfect success has been attained by various contrivances, and in many cases without any contrivance at all by good stoking alone, and in others by the use of smokeless fuel, but that good success has rarely been attained without increased care by the stoker. Such care it is unreasonable to expect without in some way or other making it his interest to succeed, and at the same time providing him with a furnace by which he can succeed without very much addi- tional labour. A useful memorandum on this subject by J. A. Yarrow, Esq., C.E., will be found in the Appendix, wherein he shows that, by a weekly payment of five shillings in addition to wages, coke was saved to the value of 2l. 16s. per week, the saving in the con- sumption repaying the increase in the wages eleven times over. It appears that many contrivances for preventing smoke which are very successful at first, subsequently fall into disrepute. An explanation of many of these cases is afforded by the fact that, as already stated, stoking is essential to success under any circumstances. This is secured while the invention is new, and while the inventor perhaps pays the stoker to make it suc- ceed, but it fails when no social care is taken. The communications concur in further representing that besides good stoking it is essential to have sufficient boiler surface, so that the requisite heat can be obtained from extended flues instead of from a fire unduly urged. Bad stoking and insufficient boiler surface are by many of the witnesses stated to be the main causes of smoke. th of these causes it is evidently in the power of the manufacturer to remove, and the want of them cannot be justly pleaded in excuse for a public nuisance. It is, however, satisfactory to know that good stoking and sufficient boiler room are so economical to the manufacturer, that the cost of procuring those advantages is very soon repaid by the mere saving in fuel. The evidence further shows that though special contrivances are seldom essential they are often perhaps generally useful; that there are almost innumerable patented inventions for this pur- pose, and that many of these are expired, of which, therefore, manufacturers may avail themselves if they please, without the infringement of any right. Among such expired patents which have enjoyed a high celebrity, may be parti rly mentioned Parke’s split bridge, patented in 1820, since copied in numerous forms; and Williams’s Argand furnace patented in 1839, instances of the almost perfect success of which are very numerous. This has been the type of numerous recent patents. It was with this that Mr. H. Houlds- worth conducted his celebrated experiments detailed to the Commons Committee of 1841, by which he proved a saving by the prevention of smoke alone of 18 per cent. on the year’s opera- tions, and of 35 per cent. where particular care was taken. He states that a still greater saving might be attained had he had the command of more extended boiler surface. Mr. H. Dirk, the late proprietor of this patent, states that any intelligent brick- layer may set up the whole apparatus for 30s. to 60s. for a thirty- horse boiler. That above 2000 have been erected, and wherever they are out of use it must be from sheer neglect. It is admir- able for steam-boats, in proof of which ample evidence is given. Another very successful contrivance is the duplex furnace, i. e. two furnaces with one flue, each being fed alternately, so that one fire being always clear burns the smoke of the other. If this be combined as in Mr. Fairbairn’s furnace with a channel for the admission of air beyond the fuel, so that one furnace an excess of heated air and the other an excess of smoky gas (which burn as they mix) the prevention of smoke is said to be very complete and perfect as long as the stoker takes care to keep one tire always bright. If, however, as is often the case, he feeds them both together, the object is of course defeated. A furnace on this principle was patented by William Losh, as early as 1816, and another by Thomas Hill in 1839, both of which patents are expired. How the existing patents for the same arrange- ment of fires differ from these and from each other has not been distinctly stated. This is the plan said by Mr. Heron to be most in favour in Manchester, where the success in preventing smoke has been very great. This construction of furnace is stated to have other important advantages besides that of permitting the smoke to be perfectly and economically prevented. 227 Very important evidence has been given of the success of various contrivances for self- feeding furnaces, for which there are three expired and three existing patents which have had a high reputation, besides others less known, but perhaps as deserving. Stanley’s, Brunton’s, and Bodmer’s are expired patents, and Hall’s, Jukes’s, and Hazeldine’s are existing ones. It is by Jukes's invention (which seems to be similar in principle to Bodmer’s poen of 1834) that Messrs. Truman, bury, and Buxton ve succeeded in preventing smoke from fourteen furnaces with an annual saving of 70004 a year to the proprietors, and with great advantage to the whole neighbourhood of Spitalfields. A declaration has been signed by eighty-three of the immediate neighbours, stating that they receive great advantage from the consumption of smoke. They say we are now enabled to pursue our ordinary business with open windows, which before the introduction of the smoke consumer we could not." Each of the three last-named are stated to be used at Price's candle factory with great economy and success. The town-clerk of N Manchester states that, The corporation have declined in all cases to make any suggestions whatever as to the means or plan which should be adopted for consuming the smoke, but have left the parties to make their own inquiries, and to take such measures as they might ascertain by inquiry to have been the most successful It has been considered that if any party could have urged that the plan suggested by the corpora- tion had been unsuccessfully adopted, the corporation would have had some difficulty in taking further proceedings. The best position for the corporation to take was to be able in all cases to point to the mills and works of a similar description where the smoke was effectually consumed, as an answer to any suggested difficulty." There are other reasons which may be urged agaiust any authoritative instructions as to the mode of preventing smoke. There are a multitude of existing patents, which if they can be sustained will render it almost impossible to make any alteration in any furnace without infringing one or more of them; and though it is probable that the great majority of them cannot be sustained, that is a point to be decided b a court of law, not by an executive oflicer. Again, though it would be in most cases comparatively easy to prevent the smoke, to know the best mode of doing so in parti- cular cases is not only difficult, but doubtful, and can only be determined by careful consideration of all the circumstances. Moreover, all experience has shown that it isas much or perhaps more the mode of using & furnace, than its construction, which makes it succeed or fail. The entire responsibility of so using it as to ensure its success should be fixed on those who have the entire control. It may be undesirable to give an authoritative recommendation of any par- ticular plan, for this further reason, that none is the best in every case, and every opponent would endeavour to decry the ain recommended by authority, even though it might be the st in the great majority of cases. With reference to common fires there is reason to believe that one half of the coal usually burnt might be saved without any diminution of heat or mate- rial change in our habits. There is positive evidence that the like saving in the coal used for manufacturing purposes might be effected, for in numerous instances one half has been saved, while it is evident that the maximum economy cannot yet have been attained. Some conception may be formed of the national importance of such a saving, if it could be universally effected, from the esti- mate that the annual cost of coal in this country as paid by the consumer, including of course cost of carriage, &c. &c. is about 18,000,000/. As an illustration of the power of science to economise in this direction, it may be proper here to advert to the wonderful improvement in the working of Cornish enyines. According to Mr. Hopkinson, there is one engine now performing above twenty times the amount of work in proportion to the coal burnt, as was done before the great invention of Watt, and nine times as much as that great engineer effected. The result in Cornwall has been obtained by an admirable adaptation both of boilers and engines for their purpose. Economy 80 vast cannot, of course, be generally effected, but the experience of numerous individuals shows that much may be done under ordinary circumstances. Thus Mr. Parkes found that he was able to make the same quantity of the same coal, with the same engine and boiler, do more than double work by 228 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. merely regulating the draught, and Mr. Palmer Budd reports that at his works at Ystalyfera, near Swansea, he is savin estimated at about 34,000 tons a year, worth nearly 7000/., ina neighbourhood where coal is cheap. This great saving is effected by using the waste heat and gases from blast furnaces by a very ingenious and skilful, but simple arrangement. It is probable that if this single improvement were universally introduced, the E to the country would exceed a million a year. A very valuable report on this subject by Professors Burson and Dr. Lyon Playfair was published in the Report of the British Asso- ciation for 1845, and it is reported that in several blast furnaces both in Scotland and Staffordshire, the waste heat and gas is economically employed. Such instances are an answer to those who assert that the smoke of blast furnaces cannot be pre- vented. It has long been a prevalent opinion that the very annoying and injurious quantity of smoke emitted from Pottery Kilns, could not be prevented without destroying the manufacture, but plana for this purpose have been tried with very encouragin success, both by essrs. Doulton, and by Messrs. Booth an Ainslie. The patent for Messrs. Doulton’s very ingenious, simple, and effectual invention is not yet completed, and therefore is not yet published. It consists, however, of a mode for admitting above the fuel a regulated quantity of air, which becomes heated before mixing with the u ie Though about half a ton of small coal is put on the fires of a kiln at once, producing in ordinary kilns an enormous cloud of smoke, eq to that of many factory chimneys, by this method no smoke at all can generally be seen, and never more than a very small portion of the usual quantity. Messrs. Doulton report that the saving of fuel is about one-fourth of that usually consumed, and the cost of the improvement a mere trifle, which would be quickly repaid by the saving effected. Messrs. Booth and Ainslie's plan is recommended by Messrs. Ridgway, who report that it answers perfectly, effects a great saving of fuel, and entirely prevents the smoke. There seems no doubt that the same principle may be applied to bakers’ ovens or any similar purpose where a heated cavity is wanted. Mr. Booth also expects to apply his furnace for this purpose, and it is stated that Williams, Prideaux’s, Stevens’s, and other patents, have been so applied with economy and success. The waste of fuel in other furnaces, and especially in common fire-places is, however, still greater than for boilers, and the same measures which are requisite for the consumption of smoke, will in these also be economical, by insuring the complete com- bustion of the fuel; but to introduce improvement here will be inore difficult, first, because domestic fire-places are many times as numerous as manufacturing furnaces: but chiefly because those to whom they belong (house owners) are not the persons who would receive the direct benefit of the economy and comfort from their improvements. As to fires for cooking, great economy with prevention of smoke, and great additional facility of cooking might be attained by the substitution of French, Belgian, or American stoves for common kitchen ranges. An experiment continued for two years has been reported to the Board, showing that all the cooking for a family of four may with one of the Belgian stoves be done by the consumption in six months of one chaldron of coke costing 13s., or about Id. a day. No special care was taken to save fael, the fire was kept up about fifteen hours every day, and as much fuel burnt as was desired. The common introduc- tion of such stoves, of which that called the cottager’s stove is a variety, would tend materially to the improvement of the art of cooking, an art more intimately connected with health, comfort, and economy, than even that of medicine. For common fires the fire-place recently recommended by Dr. Arnott, is ee the improvement most likely to recommend itself to Englis habits and feelings. The prevention of smoke is complete, the economy of fuel considerable, and the stove itself, cheap, easy to. manage, and not materially different in appearance from that in universal use. The principle is that of supplying the fresh fuel at the bottom instead of putting it on the top of the fire. The coal is in a box nearly air-tight below the fire; the tar vapours and gases produced by the decomposition of the coal pass through the incandescent fuel above, and burn when they reach the air. Fresh fuel is supplied, as wanted, by pushing up the coal from below. The draught is regulated by a simple valve, and the useless escape of heated air up the chimney diminished. The fire burns quite free from smoke, the burnt air is safely carried. away and fuel economised. Though there may be cheaper modes of warming, there is probably none which could be so easily 5 to existing fire-places, and combining so many advantages as this ingenious invention. Dr. Reid has suggested that smoke from domestic fires might be prevented by the use of coke, which if manufactured so as not to abstract the gas entirely, would make a very pleasant fire, and be not so difficult to light as if made with common gas coke. It has also been suggested that very useful and pleasant house- hold fuel might be cheaply made by means of any of the engine furnaces which act by passing the coal by mechanism from the front to the back of the furnace. The fuel at the back of such furnaces is coke, or rather half-burnt cinder. If such a speed were given to the apparatus as would allow of the smoke-pro- ducing part of the coal to be burnt off, and the rest passed half- burnt into a box behind, all the heat of the first part being used by the manufacturer, he would be able to sell the latter part at a very moderate price. The use of gas either alone or in combination with coke has been recommended as a means of preventing smoke, but has not yet been managed in a way to be sufficiently economical to com- mand general acceptance. If gas co les were to let fittings to their customers at a moderate rental instead of requiring them to provide them themselves, & great impediment to the general use of gas both for lighting and for warming would be removed. Though gas is a dear source of heat, the ease with which it can be lighted and the exactness with which it may be regulated, so reduce the waste of heat as to render it for many p economical. Thus when heat is wanted for cooking alone or for short periods only, gas is cheaper than coal. As gas for heating is wanted chiefly by day, and would not therefore require the pipes to be eu for its conveyance, it might be sold with profit at less than the ordinary price, as nearly all received above the cost of making would be profit. The advantage to the docs of preventing smoke by the adoption of one or more of these means need not be insisted upon. Every one can appreciate the advantage, if London were as com- pletely free from smoke as are many continental cities. The following are submitted as conclusions deduced from the evidence obtained. 1. That the emission of smoke is the effect and may be taken as the proof of imperfect combustion, and is therefore alwüys attended with waste of fuel. 2. That the fuel wasted is not only the visible smoke, which is unburnt carbon, but generally a far larger portion in the form of gas, both common coal gas and that called carbonic oxide, which is only half-burnt carbon, and which therefore has not produced the heat which it would have generated if it had been perfectly consumed. 3. That the chief impediment to the prevention of smoke in manufactories is the insufficient boiler surface in proportion to the steam required; a deficiency which causes waste in two ways; first because much of the heat produced escapes up the chimney uselessly, and next because this deficiency has to be made up by over-firing, whence imperfect combustion and consequent waste of fuel. 4. 'The employers of furnaces labour under great difficulty as to the best and most economical use of fuel, because ordinary makers of furnaces seem to be guided in their construction by little better than empirical rules, instead of acting upon well- established scientific principles or the results of accurate experi- ments. 5. That notwithstanding this great difficulty many persons have succeeded in entirely preventing the escape of visible smoke, except while first lighting their furnaces, and many others have reduced the time during which smoke is emitted to a small fraction of its former amount. 6. That experience has fully proved that there is no truth in the common allegation, that if smoke be prevented, there must be increased difficulty in getting up and maintaining steam. 7. That successful modes of preventing smoke, if there be proper boiler surface, may be adopted without the infringement of any patent right, the methods in question not having been patented or the patents having expired. 8. That notwithstanding the great and obvious advantages of perfecting the combustion of fuel, and the certainty that the cost of doing so will be amply repaid by the saving effected, suçh is the indisposition of practical men to depart from the beaten THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. track, that nothing but the force of law is likely to ensure the care and attention neceasary to protect the public from a grievous nuisance, the manufacturers themselves from heavy unn expense, and the national resources from grievous waste of fuel to the amount of millions a year. 9. That though the absolute and immediate prohibition of smoke could not be enforced without compelling most of the owners of furnaces to incur very heavy expenses, ita reduction to a very small amount may be effected with comparative ease, and with very great benefit both to themselves and others; while it cannot be denied, that any who produce more smoke than others who use fuel for the same purposes, do produce more than is practically necessary. : 10. That the enforcement of smoke regulations can be most easily and quickly effected by the appointment of constables to keep a re and constant watch upon all chimneys liable to emit much smoke; and that the prevention of smoke will be more quickly and certainly 8 by constant supervision and imedia iate information of any breach of the regulations, than by nalties irregularly imposed. 11 t V ae facility in the prevention of smoke would be afforded by the publication of the specifications and descriptions of patented and other inventions for the prevention of smoke, by which those interested could be informed what they could and could not do in this matter, without infringing upon any patent right. 12. That great Say would also be afforded by the appoint- ment of officers specially qualified, and not connected with any patentee, or manufacturer of boilers or furnaces, to superintend the police officers employed to suppress the nuisance of smoke, and to advise owners of furnaces how best to comply with the provisions of the law, and to report upon cases of its e — dp M THE APPLICATIONS OF PEAT. NUMEROUS attempts have been made to give value to the bogs of Ireland. The plan of rendering them fertile by drainage was the one originally recommended and pursued, and many acres have thus been reclaimed from the waste; but the central low- lying bogs of Ireland present difficulties to effectual drainage, so great that the advantages to be gained by it would not repay the trouble. Other means have consequently been thought of to render the waste tracts profitable. The manufacture of peat at one time was a favourite project, and peat strongly compressed into blocks about the size of bricks, and converted into charcoal by being heated in covered kilns, was represented to be a highly valuable product, more serviceable even than wood charcoal as a deodoriser and disinfectant. Among the most romising native resources of Ireland to be seen in the Dublin Great Exhibition, were specimens of this charcoal, which it was stated could be supplied to all the seaports of Europe at a com- paratively low price. A Dublin Peat Company was pim the principal professed object of which was to apply peat to décdorise the sewage of towns, and thus to produce an extremely rich and inoffensive manure. That company is, indeed, still in existence, though in a languishing state; and it appears, from a recent examination of the action of charcoal on animal matter, that its deodorising effect depends on its exciting and maintaining peculiar chemical combinations equivalent to alow combustion, during which process the nitrogenous portion of the sewage is decomposed, and the value of the material as manure is thereby greatly impaired. This application of peat has thus failed to realise the expectations formed of it. To test the value of another project, a series of investigations into the constituents of peat were undertaken in 1851, by Sir Robert Kane, the director of the Museum of Irish Industry, the results of which were presented to both Houses of Parliament, and they deter- mined with great accuracy the quantities of volatile matter it contains, and ita capabilities of lur economically applied as a branch of manufacturing industry. Those investigations proved that the amount of hydrocarbon contenta in is very much less than in coal, and that the quantity of ash and of water make it of comparatively little value as fuel. Among other attempts to make the produce of the bogs of Ireland valuable, the conversion of peat into candles was one of the most notable. The House of Commons was startled from its propriety by the exhibition of a candle made of a material resembling wax, which Lord Ashley presented as a specimen of No. 256-— Vol. xviii. - Jury, 1865. heavy 229 what peat might be made to produce. The conversion of peat into wax adie did, indeed, seem to promise brightly for the ity of the sister country; but in working out the problem 1t was found, that the expense of the process of man uring * paraffine" from peat was ter than the value of the product, and so this plan, likewise, been almost loet in oblivion, and no e candles made from peat have yet come into the market, Whilst the projecta for the valuable application of the peat bogs of. Ireland have one by one disappeared, and the hope of Sara i them into valuable ions has almost n abandoned in this country, the subject has been taken up in France with great ardour, and judging from the accounts pub- lished by the projectors, a peat bog is the most valuable kind of land that Qai be possessed. The mode in which it is proposed chiefly to apply the peat is in the manufacture of gas for illu- mination, and the advantages which, according to the statements given, this kind of gas promises are 80 t, both in economy and brilliancy, that if they be realised to only one-half of their estimated extent, the distillation of gas from peat will be most important. The question is just now exciting considerable interest in France, and whilst the advocates of peat gas represent it as far cheaper and much more brilliant than coal and that its use would at the same time be attended with important national benefits, the opponents of the project ridicule such representations as altogether fallacious, and maintain that the known constituents of peat prove it to be incapable of producing gas of sufficiently illuminating power to be employed as a substi- tute for the gas ion coal. In a recent publication, entitled ‘Memoire sur le Gaz de Tourbe, the advantages to be derived from peat gas are set forth in glowing colours, and it seems, from this account, that the residual products from the distillation of peat are so valuable that the Peat Gas Company might supply the gas for nothing, and yet share dividends out of the profits arising from the sale of the coke, oil, and paraffine. It is admitted that the gas obtained from the distillation of peat is naturally non-luminous, but M. Subtil, the manager of the Peat Companies of France, is said to have succeeded in giving the gas surpassing brilliancy by carburising it with the tar distilled during the process. The plan adopted is, first to collect the peat gas in ita natural state, and afterwards to convert the tar and oil which are produced during the distillation, into gas by a second process. The latter gas is extremely rich in carbon, and gives a large brilliant flame, and being mixed with the non-luminous gas produced from the peat, the mixed gases are said to give more light than ordinary coal gas. M. Foucault, the savant whose wonderful instrument, the gyroscope, was recently noticed in our Journal, has been engaged to institute a series of experiments on the comparative illuminating powers of the two gases, and he has made a report highly favourable to the mixed gases. The Journal des Debate has taken up the subject, and thus expatiates on the merits and importance of this application of peat:—“ Peat has seen its future xs dar by a recent discovery, nurtured by serious studies. By means of processes peculiar to the new invention, the peat yields a gas more luminous, more salubrious, and quite as abun- dant as the gas supplied by coal. Tried first on the scale of a model manufactory, these pee were afterwards applied in a working establishment in Paris, and are now rendered practically available in lighting the town of Meaux, where peat gas alone has for some time been used. The superiority of peat gas is now, then, an ascertained fact, and it depends no EE on the pro- blems of science or the uncertainty of theory. is useful inven- tion, destined to realise tresults, is the object of an enter- rise the applications of which the founders desire to develope y making appeal to industrial capitaliste. Obtaining the gas from a material which covers more than 800,000 hectares of our soil, and the working of which, on a sufficiently large scale, would be sufficient for lighting all the towns of France for many ages, there will be found in the abundance, and in the low-selling price of these bogs, the means of supplying the wants of con- sumers at a cost much below that of existing gas companies." The Memoire, which we have noticed, enters minutely into the consideration of the amount and value of the producta from the distillation of peat, the cost of materials, and the process of manu- facture, and arrives at the conclusion:—“ There would remain for the Paris Peat Gas Company 37 francs of profit on every ton of peat employed in the making of the gas, and as 125,000 tons a year would be required to supply the actual consumption of gas, 33 230 the annual profits to be divided among the shareholders would amount to 4,625,000 francs" (190,000/.). The author of the Memoire, not satisfied with showing the advantages of peat gas in a commercial point of view, insists strongly on the social and national benefits to be derived from the extensive use of peat as a substitute for coal; among which is included the formation of large fish-ponds in the bogs whence the peat has been extracted, it 5 as an important point, that the fish which live in water drained from bog land grow to a large size, and possess a remarkably fine flavour. If the representations in the Memoire, and in the French papers, could be confidently relied on, there would, indeed, he a most profitable employment for peat, as a substitute for coal in the ETR of gas. But those who have been accustomed to read the inflated accounts which French writers give of any 3 in science, or of any application of scientific principles, wi receive these statements of the complete success of peat and ita realised advantages, with considerable caution; and the facts adduced by the opponenta of the project are sufficiently strong to raise a doubt whether peat gas can be profitably made available for the quoe of illumination. The statement that the town of Meaux been lighted with peat though so positively made, was not correct, as was experienced to the annoyance of several gentlemen who went there for the purpose of seeing the effect; and that alleged triumph of the project remains to be accomplished. It is affirmed, also, that the quantity of tar and volatile oils obtainable by the distillation of peat is not nearly sufficient to impart luminosity to the naturally feeble flame of peat gas, which consists for a great part of carbonic oxide. The evidence of analytical experiments is opposed to the profit- able application of peat for illumination, and the extraordi- nary brilliant results said to be obtained from a mixture of the poor gas of the peat, with the rich made from the oil and tar, are asserted by the opponents of the scheme to he obtained b unfair means. As the quantity of tar requisite to give illumi- nating power to peat gas is estimated to be much greater than the peat contains, it is suspected that the brilliantly- ing gas, said to be made from peat and its products, is mixed with a larger quantity of the rich olefiant gas than could be obtained from the tar and oils in the peat from which the gas was distilled. The recent experiments of M. Foucault showed that the gas stated to be made from peat possessed considerably greater illuminating power than the coal gas with which Paris is lighted, but as he was not cognisant of the manner in which the gases he operated on were produced, his experimenta are of little value in deter- mining the question, whether from a given weight of peat, gas fit for the purpose of illumination can be obtained at a cheaper rate than from coal. That is the question which is now agitating the gas interest in Paris, and if it be decided in the affirmative, that application of peat will give important value to the bogs of Ireland as well as to those of France. —— —— THE MECHANICAL INVENTIONS OF WATT.* Tue history of the life and of the origin and rogress of the inventions a man like Watt, furnishes a theme of interest and usefulness, which if properly and completely written, would be a most valuable contribution to scientific and mechanical literature. No satisfactory history of Watt and his numerous inventions had yet appeared, and in the publication of Mr. Muirhead, who ossessed peculiar advantages for the work, we expected to have Bad that desideratum supplied. It does not, however, realise that expectation, nor does it indeed profess to be a complete chronicle of the life of Watt, and of his inventions. Mr. Muir- head, instead of making use of the ample materials at his command, to write a full history of the great mechanical inven- tor, has contented himself with giving a mere sketch-memoir of his life, which is so imperfect as to refer to other sources for particulars of his early life, and fails to connect by a continuous thread the history of his inventions in manh The chief value of Mr. Muirhead’s three volumes lies in the collection of correspondence in which Mr. Watt was engaged during the busiest portion of his life; the object of the author being, as he expresses it, to make the history of Watt's inventions, Jike his steam-engine, seff-acting. No doubt, the letters of Watt and his * ‘The Origin and Progress of the Mechanical Inventions of James Watt, illustrated his corres with his friends, and thes cations of his patents.’ By Jam Patrick M Esq., M.A. In 8 volumes. ed: Murray. 7 " THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. correspondenta, so far as they go, form much more interesting matter than a mere recital of their contenta; but this self-acting machinery is limited in its range, and produces only elucidation of certain Ir and particular pointa, and there is still required a guiding hand and no small amount of manipulation to complete the fabrication of a full and consecutive history out of such detached mechanisms. These volumes may, indeed, be considered rather as supplying the materials that were wanting to the completion of a history of Watt, than as being the history required; and though they so far disappoint expectation, they are extremely interesting from the numerous particulars which they bring to light, that were before obscure or unknown. The introductory memoir, curiously omitting all description of “the extraction, childhood, and early education of young Watt,” for which the reader is referred elsewhere, commences with his cali to be a mechanical engineer. Severe headaches, from which he suffered more or less the greater part of his life, prevented Watt from making rapid advancement in learning, but to this may perhaps be attributed early thoughtfulness, and the acquirement of dexterity in manual occupations that did not require much bodily exertion. Among the characteristic traits of his youth were a shes es of order and great skill in the computation of numbers. ifling circumstances frequently exert powerful influence on the mind of a youth, in directing his future career, and Watts biographer is inclined to attribute considerable im- rtance in the case of young Watt to the fact “that among the ew articles of household decoration of which the humble mansion of Thomas Watt and his sons could boast, were portraits of Sir ERE Newton and of John Napier, the celebrated inventor of logarithms.” | : dames Watt had often assisted his father in business, by which means he acquired good habits of commercial diligence and useful rudiments of practical mechanics. Mr. Watt, the father, having been unsuccessful in his commercial speculations, it became necessary that his two sons should be taught some trades by which they might support themselves; and James having shows a decided inclination to mechanical philosophy, the occu- tion most congenial to his taste, by which he could earn a iving, was considered to be that of a mathematical instrument maker. With the view of learning that business, he went from his father’s house at Greenock to Glasgow, in 1754, being then eighteen years of age, where he ! a year with his maternal tions, the Muirhead's; but finding that no good means of attaining his object could be acquired out of London, he under- took the then pl contavous journey, under the care of a relation, a sea captain, who was about to join his ship. The customary mode of journeying at that period was on horseback, and after twelve days on the road, they arrived in the metropolis. Great difficulty was experienced in finding any one who would give the required. instruction without a regular 1 iceship. An arrangement was at length made with Mr. Morgan, of Finch-lane, Cornhill, who was to give young Watt a year’s instruction, for which he was to receive twenty guineas and the gratuitous labour of his pupil. Watt lodged in the house, but he boarded himself, and the cost of his food, it a from his letters to his father, was eight shillings per week: “lower than that (he writes) he could not reduce it without ‘ pinching his belly.” Being extremely anxious to his father this expense, which could be ill-afforded, James worked over hours; for it appears that he soon became so dexterous in the use of his tools that he was able “to win some money” by his work. His engagement with Mr. Morgan commenced early in July, and by the 5th of August following “he had made a brass parallel ruler 18 inches long, and a brass scale of the same length, and was about to finish some of Hadley’s quadrants; by the 23rd of that month he had done a Hadley’s quadrant better than his master’s apprentice, ‘who had been two years with him’; in October he had begun to make rules, which it was then a most difficult matter to get good, ‘there being only one man who could make them perfectly well, and he having lately taken to other work’; in November he was busy with azimuth compasses; by December 1755 he ‘could work tolerably well,’ and expected that by Apri he would understand so much of his business as to be able to work for himself, or to be an assistant to his father; when April arrived he was to make a brass sector, a theodolite, and some other instruments of the better sort: ‘and then,’ he writes, ‘I think I shall be able to get my bread anywhere, as I am now able to work as well as most journeymen, though I am not so quick as THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. many.’ And when his year's toil was completed, and the ‘leafy month of June’ had come round, he announced with some reasonable pride that he now would make ‘a brass sector with a French joint, which is reckoned as nice a piece of framing work as is in the trade.” The course of industrious application by which James Watt was enabled to become so skilfal in his trade, in so short a time, was rendered extremely irksome by continued bad health, and in his letters home he complained of “gnawing pains in his back,” * violent rheumatism, and weariness all over his body.” Duri a part of his time, also, he was obliged to keep within doors from fear of the pressgang, as the anomalous position he occupied at Mr. Morgan's, in opposition to the regulations of the corporation, would have afforded him no protection. It is a curious subject for speculation, how far the manufacturing industry and social progress of this country would have been affected, had James att been compelled to serve as a seaman during the war. Did the development of steam power depend on the ingenuity and skill of one man, or was the invention of the steam-engine so far matured that the improvements which Watt effected would have been shortly suggested to some other mind ? The state of his health induced young Watt to leave London, soon after the expiration of his year's labours, to try the influence of his native air in restoring his enfeebled constitution. He endeavoured to eetablish himself as a mathematical instrument maker in Glasgow, but there, also, he was met with similar obstacles, from the regulations of the corporation, as nearly prevented him from obtaining instruction in London. This obstacle, however, proved & most fortunate occurrence to Watt, for the university, 1 he had been employed to execute some jobs, granted him permission to open a shop within the precincts of the college, and to use the designation of mathe- matical instrument maker to the university.” He thus became acquainted with the principal men of science in Glasgow, among whom Dr. Black and Dr. Robison were specially useful, both in aiding his scientifie and mechanical studies, and in furthering his objects when the plan for the improvement of the steam- engine bad suggested itself, and he required assistance in ing it into practical operation. The account of the invention supplied by Dr. Robison, when his evidence was afterwards required to substantiate Watt’s claim in a court of law, has been previously published in various forms, but the much more concise description of the circumstances which led to the construction of the se rate condenser, and of the subsequent progress of the invention which was given by Dr. Black on the same occasion, now appears for the first time; and it gives within a short compass so complete a history of that important invention and of its progressive development, that we are tempted to quote it almost entire: sI became acquainted with Mr. James Watt in the year 1757 or 1758, at which time I was Professor of Medicine an Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. About that time Mr. Watt came to settle in Glasgow, as a maker of mathematical instrumenta; but being molested by some of the corporations, who considered him an ntruder on their privileges, the University protected him by giving him a shop within their precincts, and by conferring on him the title of mathematical instrument maker to the University. ** soon had occasion to employ him to make some things which I needed for my experiments, and found him to be a young man possessing most uncommon talents for mechanical knowledge and practice; with an originality, readiness, and copiousness of invention, which often rised and delighted me in our frequent conversations together. I had occasion to know that he was as remarkable for the good- ness of his heart and the candour and simplicity of his mind, as for the acuteness of his genius and understanding.......... A few years after he was settled at Glasgow, he was employed by the professor of Natural Philosophy to examine and rectify a small working model of a steam- ine N which was out of order. This turned a part of his thoughts and fertile invention to the nature and improvement of steam- engines, to the perfection of their machinery, and to the different means by which their great consumption of fuel might be diminished. He soon acquired such a reputation for his knowledge on this subject that he was employed to plan and erect several engines in different places, while at the same time he was frequently making new experiments to lessen the waste of heat from the external surface of the boiler, and from that of the cylinder. But after he had been thus employed a considerable time, he perceived that by far the greatest waste of heat proceeded from the waste of steam. In filing the cylinder with steam, for every stroke of the common engine, a great part of the steam is chilled and condensed by the coldness of the cylinder before this last is heated enough to qualify it for being filled with elastic vapour or perfect steam. He perceived, therefore, that by preventing this Lecturer of 281 waste of steam, an incomparably greater sa of heat and fuel would be attained than by any other contrivance. It was thus in the beginning of 1766 that the fortunate thought occurred to him of ocon- densing the steam by cold in a separate vessel or apparatus, between which and the cylinder a communication was to be opened for that pur- pose, every time the steam was to be condensed, while the cylinder itself might be preserved perpetually hot, no cold water or air being ever admitted into its cavity. This capital improvement flashed on his mind at once, and filled him with rapture; and he immediately made a hasty trial of it, which satisfied him of its value, employing for this purpose a large brass syringe which he borrowed from a friend. His mind became now very much employed in contriving the machinery by which this improvement might be reduced to practice, and he soon planned it to such a degree, that he thought he was ready to make an experiment on a large scale. But here he was stopped by the want of funds, and he found it necessary to associate himself with some person who had money and spirit for such an und ing, and to participate with him the advan- which might be derived from this invention. He addressed him- self to the late Dr. Roebuck, whose spirit for enterprise and improve- ment in arts was very well known, and the Doctor accordingly received with zeal the opportunity offered to him. A small engine was soon built in one of the offices of Kinneil House, near Borrowstoness, where various trials were made, and some difficulties surmounted so as to ve satisfaction............ Mr. Watt was a valetudinarian, more or ess ever since I knew him; and his mind was liable to be too much depressed by little cross accidents, or i Ag necessity of a greater expense than he had foreseen. Whereas Dr. Roebuck was undaunted on such occasions, and roused Mr. Watt to disregard expense, and to double his exertions until the difficulty was overcome............. While thus employed, Mr. Watt's reputation for knowledge and skill in the engineering line occasioned his having an offer made to him to take the levels and make calculations for an intended canal, which employment his circumstances induced him readily to accept. This and other busi- ness of the same kind filled up the greater part of his time for several years, and produced interruptions or delays of his experiments with his new engines. But in the year 1769, being now completely satisfied of the practicability of his invention, he got the patent for it. In a description of the early progress of the invention, prepared by Watt himself, as instruction to his counsel in the trial respecting the infringement of the patent, and entitled “A Plain Story,” he thus sums up his claims: “Ws invention is merely a contrivance to prevent cooling the cylinder, and to make the vacuum more perfect by condensing the steam in a vessel distinct from the cylinder itself; this is the nature of the invention. The means of Keeping the cylinder warm,—the substitution of the powers of steam for those of the atmosphere,—of grease, &c. in place of water to keep the piston tight, —and the drawing out the air, &c. by means of pumps,—are merely aids in performing the principal object.” The first thought of an invention frequently flashes on the mind as if by inspiration, and in places and under circumstances that seem little adapted to originate such ideas. The followin account is given of the manner in which the “new light” flash on the mind of Watt: “Mr. John Hart, an ingenious tradesman of Glasgow, has related that Mr. Watt frequently conversed with him on subjects of mechanical interest, and that being asked by him in 1817 whether he recollected how the first idea of his great discovery came into his mind, he replied, ‘O! yes; perfectly. One Sunday afternoon, I had gone to take a walk on the w, and when about half way between the Herd's House and Arn’s Well, my thoughts having been naturally turned to the experiments I had been engaged in for saving heat in the cylinder, at that part of the road the idea occurred to me, that as steam was an elastic vapour, it would expand and rush into a previously-exhausted space; and that if I were to produce a vacuum in a separate vessel, and open a communication between the steam in the cylinder and the ex- hausted vessel, such would be the consequence.’” The agreement with Dr. Roebuck was made in 1765, by which it was stipulated that Dr. Roebuck should pay a debt then incurred by Watt, amounting to 1000/., that he should bear the cost of all subsequent experiments iu perfecting the engine, and pay for the patents; for which he was to have two-third shares of the invention. Dr. Roebuck was at the time proprietor of the Carron Ironworks, and was supposed to be a man of great wealth, but having been induced to enter into mining speculations, his circumstances became embarrassed, and in point of fact, Dr. Black advanced the money for the patent and the experiments. The difficulties to be encountered in 5 anything new are always greater than can be imagined by those who have not experienced them; yet making ample allowances for the obstacles that had to be overcome, it does seem strange, when looking back at what was required to be done, that such slow progress $3° reen of Glas 232 should have been made in lying the principle of separate condensation. Newcomen’s p Te. had heen own and. in action for nearly sixty years, and all that seemed to be required was to apply to it à separate closed condenser; a thing which it might be supposed could have been done without much difficulty. But we find, in the first place, that three years elapsed before the invention was considered sufficiently matured to be patented, and the oe was not brought into a satisfactory working condition till half the term of the patent had expired. One of the t difficulties was to get a steam-tight piston for the linder, and various contrivances were tried to effect that object. The following letter from Watt to Dr. Roebuck, dated October 16th, 1765, from Glasgow, with facsimiles of its rough pen-and-ink sketches, indicates the course of experiments he was then trying to make the “fire-engine” work effectively: * Drar DocroB.—On ted trials of my machine I have had better success; it readily works with 104 lbs. on the inch, and sometimes I made it lift 14 lbs. I still propose improvements on my piston with which I am confident it will succeed to my utmost expectations. i is my present piston. Ata[fig. 1] are two collars of varnished cloth; b is the old part of the piston which was made for Belidor's piston, and now remains naked. I propose adding another oollar at c, and another some- where on b, with which additions I hope it will be perfectly tight, as you will easily see that the addition of a collar increases the tightness vastly. As to the steam consumed, it is very little; my little boiler fills the cylinder in less than half a second after it has been exhausted. This is the way in which I tried it: a (fig. 2] being the cylinder, b a lever fastened down by one end at e; d is a weight, which by being moved backwards and forwards, determines the pressure. Now, in these circumstances, the weight being in a situation where the engine cannot lift it, and vacuum produced in a, it is plain on opening the steam-cock the steam m TOU MADE SUM to do Which as T said, it took less than half a second.” The embarrassment of Dr. Roebuck’s affairs tended greatly to retard the progress of the invention, and struggling as he was for several years with the commercial difficulties which at last overpowered him, he was unwilling to relinquish his share in a tent that promised, if successfully worked, to restore his ortune. In the meantime, a correspondence was opened and continued between Watt and Mr. Boulton through their mutual friend Dr. Small, with a view to an arrangement of partnership; but in the uncertainty of obtaining Dr. Roebuck’s consent, and the want of success, commercially, that had attended Watts lations, he desponded of being able to realise anything from e steam-engine, and thought of seeking employment abroad as a civil engineer. The state of Watt's mind at that period is thus strongly pourtrayed in a letter to Dr. Small written in 1769, in reply to one communicating the information that a person named Moore was manufacturing steam-carriages: “I am resolved, unless those things I have brought to some perfec- tion reward me for the time and money I have lost on them, tf I can resist it, to invent no more. Indeed, 1 am not nearly so capable as I was once." I find that I am not the same person I was four years ago, when I invented the fire-engine, and foresaw, even before I had made a model, almost every circumstance that has since occurred. I was at that time spurred on by the alluring hope of placing myself above want, without being obliged to have much dealing with mankind, to whom Watt was then only thirty-three years old THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. I have always been a dupe. The necessary experience in greát was wanting; in uiring it I have met with many disappointments. I must have sunk under the burthen of them, if I had not been sup- rted by the friendship of Dr. Roebuck................ I have now rought the engine near a conclusion, yet I am not in idea nearer that rest I wish for than I was four years ago. However, I am resolved to do all I can to carry on this business, and if it does not thrive with me, I will lay aside the burthen I cannot . Of all things in life there is nothing iore foolish than inventing. Here I work five or more years contriving an engine, and Mr. Moore hears of it, is more freill. geta three patents at once, publishes himself in the newspapers, hires 2000 men, sets them to work for the whole world in St. George's Fields, gets a fortune at once, and prosecutes me for using my own invention !" Little progress was made during the five succeeding years with the steam-engine, in consequence of the unsettled state of Dr. Roebuck's irs. During that time Watt was principally engaged as a civil engineer. The following characteristic letters, written 1 superintendence of the works on the Monk- land canal, will be read with interest:— Mr. Watt to Dr. Small. “Glasgow, Sept. 9th, 1770. ** Nothing is more contrary to my disposition than bustling and bar- gaining with mankind; yet that is the life I now constantly lead. Use and exercise render it rather more tolerable than it was at first, but it is still disagreeable. I am also in a constant fear that my 85 want of expe- rience may betray me into some scrape, or that I shall be imposed upon by the workmen, both which I take all the care my nature allows of to prevent. I have been tolerably lucky yet; I have cut some more than a mile of the canal, besides a most confounded gash in a hill, and made a bridge and some tunnels, for all which I think I am within the estimate, notwithstanding the soil has been of the very hardest, being a black or red clay, engrained with stones. We are out altogether 450., of which about 50/. for utensils; our canal is 5 feet water, and 16 feet bottom. I have for managing the canal 2004. per annum. I bestow upon it generally about three or four days in the week, during which I am commonly very busy, as I have above 150 men at work, and only one overseer under me, besides the under-takers, who are mere tyros, and require constant watching. The remainder of my time is taken up partly by headaches and other bad health, and partly by consultations on various subjects, of which I can have more than I am able to answer, and people pay me pretty well. In short, I want little but health and vigour to make money as fast as it is fit.” Mr. Watt to Dr. Small. „Glasgow, November 7th, 1772. ** Our canal has not stopped, but is likely to do so from our having expended the subscription of 10,000/. upon seven miles of the naviga- tion, and having about two miles yet to make. We have, however, & canal of four feet water for one of three feet subscribed to, and have also paid most abominably for our land. I decline only being the manager and not the engineer. I wrote you before how grievous that first part of the business was to me, and it daily becomes more so. Everything has been turned over upon me, and the necessary clerks grudged to me. I am also indolent and fearfully terrified to make bar- gains, and hate to settle accounts. Why, therefore, shall I continue a slave to a hateful employment, while I can otherwise, by surveys and consultations, make as much money with half the labour, and I really think with double the credit? for a man is always disgraced by taking upon him an employment he is unfit for. I have no quality proper for this employment but honesty, which reproaches me for keeping it so long. Remember, in recommending me to business, that what I can promise to perform is to make an accurate survey and a faithful report of anything in the engineer way; to direct the course of canals; to lay out the ground, and to measure the cube yards cut or to be cut; to assist in bargaining for the price of work; to direct how it ought to be executed; and to give my opinion of the execution to the from time to time. But I can on no account have anything to do with workmen, cash, or workmen's accounts; nor would I choose to be so bound up to one object that I could not occasionally serve such friends as might employ me for smaller matters. Remember, also, I have no great experience, and am not enterprising, seldom choosing to attempt things that are both great and new; I am not a man of regularity in business, and have bad health. Take care not to give any body a better opinion of me than I deserve; it will hurt me in the end.” In another letter to Dr. Small, written from Glasgow, in December of the following year, Watt says:— “The engineering business is not a vigorous plant here; we are in general very poorly paid. This last year my whole gains do not exceed 2001., though some people have paid me very genteelly. There are two things which occur to me, either to England, or endeavour to get some lucrative place abroad; but I doubt my interest for the latter. hat I am fittest for is a surveying engineer.” THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. It was not till June 1775, that the ershi ent between Boulton and Watt was finally comi le after en Ack of Parliament had been obtained for prolonging the patent privileges for twenty-five years. The terms of the partnershi were, that Mr. Boulton should have assigned to him two-thi of the invention, on condition that he paid all expenses of experi- ments past and future, and the cost of obtaining the Act, and that he should advance the stock n for carrying on the ine trade. Watt was to make all the devi and surveys, and to give eo 1 to keep books, to assist in ing the workmen, in ing bargains, &c. It appears that in the ollowing year, Watt had some thought of selling his third share, and Mr. Boulton, when asked to put a value on it said, “I would willingly give you two or perhaps three thousand unds for the assignment of your third part of the Act of Par- lament But I should be sorry to makè you so bad a i or to make any bargain at all that tended to deprive me of your friendship, uaintance and assistance, hoping that we shall harmoniously live to wear out the twenty-five years, which I had rather do than gain a nabob’s fortune by being sole proprietor.” The hope expressed in that letter was fully verified. Watt continued to live on the most cordial terms with his partner, who fully appreciated the mechanical talents and amiable qualities of Watt, and was ready at all times to attend to his suggestions. The most irksome duis that devolved on Watt, r the advantages of the steam-engine became known, was to superin- tend the fitting up of them in the Cornish mines, and to combat with the prejudices of the miners During the three vears that he was in Cornwall his mind was continually active, either in suggesting further 1 in the reciprocating engine or in other inventions. e plan of a rotative engine was frequently in his thoughts, and numerous were the experiments and con- trivances to render it effective, but with little success. In one of his letters to Mr. Boulton at that time, when suffering from bad health and low spirits, Watt says: My inclination and feelin would lead me to abandon both Cornwall and Wheal Virgin forthwith, and to attend to and amuse myself with these rotative machines, &c.; but it would be dropping the substance to catch at the shadow. I have a very mean opinion of the rotative's profits, and the trouble with each of them must be at least double that of an engine which raises water. Peace of mind and delivery from Cornwall is my prayer.” When returned to Birmingham, another source of vexation arose from competition, consequent on the success of the Cornish engines. In letters from that town written in 1782, he says: “I will atick to the engine business while it sticks to me; but we have got so many pretenders, that I fear they will make us little people. If so, let them.” Again: “The clear income of the engine business is above 3000“. per annum, and has a chance of being 2000/. greater, but may also be less or nothing as we shall be able to defeat our opponents.” Boulton and Watt then entered the sickening sea of litigation against the infringers of their patent rights, and they were seldom at rest from that time to the end of the term of the Act of Parliament. The cost of thus defending their monopoly was a serious drawback from the rofits of the business. The bill of costs of one solicitor in Fondon; during the four last years of the extension of the patent, amounted to upwards of 50001. It was in 1784 that Watt planned the “parallel motion,” an invention of which he was more proud than of the separate condenser, as it was solely the result of reasoning and calculation. He thus announced the first idea of it to his partner: Mr. Watt to Mr. Boulton. “Birmingham, June 30, 1784. e I have started a new hare. I have got a glimpse of a method of causing a piston-rod to move up and down perpendicularly, by only fixing it to a piece of iron upon the beam without chains or per- pendicular guides, or untowardly frictions, arch heads, or other pieces of clumsiness, by which contrivance, if it answers fully to expectation, about 5 feet in the height of the [engine] house may be saved in 8 feet strokes, which 1 look upon as & capital saving, and it will answer for double engines as well as for single ones. I have only tried it on a slight model yet, so cannot build upon it, though I think it a very probable thing to succeed, and one of the most ingenious, simple pieces of mechanism I have ever contrived." The following account of the invention of the A sedia motion is given in a letter from Watt to his son, dated November 10th, 1808:— The idea originated in this manner. On finding double chains, or 253 racks and sectors, very inconvenient for communicating the motion of the piston-rod to the angular motion of the working beam, I set to work to try if I could not contrive some means of performing the same from motions turning upon centres, and after some time it occurred to me. that A B, C D, (fig. 3] two equal radii revolving on the centres B and C, and connected by a rod A D, in moving through arches of certain lengths, the variation from the straight line would be nearly equal and opposite, and the point E would describe a line nearly straight, and that if, for convenience, the radius C D was only half of A B, by moving the point e nearer to D, the same would take place; and from this, the construction, afterwards called the parallel motion, was devised.. 1 Though I am not over anxious after fame, yet I am more ud of the parallel motion than of any other mechanical invention I. have ever made.” A E D Fie. 8. Mods ie improvements in the steam-engine form the founda- tion and almost the entire structure of the fame of Watt, his inventive genius was exercised in numerous other directions, in contriving useful and curious mechanisms, each of which would be rewarded as proof of surpassing ingenuity, did not the great invention overeliadow them all. Among the early indications of his power to overcome difficulties that most other men would have shrunk from encountering, was his successful construction of an organ, and the contrivance of means for tuning it, though naturally unable to distinguish by his ear alone one note from another. This was done in 1762, three 3 before his atten- tion was directed to the steam-engine, and whilst he was working as a mathematical instrument maker in his little shop in Glasgow. About three years later he invented and perfected a machine for drawing in perspective. Whilst engaged in survey- ing, he invented a micrometer for 5 distances; he afte invented a copying machine, a machine for drying linen, a calculating machine, a locomotive, a mode of forming india-rubber tubes, a new kind of lamp, a steam hammer, and a hine for copying sculpture; and he claimed also to be the original discoverer of the composition of water. Among the crude notions he entertained was that of propelling steam-boats by a screw-propeller, and the suggestion, as well as a sketch of the plan proposed, is preserved in a letter to Dr. Small, written in 1770, who . his desire to move canal boats by the steam- engine, Watt replied: * Have you ever considered a epiral oar for that purpose, or are you for two wheels,” accom- panying the suggestion with this rough design. — Fre. 4. Every inventive genius has a crowd of ideas passing through his mind, which are more or less developed, and when in after time they become perfected by others, he is inclined to consider himself the original inventor; and thus it was with Watt. He was very jealous of any interference with his projects, and the tenacity with which he resisted the approach of competitors, is manifested by the continued law suits issued against the infringers of his patent rights. His last and most favourite invention was the machine for copying sculpture, with which he amused himself as long as his failing strength and dimness of sight permitted. The room in which he worked, with its tools and models, has been carefully kept in the state in which it was when he last passed the threshold. — —ꝛ—ę— New Dock, Portsmouth. —A new dock has been opened in Portsmouth dock her Majesty's new yacht being cop in it. Its length is 335 feet; breadth, 82 feet; depth, 29 feet; ditto at high-water, 23 feet (spring tides); width of the entrance, 70 feet. It is 50 feet longer than any other of the royal docks, and has consumed the following materials in its oonstruction:— 3,000,000 bricks, 152,359 cubic feet of stone, 94,783 cubio feet of timber, 729 cwt. of ironwork, and cost in the aggregate 63,000/. 234 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. IMPROVEMENT OF THE HARBOUR OF DUNDEE. Report, by J. W. Stewart, C.E., relative to providing a deep-wat : permanent er entrance and accommodation for the largest clase of vessels frequenting the Port. Tae river Tay is remarkable from being narrower near to ita confluence with the German ocean, than it 1s several miles farther inland. The narrowest part, viz., at Broughty ferry, being about a mile in width at high water, while the videat, viz, at Inver- gowrie bay, is about three miles. The configuration of the south shore is precipitous, and has evidently undergone little change for many centuries past, but the north shore, from Inchyra to Invergowrie, E Pi a very large tract of flat land receding from it, seems to have been once a part of the estuary, gradually accumulated by the deposit of alluvial matter, subsequent to the emergence of the land or recession of the sea. The same process, viz., the continued deposit of alluvial matter, which formed the Carse of Gowrie, still goes on all over the estuary, but not to the same extent as formerly, owing to the improved state of cultivation of the lands draining into the Tay, and the care that is taken to preserve the banks, and to confine the tributary streams, which were wont to inundate whole dis- tricts, carrying off the lighter and richer portions of the soil. e eia , 5 of the waters of Mi Tay and Earn into a wide spreading basin, where the velocity is diminished by the extended surface, and obstructing 0 of the tidal waters, is a very great tendency to deposit the matter with which they are impregnated; the heavier or silicious i- cles being deposited in various m of the channel, and the .lighter or vegetable matter in the bays and sheltered nooks along the shore. The harbour of Dundee is unfortunately situated in one of the most sheltered bays in the estuary, extending between the Magdalene yard and Stannergate points. The Magdalene Yard point deflects the ebbing tide toward the south side, and causes an eddy or still water immediately in front of the harbour for some time before low water; and the Stannergate point, although it does not act in the same manner on the flood tide, owing to the narrowing of the channel seaward, still forms with the east arm of the east tide harbour a smaller bay, into which the upward column of the flood tide flows, and is then deflected towards the middle of the channel. The pier of the Craig harbour acts in the same manner at certain stages of the ebbing tide. The entrances to the harbour are therefore both naturally and artificially deprived of any benefit which might be derived from the effect of the tidal scour. It will be observed on carefully examining the estuary of the Tay, that a deep-water channel exists within a short distance of the southern shore, from which it may be inferred, that the bottom on that side was of a loose soft nature, capable of being easily disturbed by the action of water, and that the current of the ebbing tide naturally hollowed out a channel through the yielding substrata. The north side on that account became the repository for the matter held in suspension, and hence the projection of dykes and jetties to facilitate deposition. It is very evident, therefore, that the whole of the north side is in a state of transition, and that the ground at present under the level of high water, may in course of time become dry land; and it is also very evident that as the north side rises, the channel on the south side will be gradually encroached on, so that the ebbing tide, and conso- quently the deep-water channel, will at some future period be entirely confined to the south side. A great deal of engineering skill has been displayed in attempt- ing to allure the deep-water channel to the Dundee side, and the various sets of the tide at different stages have been narrowly watched and duly registered, but no attempt has been made to compel the refractory current to flow in the desired direction, and for a very good reason, viz., that the difficulties in the way are insurmountable. For, in the first place, the silting up of the north shore of the estuary, as before-mentioned, is gradually causing alterations in the sets of the tide, to remedy which a deep-water channel would require to be cut from Errol to the Magdalene Yard point, and in the second place, the embayed position of the harbour prevents the direct action of a 1 scour, and favours the deposit of silt, which is only held in suspension while the water is in motion, and precipitated when at rest. . Before making any remarks regarding the feasibility of pre- serving the harbour from being grad y entombed, it will be. necessary to explain the natural advantage arising from its bei situated near 9 the outlet of a large inland tidal basin. Ra. ring to a map, it will be seen that a very extensive surface is embraced within the high-water mark, and that an immense volume of water is required to cover it to a depth equal to the difference between high and low water. This great body of water can be used as a great scouring power, and can be directly applied with the most beneficial results to the harbour, in so far as the maintenance of a deep-water entrance and entire prevention of silt; and which is explained by the following illustration. The peculiar formation of the estuary at Broughty ferry has confined the channel to very narrow limits, and as the whole of the tidal waters have to pass through it, to fill and empty the large reservoir above, it follows that the velocity and depth must be proportionally great, and such is the case, the average depth at low water being 37 feet, and the velocity at half-tide 4 miles per hour. The enormous power exerted by the mass of waters rushi through so narrow a gorge, sweeps everything before it, an pon ut at all times & deep-water channel entirely free of eposit. e great desideratum, therefore, lies in devising some means of contracting the channel opposite Dundee in à manner similar to that at Broughty, and there seems to be no great obetacle in the way of accomplishing this. If the nature of the bed of the river ien Dundee were sufficiently well known, it would be possible to determine the exact width requisite to maintain & certain depen of water, for the quantity passing up and down is well known, and the Meus can be approximated with sufficient accuracy to deter- mine the width for any given depth. If the bed should turn out soft, then the contraction would require to be very great, as the increased velocity would tend to deepen the present deep water channel and give addi- tional sectional area for that abstracted. If, on the other hand, it should be hard, the contraction would require to be smaller, as no displacement would take place for that abstracted. The projection of piers into the river from the present tide harbour is probably the best mode of narrowing the existin channel, but to leave the space between these piers open woul simply be to form another great silt trap, similar to the present tide harbour. To prevent this, and to put an end to the costly 5 of dredging, the following scheme is proposed, — Ist. o run out two rough boulder piers, or rather stone embank- ments, into the river, from the sides of the present harbour, these to project far enough to secure the required depth of water, after which, short bulwarks could be set out from the ends parallel to the river, so as to cause a slackness of current in the bays thus artificially formed, and which would become repositories for silt and shifting sand. The canal formed between these embankments would then become the temporary entrance to the harbour. After this pre- liminary work had been completed, other embankments would require to be carried out parallel to the first, and at a sufficient distance to form broad quays between them. The canal could then be dredged out, and the stuff taken from it used to fill up the spaces between the embankments. No doubt this canal would again silt up, although not so rapidly as the present entrance to the harbour, on account of the deposit being composed merely of the alluvial matter common to the river, and not of drifted sand, which would be swept past the entrance, or lodged at the back of the embankments. In order to accommodate at once the largest class of vessels frequenting the port, it would be necessary to erect timber wharfs within the canal, having a depth at low water of 15 feet. At these wharfs enough of the cargo might be delivered to enable vessels to enter the present docks; and although they would necessarily take the ground at low-water, still with a soft bottom and 15 feet of water, the injury, if any, would be very trifling. The cost of forming the uays, canal, and wharfs, would amount to 60,0002. It may be argue! that this sum will be expended without any beneficial result, but when it is considered that it is the nucleus of a scheme, calculated to save in the item of dredging alone, an annual expenditure of from 3000/. to 40000, and that it is the only one capable of securing a deep water entrance, then the first outlay does not appear so formidable. 2nd. To prevent the accumulation of silt within the area of the canal, it will be necessary to enclose it, by forming locks at the outer end, which would effectually put a stop to the very costly — me ——— . — —— A m Á— THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL and troublesome operation of ing. During the time the locks are 8 75 constructed, vessels would require to enter by the east side. en the locks are completed, this entrance would be closed and the quay formed. The cost of forming locks at so great a depth below low-water is necessarily great, but as the tonnage of vessels is now so much on the increase, the additional outlay would not warrant a near sighted economy. The sill is proposed to be laid at 9 feet below low-water of highest spring tides, or 27 feet below high-water. This will admit vessels drawing 22 feet of water to enter at neap tides. The o dus per el pes 1 of 70 and 50 feet openings, including cofferdam gates every other applian will amount to 31,2807., and to finish the inside itchi eat the canal, the outer walls of the lock and the bulwar ill cost an additional sum of 26,720/., or together 58,0007. 3rd. Although the gates of the locks will be tolerably well sheltered by the narrow entrance leading into them, still they have never been found to work well, being very difficult to open and shut when there is a swell outside; but a from the con- sideration, it is very desirable to have a commodious outer harbour where vessels may be moored preparatory to entering the locks at high-water. An outer harbour is therefore projected beyond the canal, consisting of two timber piers, planked down to the level of low-water, which will protect the entrance from the south-westerly fetch, and cause a powerful scour under the low- water line, sufficient to keep the harbour at all times clear. From the position near the centre of the river, and in the line of the deep water channel, it would be readily sighted, and easily taken at all times of the tide. The expense of construction will amount to 20,3607. ese works have been completed, a canal could be cut between the present tide harbour and the Victoria dock, for a sum not exceeding 10,0004, including a swivel bridge, and by closing up the entrance to the east tide harbour or the Victoria dock, one or both could be made available at a very small outlay. These basins might be used temporarily for launching into, until 1 in front of the outer wall had silted up or been embank With the view of acquiring land more rapidly, low rubble dykes might be laid down in the direction indicated by the outer bulwarks, which could be raised from time to time as the ground silted up to their level, or if any of the railway companies should think of crossing at that place, then the bulwarks could be raised to their fall height at once, with openings left for the i and egress of the tide. A large tract of valuable land would be = uired in that way. The advantages of the scheme are as ollows :— lst. A commodious low-water harbour for vessels drawing 20 feet of water. 2nd. Any desired amount of berthage, for vessels drawing from 15 to 27 feet of water, alongside the wharfs, within the and at the quays of the present tide harbour. 3rd. Tue use of the canal (in the absence of large vessels) as a t lock, into which the whole of the shipping from one of the ocks might be removed and locked out at half-tide. 4th. The certainty of all dredging being dispensed with. Sth. The power of carrying out the works progressively according to the requirements of the harbour. 6th. A wie 85 system of railway communication and advan- tageous slips for the Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee railway and Tay ferries. 7th. The acquirement of a large piece of ground, capable from ite situation of being used for almost any pup 8th. The whole of the present docks and tide harbours (old and new) rendered serviceable, and suited to their respective purposes with scarcely any further outlay. It may be remarked in conclusion, that within the last ten years, great changes have taken place in the form and relative position of the banks in the immediate vicinity of the barbour, and these, although partly accounted for by the projection of artificial works, are nevertheless mainly to be attributed to the gradual changes taking pines from accumulated deposit in the estuary above, which, it been shown, have all a tendency to thrast the deep-water channel nearer to its natural course, or south side. 11 this, by no means pan vin subject, were thoroughly investi and clearly understood, the folly of constructing costly works, bordering on what may be termed a receding low-water line, would be manifest, but the error lies in treating the subject too much in detail, and not in a comprehen- 289 sive manner. Very little consideration would convince any one, that (although deep water now exists at the east tide harbour) as the Stanne bay silts up, so will the deep-water channel in front of the harbour diminish; and that any continuation of the outer wall to the eastward would at once check the scour, and form a bank immediately in front of the fairway. The harbour trust is already saddled with the dredging of the west tide harbour, or it must be abandoned. The assertion that the bank in course of formation outside will never rise above the level of low-water cannot be credited. It might as well be said that none of the banks in the river now under low-water would ever rise above it. It would be 55 that some plan for ultimate improvement be adopted before any hap-hazard proposal is entertained. JAMES W. STEWART. Edinburgh, March 1855. — «LA À— THE SEASONING OF TIMBER. By Sir SAMvxEL BENTHAM. Sig —I herewith enclose the copy of a letter addressed to the Secretary of the Admiralty, on the subject of the seasoning of timber, a matter of national importanee, since it appeared that in the year 1812 the savings derivable from a seasoning-house amounted, in the case of the wood that is used in a first-rate ship of war, to no less a sum than 17,4784 per annum; and further that the capital sunk for the erection proposed, would be refunded in the first half year. * Butas the due seasoning of timber concerns both the civil engineer and the architect, the said letter to the Secretary of the Admiralty will be pus rs by & brief abstract of the papers referred to therein. The letter in question was as follows:— % Jo BRRNAL OSBORNR, Esq., M.P., Secretary to the Admiralty. % Holly Mount, Hampstead, 30th March, 1855. ** SrR—I take the liberty of requesting you to call the attention of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to a letter of the late Sir Samuel Bentham to the ory Poets, dated 6th March, 1812. ‘The purport of communication was the seasoning of timber and wood of all denominations, and the proposal of timber seasoning- houses in all of his Majesty’s dock yards, this proposal being prefaced by the deside- rata in such a building, as grounded on experience. Since that time, rivate manufacturers have practised similar means of seasoning w ut, in as far as I have learnt, none such have been availed of in her Majesty's naval arsenals. At the same time with the said letter, a drawing was furnished, exhibiting a building sufficient for the exiccation of all the timber and wood n for the construction of a first-rate ship of the line, namely about 3,000 loads, with appropriate machinery for stowing it, and means of impregnating the whole or any part of it with preserva- tives, or for damp surfaces. The whole structure being so arranged as to afford security against conflagration of the building itself, or of its contenta. ‘The estimated expense of such a building amounted to 5,9291. 10s. ‘The direct saving of money obtainable by each such structure (as exhibited in detail) amounted to no less than 17,4781. sterling per annum. “Iam, &c., ** M. S. BexTHAM." The seasoning-house referred to consisted of two an u and an under part. The under part was appropriated to e necessary process for ing fuel, to the admission of air, more or less at pleasure, whether for alimenting the fires, or for being heated previous to ite admission to the seasoning chamber. Two distinct advantages were obtained by this ment, namely, that no risk was incurred by careless management of the fires, since fuel falling from them could not risk conflagration of the upper chamber, destined for the exiccation of the timber; and, secondly, that the men attending fires were free from exposure to great heat, the fumes arising from the timber itself, or to any gases that might be employed for its preservation. The upper part of the structure was the part destined for the reception of the timber, plank, and other wood, that is needed in a ship of the line. The floor of this chamber was furnished with ranges of flues, heated from below; these flues were capped with iron trough, thereby transmitting heat rapidly, or in readiness to contain any preservative that might be desired for filling this * See Sir Samuel Bentham’s ‘ Naval Papers,’ No. 6. 236 chamber with vapour, and further by increasing the heat in the process, a degree of heat was obtainable from the iron trough sufficient for the charring the surfaces of the whole charge of timber. The exterior of the building was designed in a manner to retain heat; it was double brick-work containing a stratum of materials between the two shells, these materials being slow transmitters of heat. There were no more windows than what were just sufficient to give light enough to stow the timber. The form of the structure was suited to the different lengths of the timher and wood that enter into a first-rate ship. The machinery within consisted only of aids for lifting and removin timber; these were hanging rail-roads, along which ropes and chains could be run, these ropes or chains being furnished with hooks or means of clutching the end of a log, so that the heaviest piece of timber could be received and guided to its place by one single man, the force requisite being afforded by a steam engine, if one happened to be near enough, or otherwise by a horse or horses. The building having no roof, was coated outside with Parker’s cement Sir Samuel’s observations respecting the seasoning of timber, and the ahove-mentioned letter, preceded by many years the various ways since adopted of effecting this desirable pu : Many modes of artificial seasoning are now practised, ich as heating & chamber by means of steam-pipes; by keeping articles of wood in a heated and well-ventilated apartment, as at Mr. Cubitt's manufactory of doors and other articles requisite in houses; and in the patented mode of passing a powerful current of air through a highly heated chamber; and by imp ting wood with Burnett's chemical preservative, or other chemicals ing similar pre- servative properties; or by paying the surface of wood with coal tar, &c. Further, it has of late a that early in the present century, an architect at Birmingham, Mr. Prosser, seasoned wood by enclosing it in a chamber filled with steam, changing it on its condensation, and ing off moisture according toneed. By heating a receptacle for Sob no objection can be made other than this costly mode of giving heat. The seasoning of articles already wrought is liable to warp them, and disconnect their component portions. The patented mode of seasoning wood answers well for small scantlings, but rapid desiccation was found by Sir S. Bentham to be exceedingly injurious to large timber, as it was thereby cracked and riven by vapour passin from the interior of a log to the already dried and sonteacted surface of it. Mr. Prosser’s mode of seasoning timber by steam, is said to have been highly successful, and that wood so desic- cated may still be seen in a perfect state at Birmingham. Sir Samuel, in his observations prefixed to his proposal of a seasoning-house, attributes the long duration of wood, observable in numberless old mansions, to its very gradual desiccation, it being at the same time exposed to the atmosphere, so that its moisture evaporated from the interior before the outside of a beam became too dry to permit the escape of vapour from the inner parts. He also noticed that the only mode then resorted to for the artificial seasoning of wood, was at the manufactory of the Messrs. Strutt, at Belper, where wood, being placed perpen- dicularly in a heated and properly ventilated chamber, was seasoned,—deals in about three weeks, thicker timber in a pro- portionably longer time. The writer of this having been into this seasoning chamber in the year 1803, remembers well that the heat was not raised therein beyond that of an agreeable tem- perature. A mode of late resorted to for seasoning wood is that of wash- ing out deleterious juices by water. This manner of getting rid of prejudicial matter was provided for in Sir Samuel’s patent, No. 2035, whereby the need of soaking wood for a considerable length of time was avoided, since by his mode of exhausting air from an air-tight receptacle, water was paseed rapidly through the wood. This mode is, however, so far objectionable as that it poy the wood water-soaken, and consequently requiring to be ed. Various means of seasoning timber having been adduced above, it remains with me to state the chief object of this paper, namely that of inducing timber merchants to season their wood before selling it. The mischief consequent on the use of green wood is but too frequently apparent in house building, in machinery, and in our furniture, and it must be evident that no other than great builders or furniture makers are likely to have on their own premises the means of seasoning wood of any description; but it would well answer to timber merchants to erect seasoning- houses, and to add to the usual price of the wood the cost THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. of seasoning it, that cost including the interest of capital expended on the seasoning-house, as well as the current expenditure for fuel, and other labour in attendance on the house, and a reasonable profit on the total outlay. The benefit resulting to the public from such a measure would be immense, for all the evils at present inevitable from the use of green wood need no longer to be incurred. Deposits of seasoned wood seems more a mercantile than an engineering or an architectural question, but seeing the great number of small carpenters, for instance, who daily purchase the wood to be worked, it would appear that deposits of seasoned timber should be numerous. Nor need any considerable expense be thereby incurred; any dry receptacle would suffice for the keeping a suitable stock of wood proportioned to the probable 4 for it in any neighbourhood, and a tariff of prices would enable even a boy to be the salesman. Or where credit might be permitted, a common receipt, signed by the recipient, would be the best and simplest voucher of his having received such and such a deal, or such a piece of quartering. ' is no mode of obtaining simple and incontrovertible vouchers, for it was introduced in all the royal dockyards by Sir Samuel Bentham, in the year 1802, when the entire ment of timber and wood of all kinds was confided to him for the limited time of three months, in order that he might introduce the new regulations sanctioned by the king in council. Holly Mount, Hampstead, April 20. M. S. BENTHAM. ECONOMIC DISTRIBUTION OF MATERIAL IN THE SIDES OR VERTICAL PORTION OF WROUGHT- IRON BEAMS. Sin—In the paper upon the above subject lately read by Mr. Barton, before the Institution of Civil Engineers, and in the discussion that ensued, & very important element was lost sight of in drawing & comparison between the merits of plate and openwork or triangular bracings: I refer to the remarkable effect which the ratio of the depth to the span has upon the comparison. Thus, fora given span and loading, the depth of an openwork bridge may be varied to a considerable extent, without owe any material chanye in the requisite weight of the verti bracing (the angle of inclination of the braces remaining the same), consequently it will be found economical to adopt a comparatively great depth. On the other hand, the necessary weight of the material in the sides of a platework tube probably varies P in proportion with the depth, so that the most economical dept will be less than in the case of a Warren or lattice bridge, and the upper and lower longitudinal members of the structure will be necessarily heavier, being inversely as the depth. Nearly all the principal tubular structures have been made with an effective depth of about „th of the span, and this is robably a near approximation to the most economical proportion. In the case of the openwork class, the practice has been less constant, but the examples are very generally faulty in not being sufficiently deep to ensure the greatest economy. The Chepstow bridge is an example of an opposite character, but in it the points of support afforded to the roadway are limited in number to an unnecessary degree. I am of opinion that the most economical ratio of the depth to the span in open work 8 will be found to be about 1: 8. Now, in comparing the two kinds, we should compare examples of similar spans, but of the depths found to be respectively the most economical. There will be a certain ratio of depth to span, = 1: a, at which the two forms will be equally economical; and in proportion as the depth is less than in that ratio, so much more will be the advan- tage obtained by using the plate instead of the triangular bracing, and vice vered. When, then, as in transverse girders of bridges and other minor structures, the depth is limited, it will at once be pointed out whether plate or openwork should be used, by the span being more or less than « times that depth. E Permit me to add, that an investigation of the strains in Warren, Lattice, and Bowstring bridges, together with the must economical angle for the braces, and other subjects connected with this discussion, were first given in “A Treatise on Bracin published in January 1851, and reviewed in your Journal for August of that year. äs l Rosert H. Bow. 7, South Gray Street, Edinburgh, June 11. —— —ñ̃᷑ e ————MM——————— L * tart Wee . Eo Med „ „„ A? A wa — „ d^ 9 sam 4/75 „ —— wx 8 3 r =- te A uc ea mn 5 um Mit UD 2 A e mm An b. a W 0 A S ea ao . | 93 U- —— —— — TAA SME TE - p 3 ate, CNPVOC T a I d 4 ih 4 uU IET Mio Í ht | j T MT MERC d i] ii , i m M 1 in) |] Tl ny " dis l | il l Bk Us GATIONAL CHURCH, REGENT STREF iy BARNSLEY., = E CONGRI y * JOSEPH JAMES, ARCH THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL BARNSLEY INDEPENDENT CHAPEL (With an Engraving, Plate XXI.) Tux Committee of the Independent Chapel, Barnsley, having determined to erect a new place of worship, of larger dimensions than their present one, advertised for plans the beginning of last year. In answer to this advertisement some five-and-twenty designs were submitted, by architects residing in various parts of the country. Out of this number, four were chosen as 1 superior merit to the others, and ultimately a design was selec which, on opening the envelope, was found to be by Mr. Joseph James, of 15, Furnival’s-inn, London. The ground plan consists of nave, 82 ft. 10 in. by 37 feet, with a double transept on each side. This is a novel arrangement, and is a fair adaptation of Gothic architecture to such buildin —as it enables a larger number of people to be immediately round the pulpit, besides enabling the architect to obtain a smaller span to the nave. The double gable on each side assists, too, in the grouping of the building externally. The chapel accomodates 625 adults on the ground floor, with an end gallery containing 120 more,—height being given to the side walls to provide for the future erection of side galleries in the transepts. e pulpit is placed on a raised platform of three steps, with the organ immediately behind it on a higher platform of seven steps. In the rear of the chapel are large school-rooms for boys and girls, public vestry, minister’s vestry, and three class-rooms; all of these rooms being entirely distinct from the church. The style chosen for the exterior is the Early Decorated, and the whole is carefully detailed in strict accordance with the uirements of that beautiful style. e tower rises to the height of 75 feet, and the spire, which will be the only one in Barnsley, to the top of the vane, to a further height of 95 feet, or a total height of 170 feet. The whole of the walling is executed in stone from the imme- diate neighbourhood, and the ashlar work from the Barton Bank uarries; the tracery and finer details being done in stone from the Oaks quarry. l The contract is taken at 3998. for the whole of the work, exclu- sive of warming, lighting, and boundary wall. REVIEWS. Illustrations of the Spires and Towers of the Mediæval Churches of England, preceded by some observations on the Architecture of the Middle Ages, and its Spire-growth. By CHARLES WICKEs, Architect. In Two Volumes. Vol. II, Towers. London: Weale. 1855. ö Ir is somewhat more than eighteen months since the former volume of this work appeared, and in the number of this Journal for Jan 1854 (No. 238, p. 9, Vol. XVII.) will be found a lengthened notice and summary of its contents. In that article the liberality of the scheme of the publication, and its general fidelity as to the subjects illustrated, were acknowledged. We took a momentary exception to the style of the letter-press description, as too elementary for the professional man, and yet too technical for ordinary uninitiated readers. It was suggested that some of the more difficult terms might be explained by margi i s, as conveying at once, and truthfully, what the author might labour by many words to express, and withal unsuccessfully, This kind of teaching has great recommenda- tions, and it is doubtless to the fact of its numerous intelligent engravings that the ‘Oxford Glossary of Architecture’ has become so useful and so deservedly popular. The same system of illustration is largely employed on the continent, especially in the archeological dictionaries, &c, published in France. It was hinted, therefore, that such a feature would greatly enhance the value of such a work as the present, far beyond any extra expense that would be involved, since the author has aimed to make it suitable and attractive, not leas for the drawing-room table than the architect’s studio. We are sorry, however, to see that in the book just issued, the letter-press appears, a8 before, alone. But we are bound to say that the deficiency is, as far as words can do it, supplied by the clear, ample, and skilful essay of Mr. E. A. Freeman. Anything from the pen of this gentleman would be marked by scholar-like diction and deep research, but in the present instance he has, if No. 256— Vol. xviii. JULY, 1855. 237 we mistake not, excelled even himself. So complete and well- supported a history of the development of the Towers of ecclesiastical structures has probably never hitherto been com- piled. Mr. Freeman is one who does not write at random, nor on matters that he has not well considered; his authority there- fore comes with extra weight, while the number of buildings uoted in illustration, and the literary stores consulted (vida the notes) are really surprising. To bear out these remarks, it will be sufficient to enumerate the headings under which the subject is treated, on each of which more or less is said. The list is as follows:—Ilst. Romanesque towers (subdivided, as Anglo-Saxon, Norman, Transition, &c.); 2nd. Lancet; 3rd. Geometrical; 4th. Flowing, considered under the various phases of—with broach spires;—with transition from the broach;—with clustered spires;—with ordinary spires and parapets;—octagons;—equare towers. 5th. Perpendicular, having respectively—broach spires;—spires with parapets;—spires with- out flying buttresses;—spires with fying buttresses;—spires on octagons;—flying spires;—perpendi towers;—square towers; —ditto with turrets;—ditto with turrets on angles:—ditto with buttresses on angles. As an introduction to the general subject, an interesting chapter is given on the different itions of Towers, considered both historically and for convenience. The occurrence of two or more steeples to the same building, as at Wimborne Minster, has often puzzled antiquarians. that church the arrangement has been ingeniously shown by Mr. Petit (Church Architecture, ii, 116) to have reference to the twofold use of the building, as it appears that occasionally different portions of the same church were used for monastic and parochial purposes. * The typical English parish church,” Mr. Freeman considers, * has its tower at the west end; and, to give full importance, it should stand quite free except on the side on which 1t is neces- sarily connected with the church;" and he subscribes to the canon, that “in all good Towers we find a ual increase in lightness and ornament towards the top, the lower stages bein comparatively bare, while each additional one receives additiona enrichment." Not the least interesting portion of this chapter is that which treats of detached campanili This plan, the author says, was * employed in cases where a church was furnished with a central lanterń, and where it was thought good to adopt some form of front not admitting of a Tower, or where insecurity was dreaded in the central one." Instances are cited at Romsey, and Salis- bury (which have been destroyed), and a great many other places, there being really more than are commonly supposed to exist. As to the finish or coveriny of Towers, the earliest and latest 5 are without Spires, while in the intermediate period ey are almost universal. “It appears most probable that in the Romanesque period, and in the first days of Gothic, no strictly ecclesiastical Tower was ever furnished with a battle- ment or covered with a low roof. Some sort of visible capping was probably always employed. We may infer this from tha fact that such, under various modifications, is the universal finish of continental Towers of that period; and that though in England a vast proportion are now embattled, yet the battle- ment appears to be invariably a later addition.” How early a Tower was erected which was designed to be finished without a Spire, it is perhaps impossible to determine. Lincoln Minster once had Spires, bat these were but dwarfish ones of timber. Quite early examples of Spires are now very rare. We remember some specimens in Sussex covered with shingle, and there are a few rude ones in Gloucestershire. It is needless to comment at any length on this elaborate and instructive history, which is an epitome of facts and data rather than of questionable theories; and the progressive changes in successive epochs are so carefully noted as to leave little to be desired, save the few supplemental sketches to render the whole perfectly intelligible to all. The author does not dwell much on Saxon architecture, nor is it now-a-days important, except in an archeological point of view. The instances which are 80 often brought to light of work which can be ascribed to no other age, negative the supposition that this description of work has been all but destroyed. In speaking of this style, allusion is made to the curious steeple of Earls Barton, as * the noblest specimen, and exhibiting its peculiarities to the highest degree.” The quaint tower of Sompting is also noticed. With these venerable fabrics every oue is familiar. It is a strange fact, that although no. Tower in the Lancet 34 238 iod can ever be looked upon as ideally complete without a pire, yet Spires actually belonging to that date are less common than might have been expected. In a great many cases the Tower evidently had at most a low capping or spire of timber, which sometimes remains, sometimes has given way to a later battlement. In other cases the design has only been completed by the addition of a spire in a 1 age explaining the e teristics of this style, Mr. Freeman judiciously compares St. Mary's, Stamford, — Raunds, — Stoke Priors, — Witney, — Oxford Cathedral, and others, analysing each carefully. In the Geometrical style the same plan is pursued, and we are intro- duced to West Walton,— Gaddesby,— Oadby,—Cottesmore,— Wellingborough,—Wollaston,—Market Harborough,—Sleaford, —Backworth, and Lostwithiel, which latter is well designated anomalous. A view of it was given in the former Volume, Plate X XIII. Two or three of the others in this list also found a place there; but the plates throughout bear too little connection with the letter-press, and this is a pity. o . Passing over the descriptions of metrical and (Flowing) Broach Spires, we come to the Clustered form, which is charac- terised as “the noblest which a Spire can assume—namely, that in which the whole mass rises together, the Spire being only the central and loftiest oe among a forest of smaller ones.” The famous Tower of St. Mary’s, Oxford, is of course quoted in illustration,—one that, in our opinion, has been as much over- loaded with praise as it is with ornament. In describing the work of the “Perpendicular” era, Mr. Freeman cannot but betray his predilections in its favour. He challenges the fact that it is “the most distinctively national form that English architecture ever assumed;” “and it also brings to perfection that most purely English feature, the grand square Tower, perfect in itself, and in no wise requiring the addition of a Spire.” The Tower and Spire” he distinguishes, and truly, “as two distinct and equal varieties of beauty; the one is the embodiment of dignity, the other of elegance; to sacrifice our admiration of either to a cut-and-dried theory is something very remote from a liberal and enlightened appreciation of artistic merit.’ We should willingly extract more from this valuable treatise, but that it would be difficult to know where to break off; and the whole production is, as we have before said, so excellent, that it deserves, from all to whom it is accessible, a careful perusal. Thus far the writer. In the selection and execution of the lithographs in this second volume, the same care has been exercised as in the preceding. The index shows an accession to the promised number of plates, there being forty-nine subjects illustrated on twenty-six pages; and Mr. Wickes still regrets that he could not make yet more additions. These he proposes to add in a supplement, provided a sufficient number of subscribers be procured; and without knowing what the author specially has in view, it must be evident to all conversant with our national relics, that quite ample resources are available for another volume of equal value with these two. As far, then, as our voice can have an influence, we say to all interested they need not hesitate in sending their names as subscribers. The triple group of Lichfield, it will be remembered, was chosen to prefix the volume on Spires, and a fine view of Beverley heads that on Towers. To Ein admiration of this minster is needless, and every care has been taken by the artist in rendering faithfully its minor as well as leading features. The real small- ness of the Towers, which is rather a drawback to their beauty, is not detected in the plate, the outline mode giving a fulness of mass wanting in the origi The neighbouring minster of Vork furnishes a useful plate (XIV.) The north-west view is chosen very nearly north, so as to show one Tower almost in elevation. The architectural effect of this lithograph is not 80 good as some others. The same remark applies to (IX.) — the central Tower of Gloucester Cathedral, here lightly pencilled, whereas every one knows that the complexion of the original is quite dark, and that the ornament looms out in mysterious 1 The outline system of engraving, therefore, gives etail, and not effect. Canterbury, again (Plate VI.), is open to a like objection: the unbroken vertical lines of the angle turrets make them look positively bare and wiry. A little more indica- tion of masonry joints would have helped this. The view of the Lincoln Towers (Plate IL) is really grand, and beautifully drawn, save that the perspective of the long arcade is in fault. The bold massive Norman Tower of Ely (Plate XX V.) is the only THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. other cathedral subject selected. Mr. Freeman justly eulogises the combination of fering and styles in this Tower, and the mode of junction of the octagon with the angle-turreta by the flying buttresses. The list of ordinary Church-Towers begins with St. Neot’s late III.), a very beautiful design, almost perfect of its ind, and decidedly superior to any other in that part of the kingdom. Like the majority of examples given, the be windows are double on each face, and are here oddly composed; being square-headed under segmental arches, which again are comprised by a square label. The buttresses are nicely propor- tioned, panelled, and enriched with crocketted gableta, a different mode to that observable in the west of England particularly, as we shall have occasion to note in examining the Somerset and Worcester Towers. St. Cuthberts, Wells, which forms the next plate, is well known for its glorious belfry and parapet stage, and the ingenious subdivision of its buttresses. This latter feature (a great point of interest in all the steeples of this vicinity) is at Wells most elegantly treated. Probably there is no composition more nobly grand than the upper 5 of this tower; the lower stages are not high enough (chou shown too high in the drawing), so that the structure, as a whole, looks full heavy. Mr. Freeman, in the intruduction, canvasses the merits of this design in compari- son with that of Wrington (Plate XXV.) to which he gives a decided preference. The two elevations are very similar; but at Wrington the long belfry windows instead of being really such to the cill, as at Wells, are divided by transoms into three heights, the two lower of which are mere sunken panels. This alone appears to us a great deterioration of its claims; nor does Mr. ickes, it seems, coincide with Mr. Freeman in opinion, inasmuch as Wells has a page plate to itself, while Wrington is & small view, one of a group of five. Of Gloucestershire parapets, as they have been termed, St. Stephen’s, Bristol (Plate V.), and Dundry (Plate X X V.), are fair specimens. These parapets, it may be needleas to say, are light and pierced, highly ornamented, have correspondent pinnacles at the angles, and a slender buttress, connected on the flying prin- ciple, overhanging and attached to the external angle of each. The height and simplicity of this Tower gives it a degree of grandeur, which is not realised on looking into the details. The buttresses, it will be observed, are unusually unpretending. The odd-looking south porch is casually included in the view. To continue with Towers of the like type,——Chewton Mendip (Plate VIIL) is another stately pile, not flattered in the mE but the details are too bare and scanty. Taunton (Plate X1) is generally recognised as the great Western model; yet when it comes to be scrutinised, there is a vast amount of conventional repetition, and of rather debased taste. The several stages of the Tower are all but similar. Nevertheless it is a most magnificent conception, and derives varied charms from the colour and condi- tion of the treacherous materials of which it. is built, as well as from its t size. It is well discussed in the letter-press. Let the M. en Tower at Oxford (Plate XIL) be contrasted with the Taunton one, and & degree of merit common to both, aud based on a like feeling, may be noticed. In the Magdalen view (taken as usual from the Bridge), two of the domestic gables rise before the Tower, and show no roof behind, so that their copi appear like weather-strings inserted in the wall, instead of their being properly a long range of roof between. This is one of the drawbacks to outline engraving, that perspective distances cannot be indicated; so that by attention to detail, the general effect is in reality lost. With North Petherton (Plate X V.) we revert to the Somerset- shire Towers, of which this is a genuine example. Almost the only enrichment introduced is the quatrefoil, which here much abounds, but not to the same extent as at Probus (Plate XIII.), where itis to be seen in the general plinth, the stringcourses, belfry-windows, and parapet; perhaps rather overdoing it, but nevertheless adding vastly to the sparkling ornamentation of this beautiful Tower. St. John’s, Glastonbury (Plate X VL), is very simple, yet good, of the Gloucestershire type before referred to. So also Evercreech (Plate XX.); and Ilminster (Plate XXII.). At Evercreech, the way in which the buttresses are managed, and the method of starting the parapet and pinnacles, are worthy of notice. The belfry windows are double, and the lower portions panels, as at Wrington. Wrexham (Plate VII.) has been pointed to as the best northern Tower, and a fine effect it certainly has. It is, however, too much overloaded THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. with niches and ornament to be legitimately good, and is of very late date;—witness the dripstone arrangement over the west door. The artist has introduced in the foreground of the picture a gipsey group, with tent, kettle, &c.—one of those fanciful ideas which, though intended to give life and interest to the architec- tural subject, really detract from it. All Saints’, Derby (Plate X.) we recognise with pleasure. It is carefully drawn, and exhibits that beautiful but much cavilled- at Tower to advantage. The date is the true “ Perpendicular,” and to it is attached a classic church by Gibbs. The tower of the Collegiate Church, Manchester (Plate XVII.), is in many respecta so faulty that we should not have ex to see it engraved. The Doncaster Tower (Plate XVIII.) is much better and correctly shown: as our readers will remember, it is now non-existent, through the fire which destroyed the whole building some two years since. Though the ogee canopies to its angle buttresses were strangely overhanging, and a visible entasis marked the outline of the mass, it was probably the finest and one of the ck ap specimens in Yorkshire of a central Tower ierced by bold traceried and transomed windows. Hedon late XXII.), and Trinity Church, Hull (Plate X XIV.) are smaller sketches of the same class. Plate XIX. shows a direct west perspective of Boston Tower, or “stump,” as it is called, 80 deceptive as to its real size. Here, again, we must complain of the artistic introductions, which are anything but faithful. The church is represented as in a luxuriant open ground, with vigorous trees here and there, under which cattle are grazing ! The poor church cannot really boast anything so favoured, being either surrounded by houses, or close upon a muddy river's edge. . Another lantern Tower given in this book is Lowick (Plate XXL), and a third is on the same sheet—Sutton, Cambridge- shire. This latter presents a curious and not very graceful tran- sition from a square tower to a low octagon finish, which rises telescope fashion, and is terminated by a parapet and pinnacles. Of fine massive Towers of this character there are but few old examples. Irthlingborough is one, which we should have been glad to find included in this series. It is, however, mentioned, along with Fotheringhay, in the description. Lincolnshire (the county of Spires, except along the coast) supplies one illustration from Falkingham (Plate X X). This is ord in itself, but exhibits no new features. It only serves to show that the same general principles of design were current all over the kingdom, and that the localisms of different parts are confined to lesser features. A good specimen from the same county might have been found at reat Ponton. St. Austell (Cornwall) is also delineated on the same plate. This Tower, with Probus (Plate XIII.), divides the honours of the extreme West, and is noted for its groups of niches all over the surface, and the small elaborate decorations of its belfry story and parapet. Norfolk is represented by Worstead (Plate X XL), and St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich (Plate XXIII.) The former is shown as if a stone structure, whereas our impres- sion is, that like most in that part of the kingdom, it is built of flint. By the bye, one or two of these fine flint Towers, such as Lavenham, Reddenhall, Blythburg, Southwold, Beccles, or Dedham, would have been an interesting addition to this volume, and been of service in linking the historical chain. When speaking of Gloucester, we might have added that a small sketch is given (in Plate X XII.) of Great Malvern Abbe Tower, which is an evident copy on a smaller scale, and though less enriched, is in some respects an improvement on the great original. This tower, owing to incautious tampering with the building below, and some failing in the foundations, had for a long time exhibited serious evidences of insecurity, till vigorous means were taken to restore and preserve it. ese are just 2 scs and it is un will prove efficient. Whissendine, Rutlandshire, given in Plate XXIII, is of an earlier character than the majority of specimens, being in the Flowing-Decorated style throughout. The details are elegant and consistent, with the exception of the parapet, which is plain and heavy,—the . embrasures being also filled up with ogee panels. This fault of an overloaded parapet is observable, too, in Wisbeach (Plate XXIV) Evesham (also on Plate X XIV.) is a mass of panel- ling &nd minute work, overdone in repetition, scarcely allowing even of small belfry or other openings. Dryden’s birthplace, Titchmarsh (Plate X XIV ), has a magnifi- cent tower, which, from ita elevated site, ia an attraction for miles round. So also Dundry (Plate X XV.), which we quoted before. There is t sameness in this design, there being three es nearly equal in height, and each having a similar two-light win- 239 dow. Melton Mowbray (Plate X XV.) is a charming central Tower, in two stories of different dates of erection, yet cleverly assimilated in design. The earlier portion, which is liberally enriched with the ball-flower ornament, is especially satisfactory. Wolverhampton (Plate X XV .), like some others before described, owes its effect chiefly to the surface panelling. The concluding Plate consists of views of Ashford; the Abbey Church, Bath; Buckland Monachorum; Cricklade; Tideswell; Woodbridge; and Stoke-by-Nayland; of which all but the last two have high octagonal pinnacles above the parapet, and these form the most important feature. Stoke is a surprisingly bold design, shown here to so small a size as to entirely negative its true characteristics. Perhaps in the forthcoming supplement some of what we venture to thing deficiencies will be supplied, and we shall find one or two of the Round Towers of the Kosiért Counties,—the Norman and Transition (as East Meon, Castor, Wimborne, or Tewkesbury),—and a specimen of Gable Towers, such as Tinwell, near Stamford, or one or two in Buckingham- shire. Then may Mr. Wickes consider he has fairly and ably illustrated the “ Spires and Towers of the Mediæval Churches of England." ` ED Practical Meteorology. By Joun Drew, Ph. D., F. R. A. S. London: Van Voorst. 1855. pp. 291. Our readers will doubtless recollect a series of articles on meteorology by Dr. Drew, which appeared in our Journal a few years ago. ese articles attracted considerable attention at the time, as much on account of the lucid and scientific manner in which the subject was treated, as on account of the importance of the subject itself. With considerable additions, the articles alluded to form the basis of ‘Practical Meteorology.’ Dr. Drew has been engaged for a period of more than six years on a series of meteorological observations at Southampton, and his fitness for this self-im task is abundantly shown in the valuable paper, ‘On the climate of Southampton,’ read at the last meeting of the British Association, and in the book now before us. Meteorology is a science which demands universal attention, and thongh the crude theories and hazardous (though sometimes lucky) predictions of too sanguine professors has tended to induce misgivings as to ita claims, we may fairly anticipate great results from the accumulation of facts which the extensive system of registration now happily in operation, will bring to bear on the subject. Entertaining a just estimation of the value and import- ance of the science to the medical profession, the sailor, and the agriculturist, Dr. Drew avoids theoretical speculations for the present, and presents us with facte, and with what is better, the means of ascertaining facts for ourselves. “The book” (we quote the preface) “consists of three parts. Part L Introductory: “On the laws of heat as affecting atmospheric changes. Part II. Instru- ments of observation described: deductions from observations on the thermometric, hygrometric, barometric, and electric condi- tion of the air. art III. The present state of Practical Meteorology in this country: description of the photographic registration of phenomena at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.” The first part is devoted to the explanation of elementary prin- ciples and facts, and, without condescending to what is called & “popular” style Dr. Drew has succeeded, with the aid of his well-executed di clearly explained, in making the subject intelligible to those not familiar with meteorological science. The second part is particularly valuable. The different forms of thermometer, barometer, hygrometer, e¢ omne quod exit in ‘meter,’ are delineated and discussed with perspicuity, discern- ment, and impartiality, which enables the er to form an opinion as to the instrument best suited to his purpose. The hints as to the best method of placing the instruments are well worthy of attention, as the results of years of patient observation have as frequently been rendered utterly valueless in consequence of ill- chosen position as on account of faulty construction of instrumenta. This part of the work contains numerous origi observations and explanations. In pp. 73—79 the subject of mean temperature is treated, and a careful analysis and explana- tion of the ‘table of corrections’? which was calculated for the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, is given. With reference to these tables the author says: After some years experience, feel- ing a confidence in the use of the Greenwich corrections for diurnal range from these observations, I gave up the two later observations in the day after the year 1850, and confined myself to 9am.” Thus an important saving of time and trouble is 240 effected. We must refer our readers to the book itself, for an able exposition of the means by which this important result is arrived at. The remarks in p. 113, “on graphic delineation of results of wind observations,” we may mention as interesting. They point out how the resultant of all the forces of the winds, combined with their directions, may be graphically shown for any definite period of time. Numerous origi calculations and tables may be found throughout the book, which, indeed, is as a whole original in its plan, seeing that it brings into one point of view, scattered principles and facts only to be found hitherto in scientific records, in the traditional practice of instrument makers, or the experience of observers. The third p contains an account of the origin and formation ofthe British Meteorological Society, an account and explana- tion of the Registrar-General’s reports, of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, and of other observatories, and of the conference at Brussels in 1853. Our readers may remember that this con- ference was held in consequence of certain representations made tothe British government by that of the United States, to brin before the representatives from the maritime states a plan whic had been submitted by Lieut. Maury of the United States Navy, for extending the field of research into the laws which govern the circulation of the atmosphere, and control the currents of the ocean, by combining the marine of all nations into one uniform system of observations. The recommendations of this conference have been adopted by the British government, and a special department of the Board of Trade has been established under the superintendence of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N., to out the objects proposes We have heard it stated that Dr. Drew's work has u adopted by Capt. Fitzroy as a text-book, and we have hopes that all ships which are supplied with the “ abstract log,” or meteorological register, will henceforth be furnished with a copy of ‘ Practical Meteorology.’ We shall be glad to find this state- ment confirmed, as we believe the book to be well suited to such purpose. It is written in a clear, straightforward style, without any affectation of that “popular” manner which is generally attended with a sacrifice ola accuracy and completeness. We can conscientiously recommend the book to all those who have a thermometer or barometer, and who are desirous of knowing how to use them. Proposed Harbour of Refuge at Hartlepool Bay, and Great Float. With a Plan. Sunderland: Printed at the News Office. 1855. The West Hartlepool Tide Tables and Almanack for 1855, with a Chart of the West Hartlepool Harbour and Docks, and the Bay of Hartlepool, showing the plan of the proposed Harbour of Refuge. West Hartlepool: Errington & Co. 1855. From the Almanack, we glean that West Hartlepool is a flourishing port and town, situate in the bay of Hartlepool, on the east coast of England, 23 miles south of the river Tyne, and owing its origin to the enterprise of Ralph Ward Jackson, „of Greatham Hall, who only eight years ago projected a harbour at this pee which at that time was a barren shore and land, where only one solitary farm-house stood, and despite numerous doubtful intimations relative to the success of the scheme (which are always liberally dispensed on occasions of this kind in proportion to the extent of the undertaking), the works commenced, and were so fur advanced, that the first or West dock was opened on the Ist of June, 1847, the second, or Jackson dock on the Ist of June, 1852, and a large ship yard with every description of machinery necessary for building and repairing all kinds of iron and wood ships and steamers, and a graving dock measuring in length 320 feet, width of entrance 60 feet, breadth of bottom 37 feet, and breadth at top 72 feet; being the longest on the east coast. A third dock is now in course of formation, and rapidly drawing towards completion— which will have in connection a ship yard and graving dock of still larger dimensious than the one at present in use; also a large timber pond, import timber yard, saw mills, &c., to meet the want which becomes daily more apparent from the immense import of timber of all descriptions, which it is found at present necessary to pile upon the quays and other places, and float in the docks amongst the shipping. It appears that in February, last year, Mr. Meik, C.E., of Sunderland, made a report on the subject of a Harbour of Refuge at Hartlepool, with a plan appended showing piers or break- waters that might be constructed for 300,0001., i which an area of 160 acres of water space would be rendered available for the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. protection of shipping, with a depth of water varying from 18 to 25 feet at low water of spring tides, and an additional area of 540 acres of water space and beaching ground available for the smaller class of shipping. This scheme, after dus consideration, had the sanction and approval of Mr. Abernethy, C.E., of London, who was consulted by Mr. Meik on the subject. Since the production of Mr. Meik's design, Mr. Rendel, C.E., has proposed certain harbour works under the Hartlepool Pier and Port Bill, consisting of a north and south pier. The north pier to be composed of two cants, the first 637 yards in length, proceeding out of the pier now constructing at the Heugh, Mud. extending in a seaward or easterly direction. The second cant, 730 yards in length, extending in a southerly direc- tion, and terminating in a pier head. The south pier is also to consist of two cants, the first proceed- ing from the shore, near Carr House, and extending in an easterly direction, on the line of the Long Scar Rocks, 2120 yards in length; and the second cant proceeding in a northerly direc- tion 723 yards in length, and terminating in a pier head, leaving an entrance 386 yards in width between the pier heads. The piers, as above composed, are to enclose a low-water area of 840 acres, and an area of 470 acres, with a depth of from 12 to 26 feet at time of low water. The cost of North Pier is estimated at.................. £425,000 » South Pier „, "pm 375,000 Protection of the Headland or Heugh .................. 35,000 roc: £835,000 The pamphlet states that Mr. Meik, with a view to economy, proposed to avail himself of the works of the present new pier at the Heugh Head, and the natural half-tide breakwater to the south ward called the Long Scar Rock, upon which he proposed no works to be constructed; and that Mr. Meik had also, in the second place, another most important object in view, viz. that of interfering to the smallest possible extent with the force and direction of the existing tidal current along the coast, it being obvious that any works which would tend to deflect and weaken that current would have a most prejudicial effect upon the entrance of the proposed harbour, and more particularly on that of the navigable channel of the river Tees. The author is of opinion that Mr. Rendel has lost sight of these two objects, and that they are not compensated for by the increased water space or additional depth of water obtained, which would require to be maintained by dredging, a process requisite to a comparative trifling extent by the design of Mr. Meik; he also states that the projection of the piers by Mr. Rendel's plan so far seaward of the Heugh Head to the northward and of the Long Sear rocks to the southward will inevitably arrest and deflect the tidal current presently passing along the shore to an extent which must cause a considerable increase in the sand banks at the mouth of the Tees and a general deterioration of the navigable channel at the entrance of that river. The Admiralty have since reported to parliament (25th April, 1855), that if the structure proposed by Mr. Rendel, enclosing the entire bay by a solid work, would not be liable to sand up, it would doubtless prove very serviceable to the shipping tradin to and from the east and west docks, by affording a well shelte anchorage to vessels bound to the docks, and waiting for a tide to enter, and to vessels on leaving the docks and waiting for a wind to proceed on their voyage; but the risk of silting up appears too great to admit of venturing upon the experiment. The Admiralty having some doubts whether the entrance were such as to entitle it to the character of a general harbour of refuge, directed Mr. E. K. Calver, RN., an experienced Admiralty surveyor, well acquainted with the locality, to make enquiry and report. Mr. Calver is of opinion that the scheme proposed by Mr. Rendel on behalf of the company, is not entitled to the support of the Admiralty, because, being projected in dis- regard of the evils which have followed in similar cases, it is defective in principle, and only calculated for a time to answer the end proposed. Because, the failure of such a scheme would destroy & roadstead which is now of great advantage to the coasting trade, and seriously affect the prosperity of two rising ports. Because it supersedes a work now in pees pro- jected on sound principles; and which, if carried forward with cautious deliberation, is calculated to insure nearly all the bene- ticial results proposed by the present measure, without involving such serious risks. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL THE STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF ARCHES. By HOMERSHAM Cox, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. CHAPTER ].—ZJntroduction. Tuz object of the following papers is the development of the mechanical Theory of the Arch, in a form sufficiently simple to be immediately applicable to the actual practice of engineering, and at the same time sufficiently precise and systematic to be accepted by the student of the exact sciences. The want of a treatise on the arch vaulting and buttress, from which the dimensions and forms proper for those structures under different practical conditions may be readily ascertained, seems to have been long felt. The Ean of books which have been published on the subject is very great; but most of the earlier investigations deduce results totally inadmissible in actual construction, on account of the artificial hypotheses on which they are founded. Many recent works, however, have appeared which investigate a theory far more trustworthy than s 5 of the old writers. Still, the modern researches are not altogether free from the defects of unsafe assumptions, and have also another disadvantage which practically puts them out of the reach of the readers to whom they are especially addressed. The elaborate mathematical investigations with which the modern treatises usually abuund, are far too complicated and abstruse to be generally useful. Notwithstanding the valuable research which has been bestowed on the theory of the Arch, it is believed that there has not been yet published, a single treatise from which rules for the actual construction of arches can be simply and immediately deduced. In his inaugural address to the Institution of Civil Engineers in the year 1846, Sir John Rennie, the president, said: “A proper theory of the equilibrium of the arch, which shall satisfy all the conditions of the question when applied to practice, may be said to be still wanting; though much valuable information may be derived from the scientific works of Hutton, Attwood, Moseley, Gwilt, and others, on the subject.” The excessive complexity with which it is usually invested, forms an almost insuperable bar to the general study of it. Discussions constantly occur, and opinions are expressed, which can only be regarded as proofs tan accurate knowledge of the mehani principles of the arch is by no means widely diffused. For example, questions such as the following have received from the eminence of those who propound them an authority of which they are in themselves utterly undeserving:—whether the pointed arch exert less thrust than other arches—whether the pointed arch require a great weight on its apex, to prevent it from falling whether the horizontal thrust exist equally in every part of the structure—whether there be any kind of arch which has no horizontal thrust, &c. Of all these questions it is sufficient for the present to observe, that they could never be even propounded, much less seriously debated, if the first elements of the Theory of the Arch were understood by their propounders. The first object of the following chapters is simplicity. Clear, general notions, such as an intelligent practical reader may readily comprehend and usefully apply, have been in all instances referred to complicated mathematical investigations. The latter have been uniformly discarded, even when this self-imposed rule has compelled the author to sacrifice the results of great toil, and when by retaining them he might have given greater evidences of the laborious nature of his task than are likely to be discerned from an examination of these papers now presented to the reader. Long formule never can be, and never ought to be, put into practice: —they never ought to be, because the arbitrary assumptions on which they are based always involve some amount of error, which becomes enormously increased by the complexity of analysis; —they never can be, because the arithmetical difficulties of interpreting them, and the mechanical difficulties of applying them with the requisite accuracy, of are practically insuperable. The attainment of simplicity has been here sought for, not by a vain attempt to improve on the beautiful mathematical inves- tigations which have appeared during the last few years in France and England, but by regarding the subject from an altogether fresh point of view. As the precise nature of the difference between the methods of this and former works, will be fully ex- plained hereafter, all that is n here is to state, generally, that previous researches have been devoted exclusively to condi- tions of rupture of the arch. The modern form of the theory is No. 266— Vol. xviii.—Jury, 1855. 241 this; from the conditions upon which rupture takes place, the conditions required that it may not take place are left to be inferred indirectly. But fortunately, the more direct problem the examination of the most advan us conditions of the arch —is far simpler than the indirect method just stated. In order to present a complete view of the subject, it has been deemed necessary to give a brief outline of the history of the theory of the arch. This is done, not merely on account of the historical interest of the subject, though that is considerable, but also because it seemed an essential part of the task here roposed, to point out in what particulars the old theories are to be relied upon, and in what they are unsuitable for the purposes of modern engineeri A elear understanding of the method about to be pro 5 also to necessarily require a comparison of those which have the sanction of age, though not always of experience. The following brief notices of treatises on arch have been in every case compiled from actual examina- tion of the works themselves. CHAPTER IL Writere on the Theory of the Arch. The Theory of the Arch at its commencement, certainly con- sisted of nothing better than a few fanciful speculations, and its second stage was developed by analytical formulz which were, as Gauthey observes, unfortunately founded on hypotheses which every day experience contradicts. In the third stage the theory me more accurate, bat unfortunately at the same time more complicated, than in its previous stages. The account here given is not professed to be a complete one. t pre- It omits all reference to mere compilations which re E to the ceding discoveries, and is, as far as possible, confin notice of original researches. Leo Baptista ALBERTUS may perhaps be considered the founder of the science which forms the subject of these pages. He did little, however, beyond establishing a few general prin- ciples, and attempted nothing like a definite system of investiga- tion. His work, De re (Edificatorid, published in Latin and Italian at Florence in the year 1485, gives some useful practical suggestions respecting the art of building, accompanied by curious reflections which, in modern times, would appear alto- gether out of place in a scientific treatise. Of course, formulæ and tables are not to be found in a work of this date. At the time Albertus wrote, the idea of ex PORE rules of construction b means of general formule had probably never been conceived. It was xt a much later period that Galileo, Lord Bacon, and others, demolished the speculative or dogmatic system of philo- sophy, and showed the necessity of establishing the physical sciences upon definite inductive principles. Albertus gives an explanation of the origin of the Arch, which is plausible, and shows that he had a tolerably accurate idea of its characteristic properties. He says that the invention was suggested by the observed fact, that beams connected at their upper ends, and diverging, like the inverted letter A, were capable of supporting t weights at their vertex: and he supposes, that, in order to increase the s without an increase of elevation, this A was truncated by the addition of an intermediate timber / \ ; and that by the subsequent addition of other timbers, the structure at last assumed the form of a regular curve. This account is remarkable, as it exhibits an early perception of the analogy between the equilibrium of the arch and that of the equilibrated polygon. La Hire published, in 1695, in his treatise on Mechanica, an investigation of the properties of arches, in which he assumes that the voussoirs or component stones are perfectly smooth, wedge-like blocks, pressing against each other without friction. This theory—for want of a better, as it may be supposed—long revailed in France. The neglect of the effects of friction is, owever, absolutely fatal to its accuracy. Its adoption was sub- uently found to be attended with very rous uences; iid though tables and formulse have been calculated from it with great labour, there can be no hesitation in pronouncing them totally untrustworthy. M. Coulomb and others have shown, as will be seen hereafter, that the hypothesis of Le Hire leads to impossible conclusions. Davip Gregory published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, in 1697, Vol. XIX., p. 689, a paper in Latin, entitled Catenaria, which is valuable for its suggestion of the 35 242 identity of the catenary curve,* and the curve of an arch com- posed of voussoirs of indefinitely small depth. After proving several important properties of catenaries, he makes some remarks, of which the following is a translation: “A catenary inverted in the vertical plane retains its figure without falling, and so becomes a slender arch; that is, if a number of indefinitely small polished balls be disposed in an inverted catenary, they constitute an arch of which no part is pressed inwards or out- wards by the other parts, but which, if its lowest points be immovable, is sustained by virtue of its figure...... atenaries alone are true arch-curves or fornices; and arches of any other forms are sustained simply because they contain within their thickness a catenary: an arch of any other figure could not stand, if its depth were indefinitely small and its parts free to move.” This conclusion is strictly correct, if the term **catenary" be taken in its most general sense. The originality of 5 's discoveries was called in question, and it was objected that he published as his own, theorems which had been announced by previous writers. The problem of the chainette or catenary had, in fact, been proposed by James Ber- nouilli in 1690, and four solutions by himself, his brother John, Huyghens, and Leibnitz, were published simultaneoualy, without ysis, in the Leipsic Acta Eruditorum in 1691. ipi Sa paper appeared six years afterwards, but in a reply to the animadversions upon it, which he published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,’ 1699, under the title, ‘Responsio ad Animadver- sionem ad Davidii Gregorii Catenariam, Act. Eruditorun, Lips. he remarks that former writers had given results without demon- strations, and that the first published proofs of the principal theorems run to the catenary were contained in his paper. He adds that he himself was the first to point out the analogy between the catenary and arch-curve. La Hire resumed his investigations in papers published in the Memoires of the Academie des Sciences in 1702 and 1712. He calculates the thrust of semicircular arches on the hypothesis that, if they fail, the joints open at points midway between the erown and springings. This assumption of 45° as the “ angle of rupture” is purely arbitrary, and in most cases incorrect. If it ever be true, ita correctness must be the result of corresponding con- ditions, for there can be no ground for assuming generally that a joint situated at the bisection of the quadrant 1s the weakest joint of the arch—it might be the very strongest. Parent followed much the same course as the writer last men- tioned. He, too, considered the joints to be formed by perfectly- Ree plane surfaces, in a read before the Academie, y 7, 1704, and republished in his Essais et Recherches de Mathematique et Physique; Paris, 1713; 3 tome, 12mo. The con- sideration of the friction of the joints is so absolutely essential to all investigations of the theory of the arch, that the neglect of it by Parent must be pronounced fatal to the accuracy of his resulta. CouPLET gave two memoirs to the Academie des Sciences in the years 1729 and 1730, entitled / Examen de la Pousée des Voũtes. In his first paper he neglects the effects of friction, but in the second he resumes the subject on the hypothesis that the voussoirs are too rough to slide, and can only be displaced by rotation about their edges. This appears to be the first distinct recognition of the important influence of friction on the equili- brium of arches. The greatest and least necessary thickness of the voussoirs of arches is determined by a long and elaborate process on the assumption that the arch tends to open at joints midway between the crown and springings. This assumption is, as has been said, purely arbitrary and generally erroneous. Couplet determines also the horizontal thrust on the supposition, that at the crown it acts midway within tbe thickness of the voussoirs, between the intrados and extrados. ‘BoucugEr, in 1734, presented to the Academie des Sciences a paper, sur les courbes qui sont propres aux formes des voiites en dóme. It ought to be mentioned that, in French, voútes en dóme signify cupolas or vaults having curved bases, and that votes 5 3 are barrel arches, those of which the bases are recti- neal, Dr. Hurrow, Professor in the Military Academy at Woolwich, published in 1772 his Principles of Bridges, in which is deduced * The catenary is the curve of equilibrium assumed by a flexible thread when acted upon by any external forces. The common catenary is the curve which a uniform thread ume when the only external forces affecting it are its own weight and the teuaions at its extremities. l THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL the equilibrium of the arch from that of the “ equilibrated polygon.” Ifa system of rigid successively connected by Joints without friction, be firmly supported at its two extremi- ties only, it may be bent into such a form as just to sustain itself in the vertical plane by its own weight and mutual pressures. In the position of unstable equilibrium, it consti- tutes an equilibrated polygon, and whatever be the weights and length of the component rods forming this polygon, a corre- sponding position may be ascertained, such, that the several parts of the system shall balance each other. If the lengths of the rods be diminished, and their number increased, the polygon becomes ultimately a continuous curve, or indefinitely thin arch. On this idea Dr. Hutton based his theory, which supposes the arch to just sustain itself in a position of unstable equilibrium, and excludes the consideration of the additional stability obtained by assigning a definite thickness to the voussoirs. These investi- gations of the “ Principles of Bridges” certainly contributed much to the progress of the science of the arch, for they exhibited the necessity of duly distributing the loads on different parts of an arch, so as to balance each other. This apportionment of the relative weights, according to their several positions, was, before Dr. Hutton’s time, and long after, seldom regarded as a matter of vital importance; even at the present day, the loading of an arch is sometimes effected as inconsiderately as if it had not paramount influence on the stability of the structure. For the arch of indefinitely thin voussoirs, the theory of Dr. Hutton gives the same results as the theory of the inverted catenary, yet, strangely enough, he himself contro- verted this identity, though his reasoning on the subject is in- conclusive, and is probably confined to one particular species of the family of catenaries—that of the uniform chain acted upon by gravity only. If, however, the catenary be defined to be a material curve acted upon by any external forces of which the resultant at every point is tangential to the curve, it becomes a matter of mere definition that Dre Hutton’s curves of equilibra- tion are inverted catenaries. It must not be forgutten however that it is merely a mathema- tical abstraction to regard the voussoirs as indefinitely thin. Their depth does in reality add most materially to the security of the arch; and it is therefore to be expected that the neglect of this consideration in the theory just explained, would lead to several resulta which are practically incorrect. For instance—Dr. Hutton condemus the use of semicircular arches because he supposes that the load would be required to be infinitely great at their spring- ings. Even the third of a circle he considers too large a segment, and in his own words “an arch of 110° is the only part of a circle that can be used with much propriety,” an opinion which is contradicted by practical experience. Again, he asserts that * parabola, hyperbola, and catenary are all very improper for the arches of a bridge consisting of several arches, because all the building or filling up of the flanks of the arches will tend to destroy them.” de will be shown hereafter that differences of form have not the effects supposed in this quotation: and the opinions respecting the parabola, &c., are constantly falsified in actual practice. Dr. Hutton's results do not give that wide margin for deviations from theory, which the nature of the subject requires. M. CouLowB in 1773 published in the Memoires des Savane Etrangers, & paper which contributed geny to the improve- ment of the theory of the arch. The subject of this paper was the application of the principles of maxima and minima to statical problems relating to architecture. After remarking that Dr. Gregory was the first investigator who proved that in a system acted on by gravity, the catenary is the same curve as that of an arch composed of indefinitely small elements of constant density, Coulomb proceeds to extend the proposition, by proving that whatever the number and direction of the forces which act on an arch formed according to the preceding supposition, the forms of the arch will be the same as that of a catenary subject to the same forces. He next adduces proofs of the futility of any theory of the arch in which friction is neglected, by showing that on that hypothesis the horizontal joints of an arch should be of infinite length. This theory, he adds, which is attributed to M. de la Hire, reproduced by M. Belidor, and adopted in practice by almost all architects, divides the arch into tkree portions, and calculates the upper portion by the first condition of equili- brium. Thence the dimensions of the piers are determined b the second condition of equilibrium. little attention will, however, show, that if the upper portion be divided at the key, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. and the arch be ruptured in four pressure of the upper portion will uently, in flat arches, be much larger than that determined by the methods of M. de la Hire, and the dimensions of the piers thence deduced will then be insufficient. M. Coulomb alala the necessary maxi- mum and minimum values of the horizontal force at the crown of the arch, that no portion of it may slide or turn on its joints. He does not determine the point of application of that force at the crown. The Abbé Bossut published in the Memoires of the French Academie, in 1774, some researches on the equilibrium of arches, dividing his subject into two parts—Vodtes en berceau (barrel or cylindrical arches) and Vosites en dóme (domes or spherical arches). e neglects the effect of friction, but treats the theory of cylin- drical arches in a somewhat different manner to previous inves- tigators who adopted the same hypothesis. He supposes the arches divided into a number of segments or voussoirs, and con- siders the equilibrium of each consecutively, thence deducing the conditions that the forces at the joints may be equal and opposite. MASCHERONI published, in 1785, a treatise, entitled Nuove Ricerche sul? equilibrio delle Volte, in which he investigates the equilibrated curves of catenaries and arches, and states that he was the first discoverer of the property of these curves, that the tangents at any two points meet in the vertical line drawn through the centre of gravity of the arc between those points. The third chapter of this work is devoted to the consideration of the thickness of arches, on the same principles from which the thickness of suspension-chains is deduced. RoNDELET, in 1797, gave a historical memoir of the dome of the Pantheon at Paris, in reply to M. Patte, who had applied Belidor's formula for the thickness of the piers of cylindrical arches to domes. Rondelet contends that spherical domes have no thrust. This, however, cannot be the case, unless the vous- soirs in each horizontal course be joggled or rigidly connected. Other works of Rondelet are referred to hereafter. M. GavrHEY, Inspecteur des Ponts et Chaussées, also pub- lished a treatise (in 1798) on the subsidence of the piers of the dome of the French Pantheon (Paris An. VI) This work describes the construction of the Pantheon, and the manner in which the abutments had subsided and become displaced, and contains investigations of the thrust of spherical domes, with tables rectifying those in Blondel's Cours d'Architecture, which had been calculated on the hypothesis of M. de la Hire. M. Gauthey assumes that which is not generally true, that in semi- circular arches, rupture at an angle of 45° will produce the greatest effect in overturning the piers; and calculates the thrust arbitrarily, assuming the angle 45? to be the angle of rupture. LAMÉ and CLAPEYRON.—À memoir, Sur la Stabilité des Voütes, par M. G. Lamé et E. CLAPEYRON anciens eleves de l'Ecole Poly- technique, appeared in 1823, as an extract from the Annales des Mines, and subjoined is there port to the Academy of Sciences, by MM. Dupin and Prony, on the merits of this memoir.* The theory of MM. Lamé and Clapeyron assumes that the arch, when it fails, may be considered as consisting of two pairs of levers; and it is stated, as the result of uniform experience, that the lower pair tend to turn about the exterior edges of their bases, and the upper pair touch each other at their superior edges. The authors consequently assume that the pressure passes through the extrados at the keystone. This is the case of the crown sinking—another very important case of failure from the crown rising is consequently omitted in the investigation. Also the joints of rupture are supposed to be similarly situated on either side of the crown—a hypothesis which neglecta the case of the arch being overturned sideways; a case of great importance, from the liability of its occurrence in the failure of one or more of a series of arches. In a viaduct where the stability of each arch depends on the stability of those contiguous to it, the failure of one sq ege all the rest to fall in the direction in which they have been deprived of the sup- port of the arch first fallen. On the assumption above stated, the authors show that the point of rupture is that for which the tangent to the intrados at that point meets the horizontal line through the summit of the key at a point in the vertical line through the centre of gravity of rts instead of three, the * For the opportunity of examining this work, which is scarce and almost entirely wn in England, the present writer was, after a long and fruitless search in several Public libraries, indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Hann, late of King’s College, London. 243 the weight upon the part of the arch between the crown and point of rupture. Calculations are then given of the position of the joints of rupture in cylindrical arches and spherical domes, on the somewhat arbitrary supposition that the mass is wholly con- tained within the voussoirs. In a supplement the theory is extended to cylindrical arches with horizontal extrados. e authors always differentiate their expression for the measure of stability for à minimum. In order that one of the levers may not turn about its outer edge, for example, the moment of forces tending to turn it iride à must be less than those tending to turn it inwards. The excess of the latter momenta measures the stability; where there is no excess there can be no stability, and consequently it is necessary that the minimum value of the excess be a positive quantity. WARE.—' Tracts on Vaults and Bridges’ were published by Samuel Ware, in 1822. In the introduction it is observed that the analogy between a catenary and arch curve was first observed by Hooke, and noted in a cipher, which deciphered means, ut 5 continuum flexile, sic stabit contiguum rigidum inversum.” e first tract is principally a history of arches, domes, and ined roofs. The second tract was occasioned by the rebuilding ndon-bridge, and contains an application of the formule derived “from the principles of pendent bridges to determine the 1 of the parts of insistent bridges.” The following is the author’s fandamental proposition, “that the force of compression at the vertex of an insistent arch, equally stable in all its and in the same or horizontal direction everywhere, is equal to the weight of a parani column of the same material as the arch is composed of, having its section equal in area to a section of the keystone in the direction of the radius of curvature at the vertex, and its height equal to that radius of curvature.” He applies this rule to several important structures. For instance, from Perronet’s measurements of the bridge of Neuilly, it appears that a cubic foot of the material of which the bridge is constructed weighs 152 French pounds. The radius of curva- ture at the vertex (originally 150 feet), after it had taken its bearing was 244 feet. ence it follows by the rule above given that the horizontal pressure or thrust on the keystone of the arch is 244 x 152 (= 37088) French pounds for each square foot of its vertical section. This rule would from its simplicity be extremely convenient for use in practice, if its accuracy could be relied upon. But this unfortunately is not the case, for it seems to be assumed in the case of the Bridge of Neuilly that the curve of the extrados or intrados is identical in form with the curve of pressure within the arch. In general, however, the curves are different in form, especially in the neighbourhood of their vertices. In the plate bande, or flat arch, for example, the radius of curvature of the extrados or intrados is infinite, and thence, if the above rule could be applied, the pressure would come out infinite also. Again, in any arch whatever, a small addition might be made to the material of the arch, so that in the neighbourhood of the vertex the curves of the extrados and intrados should be straight lines. If the radii of those curves were adopted in the calcula- tion, the pressure would be shown to be infinite, a result evidently incorrect. Mr. Ware appears to have excluded this difficulty by supposing, in the enunciation of his rule, that the arch is “equally stable in all its parts.” But the difficulty of applying the rule accurately ap insuperable, because the form of the arch is not sufficient of itself to indicate the form of the curve of pressure. M. NAvikR in 1830 made a valuable contribution to practical science by his edition of Belidor's Science des Ingenieurs. The editor remarks that Belidor had followed Parent, De la Hire, and Pitot, that experiment had proved the incorrectness of their views, and that, consequently, a new theory had been adopted, of which the first idea is due to M. Gauthey. He observes that experience shows that the voussoirs do not act as wedges, which maintain their equilibrium by the opposition of their mutual pressures, but that an arch divides itself into several portions in each of which the voussoirs remain in juxta-poeition as if rigidly connected, and which act upon one another as in flexible heavy levers united by joints. Navier gives a general investigation by simple analysis of the position of the points of rupture; lst, when the abutments are overturned; 2nd, when the lower voussoirs of the arch slide in the abutments. To his edition of the works of Gauthey (Mons, 1843), Navier appends a long note on the equilibrium of arches, in which he 35° 244 remarks (p. 263) that to estimate the conditions that a portion of an arch may not turn about its upper or lower joint, the point of application of the pressure at the highest joint must be known; and as thie is indeterminate, it must be assumed. He gives two formuls for the value of the thrust, supposing a part of the arch about to turn about the lower and upper edges of a joint respec- tively, and adds that if the former formula be applied for all joints between the springing and the crown, the greatest of the values of the thrust so obtained ought to be taken as the measure of the horizontal pressure which the two halves of the arch exert against each other, and the corresponding joint will be a joint of rupture. It must be remarked that this method would in general be inconvenient in practice. Moreover, it is quite clear that it will not give the value of the thrust with absolute exactness; for that force has not various values for different parts of the arch, but one only which is uniform throughout when the extrados is sub- jected to no external forces but the weight of the load acting vertically. Prof. MoszLET.— The Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture, by Prof. Moseley, of King’s College, London, were published in 1843. This work, deservedly celebrated, con- tains a complete treatise on the theory of the arch, preceded by an investigation of the “ general conditions of the stability of a structure of uncemented stones," extracted from a memoir by the same author, from the ‘Treatise on Bridges,’ by Messrs. Hosking and Hann. As Professor Moseley’s investigations are of a very elaborate nature, and contain difficult mathematical analvsis, a notice of the course of his reasoning may be of some assistance to the general reader, who is desirous of studying the original work. In every structure composed of series of uncemented stones in contact, Prof. Moseley supposes the existence of two lines called the Line of Resistance and the Line of Pressure. The former line is determined in the following manner:—Each two adjacent stones will exert mutual pressures distributed over their surfaces in contact, and these pressures have a single resultant, that is, might be conceived to be collected at a single point in the sur- faces, where they would have the same statical effect as they actually have when distributed over the surfaces. Let these points in question be determined for every two surfaces; then the imaginary line passing through them is the line of resistance. In other words, the Line of Resistance is the Locus of, or line passing through, the points of application of the resul- tants of the mutual pressures of the stones. The Line of Pressure is determined in the following manner. From each of the points of application above-mentioned, draw a line representing the direction of the resultant. The curve touching all these lines is the line of pressure. In other words, the line cf pressure is the curve to which the direction of every reaultant of the mutual pressures is a tangent. The line of resistance determines the liability ot the stones to turn on their edges; the line of pressure their liability to over- come the friction along their surtaces, by sliding past each other. It is then shown that the least horizontal force at the keystone which will suffice to sustain one semi-arch, is that exerted by the opposite equal semi-arch. For the pressure so exerted is the measure of the tendency of the latter semi-arch to fall forwards, and is therefore evidently the least force which would sustain it. The same force is therefore also the least which would sustain the former semi-arch, if both semi-arches be exactly similar. Too t a horizontal pressure applied at the crown would cause some joint of the semi-arch to open on its under side, the portion of the arch between that joint and the crown turning about the superior edges of the joint. On the other hand, too small a horizuntal pressure at the crown would allow a part of the arch between the crown and a joint of rupture to turn about the inferior edges of that joint. Prof. Moseley shows from this consideration, that when the greatest and least horizontal pressure consistent with equilibrium is applied, the “line of resistance” touches some point of the extrados or intrados respectively: and that point is the upper or lower edge of a joint of rupture. The position of the point of rupture depends not only on the value of the horizontal thrust, but on the point in the crown where that force is applied. "With respect to an uncemented arch, Prof. Moseley considers all uncertainty on this head removed by the consideration that, *on the striking of the centres, the arch invariably sinks at the crown, its voussoirs there slightly opening at their lower edges, and pressing on one another exclu- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. sivel their upper edges.” The author does not probably. 5 to auis that the application of the pressure at the summit will be confined to single mathematical lines. Whatever be the material of the voussoirs, it will be in some degree at least, compressible; and the pressure will therefore be distributed over a finite area of the surface of the joint. The smaller the breadth of that the greater the pressure per square inch; and before the breadth could be reduced to a mere line, the pressure r square inch would become so great as to crush the material. iis obvious, also, that the voussoirs might have such forms given to their surfaces of contact, that their upper edges might not press upon, nor even closely approach each other, upon the settling of the arch. In fact, that portions of the voussoirs shall ultimately press on each other may be varied arbitrarily, provided that the surfaces of contact be so formed that the areas of contact be sufficiently large to resist the tendency to crush the material. The course of the investigation then leads to the determination of the point of rupture in the intrados of a semicircular arch; the int of application of the pressure at the summit being assumed. fa this investigation the voussoirs are ep Un to be of equal depth, homogeneous, and to bear no load but their own weight. Tthen follow similar investigations for the case where the semi- arch is loaded by a mass of which the upper surface is an inclined plane—the arch and superincumbent mass being home- geneous—and for some other cases. A In all these instances, the point of application of the pressure at the crown is assumed; as that point is, however, variable, the stability of the structure is not completely ascertained until it be shown that the arch will have no angle of rupture, however the position of that point be varied. e variation of that point affects the value of the horizontal pressure at the crown, and as has been said, if that pressure be reduced too much, there will be a joint of rupture in the intrados; consequently, it 1s necessary to show that the minimum value of this pressure dependent on the variation does not correspond to a joint of rupture in the structure: and Prof. Moseley therefore proceeds to establish the necessary mathematical conditions. The case just referred to is that of the sinking of the crown of the arch. Of course, in the corresponding case of the rising of the crown, the maximum value of the horizontal pressure applied there has to be determined. In the conclusion of his investigations, Prof. Moseley refers to the tables of thrust of segmental arches, calculated by M. Garidel, for the case where the “loading is of the same material as the voussolrs, and the extrados of each semi-arch a straight line inclined at any given angle to the horizon." These tables appear to have been calculated with great ingenuity and industry. It may be fairly doubted, however, whether they are applicable to any large number of important practical cases. It would be difficult to point out a single existing structure in which the supposed conditions of homogeneity of the materials and uniformity of their distribution are even approxi- mately observed. — 2D — — BATH- ROAD BRIDGE, BRISTOL. By those who have visited Bristol, the old Bath-road bridge will, no doubt, be well remembered, carrying as it did the turn- pike-road communicating between Bath and Bristol, over the river Avon at Bristol, and being situated within a hundred yards of the Great Western Railway station. This bridge was of cast-iron, consisting of a number of light arched-girders, or segments, thrown over the river, and abutting against masonry. Upon these segments a series of vertical supports, varying in length to suit their curve, were made to rest, and on the top of these supports the roadway was formed. The bridge altogether was much lighter than such structures are now made, and there was in it a great absence of diagonal stays of any kind. To those acquainted with the locality, this description is hardly necessary, as there is stlll another bridge a little lower down the stream, a duplicate of the Bath-road bridge. These two were both built in the early part of this century, by the same parties, the one we have described having taken four years in its construction. — On the 20th of March of this year, a coal-barge, ha auxiliary steam-power, coming down the river on a strong eb tide, accompanied with fresh water, struck against the haunches of the Bath-road bridge, and it fell;—so quick and complete was its destruction, that iie Dare: by the time she recovered the ahock, THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL sailed over the ruins of the bridge. Some lives were lost, bat on the whole it was considered fortunate that the sufferers were so few, seeing the great traffic there was over the bridge. To remedy, in the t inconvenience arising from the unlooked for loss of this bridge, a ferry boat was established, and down the steep banks on each side of the river, flights of wooden steps were placed. to enable passengers to get to it, and these were obliged to pay a small toll for crossing. The Dock Committee of Bristol, saline duiy it is to look after these matters, taking advantage of the experience that has been gained during the last few years in the construction of bridges, and in the adoption of wrought-iron for this purpose in preference to any other material, wisely concluded, with the advice of their ineer, Mr. T. E. Blackwell, to have a wrought-iron bridge. lans were pre by Mr. Blackwell, upon which tenders were invited; and that of Mr. Edward Finch, of the Bri Works, Chepstow, the builder of Mr. Brunel’s remarkable wrought-iron bridge over the river Wye at Chepstow, was accepted. Speed being one of the main stipulations in the con- tract, Mr. Finch bound himself in penalties to have a portion of the bridge delivered, and erected in place, in six weeks from date of order. This new bridge will oceupy the place where the old one ver but will be wider than the old bri The face of the ol masonry has been rebuilt, and an addition made to each pier, to accommodate the increased width. The distance asunder of the piers is 100 feet. The superstructure of the new bridge, when complete, will consist of nine wrought-iron girders, irder being ö ft. 6 in. ids in the middle, and 4feet at each end, and having a strong wide flange at top and bottom of double j-inch plates, attached to web-plates of the same thickness by strong 5 and having besides, at intervals, stiffening-plates on each side of these webs. These girders will rest upon the top of the masonry. They will be p about 5 ft. 6 in. apart, and have a number of diagonal stays of angle-iron extending from the top flange of one girder to the bottom flange of the next, and then across again, so binding firmly together the whole system of irders. The bottom flange of the girders appena straight, ving a camber in it only of about 3$ inches. Upon the top of these nine girders strong planking will be bolted, and the road will be formed upon this. The girders are about 107 feet long, and consequently have a bearing of 3 ft. 6 in. at each end on the masonry, and they weigh about 25 tons each. On the lst of June, the first girder, finished complete, left Mr. Finch’s works, and was deposited the next day in its place on the masonry. The second girder left Chepstow on the 2nd of June, and was deposited in its place on the 3rd, and by the evening of the 5th of June a good substantial footpath was com- pleted and in use over these two girdera. This expedition, and the adaptation of these two girders to a foot bridge, enabled the Dock Committee to avoid the erection of a temporary bridge to accommodate the traffic until the completion of the new bridge, and thereby to save a considerable expense to the town. As Mr. Finch’s plan for transporting the girders from his works, and erecting them in place, has novelty in it, is simple, expeditious, and cheap, and was very successful, we will give a brief description of it, to which we will add four illustrations. We may that Mr. Finch’s works are on the banks of the river Wye, on the Moumouthshire side of the river Severn, and that the Bristol river, the Avon, runs into the Severn on the opposite side; that the site of the Bath-road Bridge is about eight or nine miles up the river Avon, and about eighteen miles from Chepstow, and that in all these three rivers the tides run rapidly. . e ride 107 feet long, were put together and riveted entire in the maker's yard; when ready for shipment, they were taken each separately out of the yard, and placed alongside the wharf; at high water a barge was floated to the wharf, and as the tide ed, the barge was left aground on the mud-bank—balks of timber were then laid, one end resting upon the barge, and the other on the wharf, immediately under the bottom flange of the girder—upon these balks rails were laid, these were j and the girder was slid gently down until it rested on the deck of the barge, and being longer than the by about 36 feet, there was 18 feet at each end of the girder overhanging; the balks were then removed, and the girder lashed to its place, edgeways on the barge, the underside of the overhanging ends of the girder being about 4 feet from the surface of the water. When the tide again arose, the barge with the girder upon it 245 floated, and was towed away from the river Wye, at Chepstow, to the mouth of the river Avon by a steamer; and here we will leave the girder lying at anchor, waiting till the next tide to take it up to Bristol; and we will now proceed to Bristol to the site of the bridge, and see what the preparations are. The masonry has been prepared, and stands about 17 feet above high water mark; a substantial square block on each side of the river; upon these two blocks of masonry the girders have finally to be placed; and now as to the mode of getting them there. About 40 feet below the bridge, Mr. Finch erected two substantial stages, formed of balks of timber, firmly attached to the ground, and stayed in every direction; these stages or platforms stood at high-water about 3 ft. 6 in. out of the water. The steamer then brought up the barge with the girder upon it, with the flood-tide, to the bridge, 80 as to arrive there about half-an-hour before the tide turned, when the current was not very strong. On arriving at the stages above described, the barge was placed across the stream, so as to allow the two overhanging ends of the girders to come over the stages; they were retained in this position, and a valve in the barge was opened, and the vessel partially filled with water, until she sank sufficiently to leave the overhanging ends of the girders resting upon the and until she was so- immersed as to be moved down the stream by the receding tide. The girder is now across the stream, resting upon these two stages; and the tide recedes, until there is nothin left but the fresh water from the hills flowing down the bed of the river, the girder then being left high above on the stages. oov MINNS c "EP Ear EST ^N SS NNNM N NNN Now TA We NN N NN N. N INN N NN NN ANIMALS NN NY en ^ RAR Ne Wee eee S WERE C E v SAN NY NS - N N ANV N S NN N NIN H Br We will now see how the operation of lifting the girder and conveying it to its place is performed. Two mud used by the dock company at Bristol, for conveying the refuse out ot the docks, are obtained—these are large flat-bottomed boats that will carry 60 or 70 tons each—upon each of these barges is 216 erected a stage ing on the bed of the river at low water, the top of the tower shall reach, or nearly so, to the underside of the girder, as it rests upon the wood stages across the river. As soon as the tide has receded sufficiently low, these two barges with the towers upon them are placed under the girder, and are moored so that they shall not be able either to move up or down the stream until required to do so. Being all prepared, as described, they remain stationary until the tide turns, when the tide begins to float the barges, and as the tide rises, so the barges rise, until the towers press against the girder and lift it off the stage; and as the tide continues to rise, so the girder is carried upwards, until it is finally lifted by the rise of the tide as high as the top of the masonry upon which it has to rest. The chains that hold the barges at one end are slackened out, and those at the other are tightened, and the barges are thus moved forward with the tide until the ends of the girder are brought over the masonry, to the exact place where the girder has to be fixed—it is held there until the tide turns, and as this recedes, the barges sink, and deliver their burden to its final resting place on the masonry, and are carried down the stream with the receding tide, and anchored in a convenient place, ready to perform the same operation again. — ro — — CORRESPONDENCE FROM THE EAST. [Sicily,—St. Filippo, May 12, 1855. From Nicosia I went to St. Filippo, where there was a large fair. This place is beautifully situate on a rocky hill, com- manded by a d old castle. There is a fine church near to St. Filippo, with particularly fine paintings. I remember one in particular, the subject of which was St. Filippo curing a woman of a festered breast;—this was a very large, fine painting, and all round it were hung up models of sore breasts in wax, put up by people who had been cured, partly by the doctor, and partly, as they supposed, by prayers to St. Filip. The bones of the saint are preserved in a silver coffin, and placed in front of the altar. There were a t many relics of arms and legs of saints in silver cases. The altar to the Virgin was adorned very beauti- fully, and the figure of the Virgin and the holy child, dressed out in the highest style of art. There was a procession here in honour of St. Filip, and such ringing of bells and firing of cannon as went on for three days, would make you think the people mad. The procession consisted of all the religious orders of monks, carrying candles and crosses, and a large figure of St. Fili 9 on the silver coffin. Every one knelt as the figure , ere were two bands, and numbers of people following bare- headed. At St. Filippo I was much pleased with the singing of the people in the evening. It was quite delightful to hear them; their voices are good, and they cultivate music very generally. Numbers of them sing together, and take various parts of the song; and the choruses are very good, and the voices well blended and very harmonious. One thing particularly struck me, which was a song by a number of people, resembling a band of musicians, and the different instruments coming in; they sang several operatic airs in this way. I must say this for the Sicilians, although I think them to be most arrant rogues (of which I have had good proof), yet they are not addicted to many of the vices of the higher nations of Europe. I never saw one drunk; their amusements all appear to be of a quiet kind. The fair green was very prettily situated on the slope of a hill; there were a very large number of cattle and mules, and a few horses. The oxen were very tine and large, and are generally used all through the country for husbandry; they have enormous horns. The oxen are sold for about 8. to 107. a pair; wheat, which in England is sold at about 78s. per quarter, is sold here for 18s. a salm, equivalent to a quarter and one-fourth. We lodged at the house of the Intendante, and were pretty comfort- able. We invited the master and mistress to dine one day, and my attempts to talk to the lady in Italian were rather ludicrous. The first night we staid at the locanda, but were so eaten up by the light and heavy cavalry, that we were obliged to decamp as quickly as possible. lf we had stopped there, nothing but our bleached bones would soon have been left. Sicily is a dreadful place for that sort of thing,—it is very tormenting; my fellow companions suffered fearfully. Mr. Aspinall brought some wonderful powder from Constantinople, which is a capital thing; he spreads it over the sheets, and they are found dead in num- bers. There is nothing like philosophy, and there is no use in rubbing yourself into a fever about trifles. or tower, so high, that when the barges are rest- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. [Castro Giovanni. We drove (about eight hours) to Castro Giovanni, and did not arrive until evening; the country was beautiful, and we kept gradually ascending. The town is situated on a high hill, which 18 ually reached from the plain by an ascent of three miles;— it is a glorious situation, and one of the oldest towns in Sicily, and one of the highest points. I have sometimes been in the clouds after dinner, but I really never lived in them before. For the first twenty-four hours we hardly knew where we were, —thick clouds were around us, and a very cold uncomfortable damp sort of atmosphere it is; this house was the only place. The next day the sun was shining in all its glory, but the clouds lay as a curtain on the hills beneath us. It is a fine old place. We went to see the old castle; it is a very large building, and part of it used as a prison,—the situation of it on a high rock is grand, and it must have been impregnable in old times. The walls are very massive, and the old keep still frowns defiance. The view from the large tower is most beautiful; on a fine day you can see Catania, sixty miles distant, on a similar hill to that on which Castro Giovanni stands, and close to it is Cattabishetta, and the view of the hills and the rich valleys, and the various towns with their romantic situations on the hills, is pleasing in the extreme. This castle is older than before the coming of Christ; it completely overlooks the town. We then went to see another castle with octagonal towers, situated on another hill. This was built by the Romans, and the solidity of the structure is remarkable; the walls were 12 feet thick. The situation of some of the religious houses is very beautiful, on the different hills around. Many of the convents and nunneries are very large buildings; there are altogether twenty-two orders of nuns and monks in this town. I also went to see the mother- church, which is a very fine grand old building; it was one of the finest things I have seen in Sicily. Some of the doorways were particularly fine;—one of them was the entrance to a Grecian temple, which had been brought from the ruins of the old castle. It was in white marble, and beautifully execu and the sculpture very curious. The church is very large, an extremely beautiful. Out of so many beauties I can scarcely dwell on one in particular. The inner roof, in carved wood, is a masterpiece; the beautiful old paintings which adorn the walle— there was one in icular, the Taking down from the Cross,“ most striking,—the mosaic floor,—the alabaster pillars which supported the building, and the chaste and curious carving with which they were adorned,—the marble altar, with its old sculp- ture, —the old marble font, —the grand altar, gorgeously decorated —the vestry, with the sides of the walls covered with walnut- wood gorgeously carved with pictures of Scripture history, commencing with Adam and ending with the last suffering of Jesus Christ;—all the wealth of Sicily seems to be devoted to the church. We arrived at Castro Giovanni at a particular time—it was the festival of the Virgin Mary; it is kept up five days, and during this time there is an incessant ringing of bells and firing of cannon, bands parading the streets, and a great hubbub. At night all the houses and streets are illuminated, and a very pretty effect it has; the churches are covered with festoons and wreaths of lights. The people in the evening all turn out and walk the streets, and the difference between an English and a Sicilian crowd is very striking. The former would be sure to have some row, but the amusement of the latter is quietly walking up and down, and then going into the churches, and praying most devoutly. I went into the Church of Our Lady in the evening; hundreds were on their knees; they all knelt in the direction in which there was a large image of the Virgin looking down upon the figure of a child lying on a bed. Suddenly there was a hymn to the Virgin; it was 5 by a large orchestra, and the voices were very fine. I enclose you the words, which were handed to me by some baron, who had been very attentive to us. After leaving the church, the baron went with us, and we met a large procession (headed by two bands); those in the procession all carried lamps, and many of them crosses, and there was a large image of the Virgin; numbers of priests followed, all singing in chorus a hymn to the Virgin, and went through all parts of the town in this way. The voices were melodious, and I could not refrain from joining in the procession, and a man went on each side of us with a great candle; it was a curious sight. Round the fine old church, thousands of people were sittiug quietly, thinking or perhaps praying,—the hymn to the Virgin starting up melodi- ously from the various parts of the town,—the fitful glare of the orches as the procession passed by some old pile of building— THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. it put me in mind of the scenes in a play which we might think more ideal than reality. At the various nunneries they had & place beautifully fitted up, open to the public, where there was an image of the Virgin, highly décorated with hundreds of candles burning, and every one who looked in here was bare- headed. I observed in this town, on several occasions, that when the host was being carried by, when it was even at a great dis- tance, and the tinkling bel by which it was accompanied could only be faintly heard, that everybody, rich and poor, fell on their knees and remained in prayer for a brief space of time. [Catta Nicetta, We started from Castro Giovanni for Catta Nicetta, a lovely ride over the mountains, the wild flowers ing at every mile you travel. There are many large mines of sal hur interspersed over the mountains. The rocks are mostly marble, and look par- ticularly striking from their extreme whiteness. The cactus and aloe grow to large trees; the shrubs and plants vary very much. Catta Nicetta is a lovely place, the country around very fertile and finely wooded—the anion, fig, olive, mulberry, vineyards, &c., and waving fields of the finest corn. It also possesses a very fine old ruin of a castle. I was too busy to go much about this place. There were some fine public gardens beautifully laid out. Our business lay principally in the yard of the large convent of the Franciscans; our residence was the locanda, and our meals were sent from a cook-shop. They are dirty people—bugs and fleas abundant, and a t outcry in the camp. We were glad to be off. Returned to Chatro Giovanni late at night, after a rough ride over the mountains, accompanied by soldiers to guard the money. One soldier had a bugle, and the effect of the echo in the mountains was very striking. Passed near to several large mines of sulphur. The sulphur is very pure, and Sicily is able to supply the most of Europe with this article. J. W. GLOAO. “ — — tn ——— THE PAXTON ARCADE. Mocu interest has been excited by the publication of the plan understood to have been in preparation for some time by Sir Joseph Paxton, for effecting a new and thorough communication between the city and the west end, and its ultimate extension in the nature of a boulevard round London. The proposal embraces & carriage arcade of the same breadth as the transept in the old Crystal Palace, which was wider than that of the present one, starting from the Mansion-house towards Southwark-bridge, crossing the river, running to the South-Western Railwa Station, and thence again across the river near Hungerford. bridge to the Regent-circus, the communication by this route being nearly the same in point of distance as that by the Strand. At the same time a line of similar character would branch from & point near the South-Western Railway to the Houses of Parlia- ment and Victoria-street by a bridge at Lambeth, and, as at the back of the houses on each side atmospheric lines of railway are to be constructed, the transit between Belgravia and the would thus be reduced to about eight minutes, and between the Bank and Charing-cross or the Regent’s-circus to about five or six minutes. This railway would be at an elevation to enable it to across the various streets which it would intersect without interfering with any of the existing roads, and the system would involve a constant succession of express trains, as well as stopping trains, at every half mile or less, so arranged as to be perfectly noiseless. The carriage-way of the arcade, it is contemplated, should be closed against wagons between nine in the morning and nine at night, to insure the facilities for quick passenger trafic as well as for increasing the attraction of the costly shops on each side, and the prominent recommenda- tions of property on the line would be the protection afforded to all kinds of goods by its cleanliness, 9 temperature, ngntot light, and immunity from weather as a promenade and drive in summer and winter. The estimated cost of this improvement, which Sir Joseph Paxton considers would be the largest thoroughfare in the world, and such as to make London the most 1 and convenient city in exist- ence, is 11, 300, 000d, and the calculated returns from rents and railway revenue are 938,0007, or between eight and nine per * Principal Veterinary Surgeon to the Army in the East, on special service. 247 cent. To insure its completion, however, in the best manner for the interests of the nation, it is intended that the co-operation of government should be obtained, and that this should consist in a guarantee of four per cent. interest for sixty years, on condition that half of one per cent. should be set aside annually to redeem the capital within that period, and that all receipts above four per cent. should be equally divided between the state and the company. Under this it would appear that, if the pope were to vield the anticipated return of eight per cent., the transaction would result in the nation receiving an annual P ment of more than 200,0007. for sixty years, and at the end of that time being put in possession of the property without ever having incurred an expenditure of a shillin „while the public would gain three free bridges and the removal of delays and obstacles which have been estimated to cause an annual money loss of upwards of a million sterling to the trade of the kingdom. e ultimate extension of the undertaking as a boulevard encircling London, and connecting all the railway stations, would increase the total cost to 34,000,007, but it is obvious, that the grand point of bringing the city and the west end into rapid communication should be the first to command attention, and it is an advantageous feature of the plan that this object, which appears free from uncertainty. can be accomplished by itself, leaving the remainder to be carri out as a necessary consequence of its success. — —— SHIP CANAL ACROSS THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ M. DE Lesseps is now on his return from Egypt to Paris, probably to make the ne arrangements for anys out the project with which he has been so long occupied, and for which, it is believed, he has at last obtained the consent of the Ottoman Porte, that of the Viceroy of Egypt having been long ago and very readily given. This project is the important one of cutting a ship canal through the Isthmus of Suez, and thus making an expeditions and easy direct passage for ships of large size from the Mediterranean into the Indian seas. The line originally traced out for this canal was from Tineh to Suez, the narrowest point of the Isthmus; but this, from a congregation of difficulties not then sufficiently studied, and from data and calculations errone- ously founded, it was deemed necessary to abandon; the more so as the cost could not be less than 300 millions of francs, whereas that for the canal of greater length now proposed is estimated at no more than 240 millions. The establishment of a canal at the narrowest part of the Isthmus is besides surrounded with such difficulties of execution that the authors of the project now approved of by the Pacha of Egypt have decided in preference of the line by Alexandria and Cairo. The port of Alexandria and the roadstead of Aboukir are exempt from the obstacles to navi- gation which the Nile creates north-east of the Delta. A current running along shore from west to east carries away from Alexandria the mud brought down by the river, and keeps the waters of this part of Egypt clear and deep. By opening the canal at Alexandria the enterprise is saved the considerable and costly works necessary at Tineh. Canals of communication between the Mediterranean and Indian seas not only existed from the most distant period, but vestiges of them are still found, agreeing with the plan now pre- posed. There was, however, a very important difference between the ancient canal and that now in question; which is, that the first was almost exclusively devoted to internal navigation, and e bably had but little depth of water. The present dimensions of the English ships trading between India and Europe oblige the engineers to enlarge the proportions of the projected canal. It is proposed to admit of the p: e of large up war, and to maintain the necessary depth of water. The difficulty does not consist in the works to be executed for constructing the canal and locks, and for finishing all the other ds pur. but in finding the means for feeding the canal to a depth for large ships. After extended surveys it has been found that the water supply cannot so readily be procured from the two seas as had been conceived, and that recourse can be more easily and conveniently had to the waters of the Nile, for that river has been ascertained, contrary to former belief, to have an elevation considerably above that of the sea. — — 248 EARTH-BORING MACHINERY. Marner and PLArr, Inventors. A PAPER descriptive of the various modes of earth-boring for the sinking of wells and other similar purposes, was read on the evening of May 30, at the Society of Arts, by Mr. Colin Mather. After describing the ordinary boring apparatus, alluding to the absence of satisfactory information 5 the plan Drought before the British Association by Mr. Vignoles, and pointing out the peculiarities of the system adopted by MM. Degousée in the boring of a well at Highgate, the author proceeded, as follows, to describe the method employed by himself and Mr. Platt. The construction of the boring-head and shell-pump, and the mode of acquiring the percussive motion, constitute the chief novelties of the system and machine. The couple-cylinder engine, with the reversing or link motion, is used for winding and lower- mg apparatus, but an ordinary winding engine, similar to those used in collieries, may be applied. The boring-head consists of a wrought-iron bar, about 8 feet long, on the lower part of which is fitted a block of cast-iron, in which the chisels or cutters are firmly secured. Above the chisels an iron casting is fixed to the bar, by which the boring- head is kept steady and perpendicular in the hole. A mechanical arrangement is provided, by which the boring head is compelled to move round a part of a revolution at each stroke. The loop or link by which the boring apparatus is attached to the rope is 880 to a loose casting on the wrought-iron bar, with liberty to move up and down about 6 inches. A part of this casting is of square section, but twisted about one-fourth of the ci er- ence. This twisted part moves through a socket of corresponding form on the upper part of a box, in which is placed a series of ratchets and catches, by which the rotary motion is produced. Two objects are here accomplished—one, the rotary motion iven to the boring-head; the other, a facility for the rope to escend after the boring-head has struck, and so prevent any slack taking place, which would cause the rope to dangle against the side of the hole, and become seriously injured by chang, The shell-pump is a cylinder of cast-iron; to the top of which ia attached a wrought-iron guide. The cylinder is fitted with a bucket similar to that of a common lifting-pump, with an India- rubber valve. At the bottom of the cylinder is a clack, which also acts on the same principle as that in a common lifting-pump, but it is slightly modified to suit the particular purpose to whic it is here applied. The bottom clack is not fastened to the cylin- der, but works in a frame attached toarod which passes through the bucket, and through a Mia Agr guide at the top of the cylinder, and is kept in its place by a cotter, which passes through a proper slot at the top of the rod. The pump-rod, or that by which the bucket is worked, is made of a forked form, for the twofold purpose of allowing the rod to which the bottom clack is attached to pass through the bucket, and also to serve as the link or loop by which the whole is suspended. The wrought-iron guide is secured to the top of the cylinder, and prevents the bucket from being drawn out when the whole i» so suspended. The bottom clack also is so arranged that it is at liberty to rise about 6inches from its seating, so as to allow large fragments of rock, or other material, to have free access to the interior of the cylinder when a partial vacuum is formed there by the up-stroke of the pump. The percussive motion is produced by means of a steam cylinder, which is fitted with a piston of 15 inches diameter, having & rod of cast-iron 7 inches square branching off to a fork in which is a pulley of about 3 feet in diameter, of sufficient breadth for the rope to pass over, and with flanges to keep it in its place. As the boring-head and piston will both fall by their own weight when the steam is shut off, and the exhaust-valve opened, the steam is admitted only at the bottom of the cylinder; the exhaust-port is a few inches higher than the steam-port, so that there is always an elastic cushion of steam of that thickness for the piston to fall upon. The valves are opened and shut by a self-acting motion derived from the action of the piston itself, and as it is of course necessary that motion should be given to it before such a result can ensue, a small jet of steam is allowed to be constantly blowing into the bottom of the cylinder; this causes the piston to move slowly at first, so as to take up the rope, and allow it to receive the weight of the boring-rod by degrees, and without a jerk. An arm which is attached to the piston-rod then comes in contact THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. with a cam, which opens the steam-valve, and the piston moves quickly to the top of the stroke. Another cam, worked by the same arm, then shuts off the steam, and the exhaust-valve is opened by a corresponding arrangement on the other side of the iston-road. By moving the cams, the length of the stroke can varied at the will of the operator, accurding to the material to be bored through. The fall of the boring-head and piston can also be ih ea by a weighted valve on the exhaust-pipe, 80 as to descend slowly or quickly, as may be required. BORING HEAD. SHELL PUMP. The general arrangements of the new machine may be described as follows:—The winding-drum is 10 feet in diameter, and is capable of holding 3000 feet of rope, 44 inches broad and j-inch thick; from the the rope passes under a guide-pulley, through a clam and over the pulley which is supported on the fork end of the piston-rod, aud so to the end which receives the boring-head, which being hooked on and lowered to the bottom, the rope is gripped by the clam. A small jet of steam is then turned on, causing the piston to rise slowly until the arm moves the cam, and gives the full charge of steam; an accelerated motion is then given to the piston, raising the boring-head the required height, when the steam is shut off, and the exhaust opened in the way described, thus etfecting one stroke of the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. boring-head as regulated by a back-pressure valve in the exhaust- pipe. The exhaust-port is 6inches from the bottom of the cylinder; when the 97 descends to this point it rests on a cushion of steam, which prevents any concussion To increase the lift of the boring-head, or compensate for the elasticity of the rope, which is found to be 1 inch in 100 feet, it is simply necessary to raise the cams on the cam-shaft whilst the percussive motion is in operation. The clam which grips the rope is fixed to a slide and screw, by which means the rope can be given out as required. When this operation is completed, and the strata cut up by a succession of strokes thus effected, the steam is shut off from the percussive cylinder, the rope unclamped, the winding- engine put in motion, and the boring-head brought up and slung from an overhead suspension-bar by a hook fitted with a roller to traverse the bar. The shell-pump is then lowered, the débris pumped into it, by lowering and raising the bucket about three times, which the reversing motion of the winding-engine readily admits of; it is then brought to the surface and emptied by the following very simple arrangement. Ata point in the suspension- bar a hook is fixed perpendicularly over a small table in the waste tank, which table is raised and lowered by a screw. The pump being suspended from the hook hangs directly over the table, which is then raised by the screw till it receives the weight of the pump. A cotter, which keeps the clack in its place, is then knocked out, and the table screwed down. The bottom clack and the frame descending with it, the contents of the pump are washed out by the rush of water contained in the pump cylinder. The table is again raised by the screw, and the clack resumes its proper position; the cotter is then driven into the slot, and the pump is again ready to be lowered into the hole as before. It is generally necessary for the pump to descend three times in order to remove all the débris broken up by the boring-head at one operation. CHEAP SUBSTITUTE FOR THATCH. By JouN KNIOETr BoswELL. [Paper read before the Royal Dublin Society, June lat.] ON a former occasion I read before this Society a paper on the racticability of rendering thatched roofs comparatively incom- bustible and impervious to rain, having illustrated my proposition by showing the great difficulty of igniting any substance, if covered with the thinnest coating ot linie wash Since then, having tried the experiment on a large scale, I found the mode I suggested—namely, steeping the straw in lime-water, and pouring on grouting as the thatch was made—so troublesome as to endanger the success of the undertaking. I therefore changed the mode of using the materials, and the result has been so satisfactory as to induce me to communicate it to the public through this society, convinced that it is one of those practically useful measures which tend to elevate the social condition of the r man, and be of benefit to the farmer. In September last I ramed the roofs of two outhouses, something stronger than for ordinary thatch; these roofs I covered with scraws or sods in the usual way, over which I had carefully floated, or spread with a trowel, a composition about 2 inches thick, composed as follows: mortar made with good sand, and allowed to sour, then mixed with sedge 1 cut into short lengths. I p sely gave these roofs an incline less than slate, in order that È might have the experiment fairly tested; they have not only resisted wind and rain, but also the intense frost of last winter; and though the cot in which I lived (newly thatched) was partly denuded of the thatch by a storm, these roofs were unharmed. They are also comparatively incombustible, it being impossible to ignite them from the outside, and would thus be a safeguard not only against accident, but also against incendiarism. I intend this summer to use it extensively, and over this coarse coating to put one of finer materials, about an inch thick, coloured with blue- black, which will give it the appearance of slate. In the prepa- ration of this roof, it is e necessary to have any cracks (which might open as it dries) well closed, by merely using the float or trowel with water. This mode of roofing is not one-tenth the expense of slate, and perhaps cheaper than thatch—certainly much cheaper in the end, when we consider that thatch must be constantly repaired. Straw may be substituted for the sedge- grass, and it must be made in summer, as it will require fine Weather to dry and harden it, 249 Prof. Barker (the Chairman) observed that a good example of the effect of lime, as an incombustible material, was afforded in the Exhibition building in 1853. Some of the timber in that building was treated with coal-tar and lime, and when covered with cotton was found to be perfectly incombustible. Of course straw was much cheaper than cotton, and was therefore entitled to a preference when economy was the main object to be accom- plished. He would like to know whether the mortar was laid on thickly or thinly in Mr. Boswell’s experiments. Mr. Boswell: The mortar was about 24 inches in thickness. It has been there now fully ten months, and I can confidently state that not a single drop of rain has passed through it. The advan- tages of my roof are—first, that it will resist storms; second, that it will not admit rain; third, that it cannot take fire; and lastly, 1 it is cheaper than thatch, and not one-twentieth of the cost of slate. Mr. James Haughton said that Mr. Boswell had not supplied them with the details of his method for carrying his views into practical operation. He had not told them anything about the consistency of the mortar he had employed, nor whether it was mixed with the sedge and made into one homogeneous mass. He did not say anything as to the lengths into which the straw was cut, nor show any reason why a thin coating of wood would not answer just as well, or even better, than the surface of the ground taken off in the way described by Mr. Boswell, if the mixture of mortar and straw was laid upon the wood, so as to give the roof a lighter and more elegant appearance, Mr. Boswell said that Mr. Haughton’s remarks were very per- tinent, and the plan he had suggested would answer well, but would be far more expensive than the one which he (Mr. Boswell) had brought under the notice of the Society. In making the mortar more water was used than was required for the purposes of building. The mass was allowed to sour for a fortnight, and then, after being cut into short du bg it was permitted to lie by for some time longer. The chief advantage of this plan was its cheapness, and 5 applicability to the purposes of a poor man, who was obliged to procure his materials almost exclusively from the soil. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. May 22.—J AMES SIMPSON, Esq., President, in the Chair. The discussion being renewed on Mr. F. BRAITHWAITE'S Paper, On the Infiltration of Salt Water to the Springs of Wells under London and Liverpool," was continued through the evening. Reference was made to the following passages in the Paper by the Rev. Mr. Clutterbuck, read to the Institution in 1850:— It has been before stated, that the natural vent, or outfall, of the chalk waters under London, is the mean tide-level in the river Thames, below London Bridge; and that the normal, or natural condition of the water-level, has been entirely altered, there being a permanent deprea- Bion, varying from 50 feet to 60 feet, at the lowest point. As the level in each well is lowered by pumping, a vacuum, at a still lower level, is formed, by which the drainage from above is accelerated, and by which the waters of the Thames, passing over the outcrop of the sands of the plastic clay and chalk, will naturally descend through those strata, and thus the natural outfall is converted into a source of supply, and the drainage is reversed. ‘ This supposed influx of the tidal waters, which, from the geological condition of the basin at the point in question, must take place, would be easily proved, first, by having a correct series of geological observa- tions made when sinking wells; secondly, by aséertaining to what extent alternations of level in wells, within certain limits, are coincident with the tide; and, thirdly, by a strict and close chemical examination of the nature of the waters, to ascertain whether those ingredients with which tidal waters are usually charged, are there present. As facts are col. lected and published, it will be shown that a copious infiltration of water from the bed of the river Thames does actually take place ; indeed, this Bource of supply never fails, varying only with the height and strength of the tides. It is certain that this must, in a great measure, counteract the drainage from other quarters; but what the ultimate effect will be upon other sources of supply, is a problem to be solved by time.” It appeared that the suggestions made at that period had been fol- lowed b the author, and that his long-continued investigations had in- duced the conviction of the correctness of the views expressed in 1550. The probability of the infiltration of tidal waters had been first suggested by observing that the depression of the chalk water level, under Loudon, had proceeded more rapidly on the northern boundary than in the centre, which was the point of greatest exhaustion. This phenomenon was seemingly accounted for, by the supposition of the infiltration from the bed 36 250 of the river Thames being more rapid than that from the original source, towards Hertfordshire. This supposition was now strengthened by the statements in the paper; and the increase of the saline particles in the water was a further corroboration. Although the strata under London differed from those under Liverpool, the same causes were active, and the same effects would be observed, and inasmuch as the tidal waters at the latter place were more charged with saline particles, the effects would be more easily traced. The effect of tides upon wells in the neighbourhood of Ramsgate and other similarly situa sitions, was well known; many of the wells nearest to the sea were lutely dry at low water. From the natural inclination of subterranean waters towards their outfall, which in chalk was never less than 10 feet in a mile, there would be sufficient water in a well, at a very short distance from such outfall, though the bottom of the well might be on a level with the outfall; thus at high-water, & well sunk to higb-water mark, would contain & certain quantity of water free from the infiltration of the sea water; butif it were sunk below that level, the heavy pressure of the tide would overcome the inward flow in & well that been drained of its fresh water by the receding tide. It might then be argued, that as the depression caused by the pumping in London was permanent, so the infiltration of tidal waters would be per- manent also. The level of the chalk water bad rarely been so depressed as at the present time. The rain gauge showed in eighteen months only 24 inches, which was the average fall for twelve months. Although much rain might be expected during this summer, a vast qauutity mnst fall con- tinuously to supply the present deficiency. Dalton's gauge, as used by Mr. Dickinson, registered on the average scarcely any rain in the lower receptacle (indicating the quantity percolating through three feet of soil) between March and September. The source of the rivers Gade and Ver were lower, down their respective valleys, than had been known for twelve years. In a well in the upper districts at Studham Common, an alternation of 50 feet had been previously observed, but the depression was now 75 feet from the highest point that had been noted. The pro- spect for those interested in mills was very gloomy, and it was difficult to overstate the inconvenience to which they might be subjected during summer for water power to carry on their businces. The facts connected with the depression of the water level under London, should be & warning against tampering with subterranean waters, and the present natural depression in the water level in the dis- tricts where the rivers take their rise, plainly showed that there was no such surplus of water in the chalk as had been presumed upon, for draw- ing a EP ly by the artificial means of pumping from that source. t n ascertained that the water in the well at the Hendon Union Workhouse, which in the section attached to Mr. Clutterbuck’s paper in 1850, was marked as standing at 56 feet from the surface, had suffered a depression of 14 feet, as the water could in May, 1855, only be reached at a depth of 70 feet; whether this depression was temporary or perma- nent, could only be ascertained by future observation. It was submitted that the subject was of vital importance, not only with t to the quantity of water to be derived from the wells in London and Liverpool, —the actual depression of the water level, and the quality of the water, but also as to the cause of the presence of soda salts, which bad been demonstrated by analysis. The general arguments in favour of the hypothesis of the supply being inexhaustible, might be summed up in a statement given in a published letter, addressed by Messrs. Easton and Amos, in 1846, to the Artesian Waterworks Company: ‘‘ Now the average fall of rain upon the surface mentioned, may be taken at 21 inches per annum; and if we allow one- third for evaporation, we have a quantity of water penetrating the chalk equal to 3,208,228 hogsheads per annum, on every square mile of the exposed surface ; 320,822,800 hogsheads upon 100 square miles. Pub- lished returns show the quantity of water supplied to the metropolis to have been 314,553,012 hogsheads in the year 1845, and thus the London basin is capable of supplying, on the most liberal allowance, a quantity sufficient for ten or twelve cities, equal in magnitude to the metropolis. The abundance of the supply ia also shown by the rapid rise of water in deep wells, of which our own experience in so many points of the great chalk basin affords numerous examples " This statement and argument had been supported chiefly by those who were engaged professionally in attempts to obtain supplies of water from the source referred to. On the other hand, it was maintained that tbe quantity of water tribu- tary to the springs was, onthe contrary, very limited, andin consequence of the supply not being equal to the demand, there was a serious and constantly accruing depression, which was demonstrated by a diagram exhibited at the period of the discussion of the question. The authority of Mr. Prestwich, jun. had been used by those who contended for the supply being at least one-third of the rainfall; but it was urged that his views would not support that interpretation. In his Inquiry respecting the Water-bearing Strata around London, he said: “ Looking, however, at the extreme rapidity with which chalk imbibes water, the excessively creviced condition of ita surface, and its strong retentive power, I apprehend, that by far the greater proportion of the rain-fall is arrested in the few feet of chalk immediately beneath the vegetable mould; and it is only in heavy and long-continued rains that any water finds ite way to those low levels, where, from the constant THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. contact of water, the mass of the chalk must be fully saturated, and where, consequently, the water passes throuyh the fissures without any further loss. The mere contact of dry chalk, for a few minutes, with water, sufficing for the absorption of 30 to 40 per cent. of moisture, and that without the chalk losing ita aspect of apparent dryness, shows how arge & proportion of the rainfall may, if I can so term it, be rendered latent by this strong capillary attraction. The water, thus absorbed and held by the surface beds, must be wholly, or in greater part, returned in to the atmosphere by evaporation direct, and indirectly by means of vegetation." The same authority had stated, that in 1838 the total supply was about 6,000,000 gallons per day, and that in 1851 it was estimated at 10,000,000 or 12,000,000 gallons daily, which was, how- ever, considered to be rather an extreme quantity, and moreover that a great part of that water was derived from the overlying aai sands. Mr. R. 5 M. P., in his Report On the Supply of Water to the town of Liverpool, (1850) stated, that the depression of the water level in the wells was due to excessive pumping. The depression which, it was contended, must be admitted as an un- deniable fact, was caused by the abstraction, by pumping, being greater than the supply to the springs, 80 much so, that many wells under Lon- don, formerly considered inexhaustible, were now nearly dry, and others sunk to extreme depths could be pumped dry in two or three hours. It was contended, that there was abundant evidence of the existence of undue quantities of the salts of soda in the water under London and Liverpool,—that the quantity varied in the ratio of the proximity to rivers, and the depression of the water-level, in the wells, below the tidal level in the Mersey and the Thames, and that the amount of chlo- ride of sodium found in the water from twenty-one wells at Liverpool varied between 2°66 grains and 566 grains per imperial gallon, and in water from London wells, the same salts had been found to the extent of 70 grains per gallon, The quantities had been determined by careful analysis, made at various times by Messrs. Brande, Graham, Way, Mitchell, Miller, Phillips, Thomson, Playfair, Muspratt, Gage, and other chemists of undoubted skill. As to the prejudicial effect of the habitual use of such impure water for domestic purposes, instances were given, even of breeding stock having suffered severely from that cause; and recent medical investiga- tions proved that the presence of these salts was very injurious, Dr. Clark (of Aberdeen), in a letter published in 1849, stated:— „J say that the saline matter in the Watford spring water is of the same kind as the river water contains; meaning that it is of a very dif- ferent kind from what is found in the deep spring waters below the Lon- don clay, commonly (however erroneously) called Artesian well waters; respecting which, as the only considerable source of supply of another quality of water within reach of London, I will take a brief notice. ** In the deep spring waters alluded to, there is a large quantity of bi- carbonate of soda; 284 grains per gallon, according to the recent analysis in the Royal College of Chemistry, upon the water at Trafalgar-square. There are other 51:3 grains of saline matter present, say 791 grains gallon in all. When boiled, this bicarbonate of soda is reduced to car nate of soda, and its alkaline taste may then be easily recognised in the water. A solution of carbonate, or bicarbonate of soda, of this strength, will act medicinally on the kidneys." This opinion, promulgated by such an authority as Dr. Clark, was relied upon, as confirmatory of the presence of the saline particles, and of their prejudicial effect on the health of those who were compelled to use the water. The presence of this saline matter, could, it was contended, only be attributed to one cause, and was inseparably connected with the alleged depression of the water level in the wells under London and Liverpool, and the same would be found elsewhere, wherever the wells were situ- ated within the range of tidal influence. Mr. R. Stephenson, M.P., in his Report on Liverpool, stated, I append a Report of the analyses made by my much respected friend and early teacher of chemistry, Mr. Richard Phillips, which exhibits such resulte as will settle the disputed point, regarding the existence and ex- tent of the connection between the river (Mersey) and the wells." “There is evidence in the results to satisfy me, on the whole, that the tendency of the river water inland is slightly preponderating over the pressure of the body of the water in the sandstone, towards the Mersey. That the equilibrium should, under existing circumstances, be very nearly adjusted, might be a fair conclusion, from the fact that the mass of the wells draw their supply from the sandstone, at a level somewhere between high and low water mark, and the column of fresh water from the sandstone exerting its natural pressure, prevents any ingress from the fluctuating column of tidal water; but the uniform pressure of the column of fresh water is interfered with, by the great extent of pumping from the wells, and the effect of this, in many cases, is to lower the sur- face line of water in the sandstone, below the level of the surface of the river, when a reverse action ensues, and the brackish water obtains a slight advantage; and, as a consequence, were the town wells to be sunk much deeper than they are, the effect would inevitably be to give the tidal waters a permanent preponderance, and the diffusion of impurities would be rapid and constant.” The same ent was contended to apply, even more forcibly, to the wells under Lende, because, from the excess of pumping, and the THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. consequent depression of the water-line, the tidal water of thc Thames had already obtained the permanent preponderance.” All these considerations warranted the assumption, that the same crevices in the chalk, by and along which the rain water, having at that iod the preponderance, formerly filtered and percolated, until it found its way into the sea, or the bed of the Thames, now served as ducts for conveying the sea-water back into the chalk basin, to restore the equili- brium which was destroyed by the constant pumping, and thus that the 8 was the source of the saline particles exhibited by the chemical ysis. In explanation of Dr. Clark’s views. as enunciated in a discussion else- where on this subject, he was reported to have said, ‘‘ It was known that the water found there (Trafalgar-square well), was of a totally different quality from that obtained from the chalk beyond the London clay. Still the quality was such as could not be accounted for by the sea water mix- ing with the water from chalk not loaded with clay. If they took chalk water and sea water and mixed them together in any proportions, it was physically impossible to make out of the two a water corresponding to the chalk water under London; and, therefore, that theory was simpl @ mistake; and it was also a very great mistake, as tothe scientific result of chemical analysis, to say that in the water found below London there was something like 100 grains of salt per gallon. There was not 100 grains on of all sorts of things in it." The evidence now given, instead of disproving Dr. Clark’s statement, had rather confirmed it; for, om referring to the analyses laid before the Institution in 1850, and rinted in the ninth volume of the Minutes of the Proceedings, it will be ound, that an analysis made by Brande in 1846 of the Trafalgar-square water, and also one made in 1849 by the College of Chemistry, showed that the total solid contents of this water was less than 70 grains per gallon; thus confirming Dr. Clark's observation. It had been stated, that the water in the deep wells under London was becoming gradually more pervaded by soda salts; but the following table of analyses extracted from the statement, previously referred to, disproved the assertion. Coll Brande, 1846. Chemistry, 1849 Carbonate of Soda, ...... grains per gallon 146 ......... 18:28 Sulphate of Soda, ...... 7 5 10:8. unco: 874 Muriate of Soda $5 $5 288 coussiress 20°05 Total grains per gallon ...... 59:9 47:07 It would be seen, from this table, that there was a decrease of more than 12 grains of soda salts per gallon of water in three years, and that the statement of the presence of 63:27 grains of soda salts was evi- dently erroneous. It was equally erroneous to give to the saline particles the generic term ‘‘salt,” which implied that it was muriate of soda, and would suppose its origin to be the sea water, the solid contents of which were almost wholly composed of muriate of soda. Thus, in 1846, the table showed 25:7 grains of muriate of soda, or salt per gallon ; but in 1849 there were only 20:05 grains, or 51 grains less per gallon. In 1852 the total solid content of the Trafalgar-square water was only 584 grains per gallon, as ascertained by the conjoint analysis of Dr. Clark and Mr. Brazier; so, instead of the water from the Orange-street well now containing more saline particles, as had been maintained, it im reality had become purer. In January, 1850, previous to the discus- sion at the Institution, it had been suggested, in & report by Mr. Homersham, that the infiltration of sea-water might supply some of the soda salts found in the water of the deep wells under London; but sub- sequent communications with eminent chemists on that subject has shown that the character of the deep well waters could not be thus accounted for. Mr. Tabbener and Mr. Prestwich had both suggested, that as chalk was originally a marine formation, the difference between the quality of the water from the chalk hills, above the level of the sea, and the water from the chalk below the level of the sea, in situations where & large natural current of water was not constantly passing through the latter, consisted in the water, when artificially drawn in that direction, taking up, in solution, the salts left in the chalk when first formed, while the salts originally contained in the chalk hills, above the level of the sea, had been long since washed out by the rains of countless ages, that had fallen upon and sunk into the chalk and filtered through it to a lower level. This suggestion appeared most probable, as the water from chalk, even when procured from below the level of the sea, when there was, naturally, a large constant current of water passing through it, contained scarcely any soda salts, and was quite different in quality from the water supplied from the well of Trafalgar-square, or from the deep wells sunk to the chalk under London. On the other hand, water procured from wells sunk in the chalk, where the level of the water stood much above the level of the sea, but where a natural current of water had not been constantly pass- ing through the chalk, uently contained a large amount of solid con- tents and of soda salts. e water from a well sunk through the clay into the chalk at Pinner, the level of the water in which well stood above the sea, contained four or five times as much soda salts as the water from the chalk at Watford. As to the statement of the level of the water in the wells under London becoming gradually depressed, though in some wells this might have been the case, yet the level of the water 251 in the well at Orange-street was not any lower now than when the well was first sunk ; neither was this a solitary example, as in the south of London the water in few, if in any of the wells, was any lower now than it had been for many years past. With to the quality of water obtained from the wells sunk in the red san € at Liverpool, Mr. Steph f enson’a py gk expressly stated that the wells which contained large quantities of salt were ‘ mainly confined to a band running parallel with the eastern margin of the river and with a line from the Custom House, along Paradise-street, Whitechapel, Byron-street, to the Scotland-road. This at once recalled to my recollection the suggestion made by Mr. Gage in his evidence, that the extreme saltness of some of the wells which had then been alluded to was attributable to their being situated upon, or contiguous to an ancient tidal creek, which has been filled up and built over, and this opinion is in perfect accordance with that duced by a study of the analyses in conjunction with the map. For example, the wells at Croft's soap works, Bent a brewery, Howard's brewery, and Fawcett and Pres- tons works, are all comprehended in an area running parallel with the line of creek, while the wells at Hindley's, Platt and Son, Jack's, and the Mersey Iron and Steel Company, are upon the margin of the river, These cases, so far as they go, may be considered confirmatory of the view of Mr. Gage, and there can be little doubt that if a still more elaborate series were instituted additional confirmation would be ob- tained. The quantity of the chloride of sodium in the water of the Bevington Bush well would, at first sight, appear to be an exception to the above; but this is not the case, as its situation is nearly in the line that may be taken to represent the continuation of the creek.” The analyses given in Mr. Stephenson 's report showed that the water from wells impregnated with salt oontained no carbonate of soda, and was quite different in quality to the Trafalgar-square water. At Liver- pool, since 1850, a small bore hole had been sunk in the Green-lane well, and this well had since yielded 2,600,000 gallons daily, while in 1850 the same well only yielded 1,249,000 gallons daily. An analysis made in 1855 of the water yielded by this well showed that it only contained altogether about 14 grains of solid contents per gallon, a ee paton of which was carbonate of lime; in fact, the solid contents hardly di in quantity or quality from the analysis made in 1850, and given in Mr. Stephenson's report. Altogether 6,000,000 gallons per day had been for VVV sunk in e for the public supply of Liverpool, and the water from these wells now contained no more salt than the water pumped up for eight years past. The water from the Liverpool wells that were impregnated with e salt were deep private wells, mainly situated, as explained in Mr. iris 8on's report, upon, or contiguous to an ancient tidal creek which had been filled up and built over. No just comparison could, therefore, be made between the composition of the water obtained from the wells sunk in the red sand-stone and that which was obtained from the deep wells sunk under London into the chalk, as the circumstances, like the strata, were altogether different. Before admitting that the presence of soda salts in the deep wells under London was due to the infiltration of sea water, it was essential to oon- sider the composition of sea water, and to compare it with that of the water from those wells. The solid matter in the water of the English Channel consisted prin- cipally of chloride of sodium, generally spoken of as common salt, or sea-salt, and practically no carbonate, or sulphate of soda. Now, the water of all the deep wells under London contained about twice as much carbonate and sulphate of soda as of chloride of sodium. This differ- ence, of a very marked character, between the deep well water and the sea water should have been explained and reasoned upon, but no notioe whatever had been taken of it; and it was this difference in composition that induced those who had studied the question in a chemical point of view to say ''that it was physically impoesible to make, out of the two (chalk water and sea water) & water corresponding to the chalk water under London." A mere assertion, that because water con- tained large quantities of soda salts, it was partly derived from the infiltration of sea water, was not founded on philosophical reasoning in this case. It was therefore maintained, that if the sulphate and carbonate of soda in the deep well water were the result of the decomposition of the chloride of sodium in sea water, some other chlorides or sulphates would be found in the water. What had become of about 20 grains of chlorine (or about 30 grains of chlorides) per gallon which the acids of the sul- pae and carbonate of soda-salts must have supplanted? That must ve entered into combination with other substances to form chlorides, a class of salts generally much more soluble than common salt, some of which at least could not fail to be observed if they existed in the water of the deep wells; but no traces of them were found. Water was found to alter, to a slight extent, in passing through rocks. It very generally, although not always, took up salta: but it never oould be so decomposed that large portions of its elemente were swept away, without leaving behind a vestige of their existenoe. There were wells to be found in some places into which the sea had peroolated; in Mr. Stephenson's able report upon the supply of Liver. pool some instances were given; but if the composition of the water in these wells was examined it would be seen that the large quantities of 252 sulphate and carbonate of soda usually found in the deep wells under ‘London were absent, and that the water contained of soda salts princi- pally chloride of sodium. It was maintained that by analysis there ap- to be an annual decrease of soda salts, as well as of other salts, in the water of all the deep wells under London; and this circumstance militated against the position assumed by the author of the Paper under discussion. It was contended that the author of the Paper could not be held responsible for the alleged discrepancies in the quoted analyses of water from various wells, as he could only use the statements published under the authority of the names of eminent chemists. There was, however, considerable discrepancy in the various analyses of water from the same well, which fact, if admitted to be correct, would rather seem to indicate variations in the quality of the water, and would favour the idea of the infiltration of soda salts, when any depression occurred in conse- quence of extra pumping. For instance, the water from the Trafalgar- square well was admitted by Dr. Clark to contain '* 794 grains of saline matter" per gallon, whereas the analysis of Mr. Brande only gave 63 grains. It was true, that in the wells on.the southern side of the Thames, at Greenwich and elsewhere, as also at Liverpool, the water did not at pre- sent contain so many saline particles; but it must be remembered that the surface level in those wells fluctuated between the high and low- water marks, and therefore the traces would not be so likely to be found there, as in the water at the Camden-town and the Trafalgar-square wells, in which the level'of the water was from 40 feet to 60 feet below Trinity high-water mark. ut the statement that the soda salts were decreasing, was decidedly erroneous, as all the analyses made by eminent chemists in London and Liverpool, showed the contrary to be the case. . As to the argumenta of the saline particles having been washed down into the wells under London, from the ancient marine deposit in the upper portion of the chalk, it must be observed, that the greater portion of the chalk was impermeable as & mass, the only passage for the water being by the fissures orthe flint beds, whose surfaces in the time during which they had been subjected to the percolating process would, it was fair to reason, have been nearly washed clear of all the saline particles ; moreover, if soda salts were derived from that source, there would be greater uniformity in the analyses than was actually the case; therefore the original statement was adhered to. The extracts from Mr. Stephenson's Report were submitted to have been correctly made and properly applied, and that the arguments in the Paper under discussion, based on observed facts, were corroborative of the statements in the Report. It was very difficult to account for the chemical changes induced in the course of filtration of water through various earths, and much still remained for the labours of chemists in this part of the subject, even after the able treatise ‘‘On Chemical Geology," by Gustav Bischoff, recently published by the Cavendish Society ; but the facta stated in the paper appeared to coincide with those observed at Liverpool, —that the amount of chlorides increased in ratio of proximity to the river, the source of the saline particles, —therefore, it was argued that the case, as stated by the author of the Paper, was proved. Attention was directed to specimens of Clay Pots and Hollow Bricks, used by M. Vabre, in forming roofs and floors, by a combination of wrought iron girders, supporting flat arches composed of these pots and hollow bricks. "The system was stated to have been successfully applied, and the constuctions were light, durable, and fire- proof. At the close of the Meeting, the President announced, that there was now in the course of construction upon the line of extension of the water- inains of the Chelsea Waterworks Company, a pipe aqueduct, crossing the Thames from Putney to Fulham, and supported upon Mitchell's patent cast-iron Screw Piles, now so extensively employed in engineering works. The structure was sufficiently advanced to be interesting to the profession, and he had therefore authorised the Secretary of the Institu- tion to issue orders for admission to the works, to any Member who ap- plied for himself or his friends. After the meeting, an improved Sliding Rule was exhibited, and ex- plained by Mr. Charles Hoare, by whom the modifications had been de- vised; there was much that was new and usefu! in the arrangement, and the changes introduced would evidently simplify the method of using an instrument scarcely yet sufficiently understood, and certainly not so ex- tensively employed in making calculations as it deserved to be. The chief advantages of the New Rule, were a series of new guage-points, by which brickwork of any thickness could be converted to standard, or cubic measure;—a table of constants, to facilitate the forming of esti- mates, and the guage-points for polygons and circles, very clearly tabu- lated; with concise formule for the various operations, which, with the necessary guage-points, were engraved on the face of the instrument, thus preveuting the necessity for trusting to or taxing the memory. It was announced, that the ordinary meetings for reading Papers, &c., would be resumed on Tuesday, November 13th, 1855. — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. THE CAMP AT THE CURRAGH OF KILDARE. Tuis camp will be beautifully placed on the side of the hill extending from the walled-in Deer-park for more than two miles towards the end of the Curragh, on the Wicklow side. In the rear it will be completely sheltered by the hill itself from the cold northerly winds, while in front its southerly aspect will make it e IE warm. The nature of the soil and the inclination of the ground upon which it is placed, will cause it to be comfort- able and dry in the wettest season of the year. The camp itself will be composed of huts made of wood, placed on brick founda- tions, about 40 feet by 20 feet in size, arranged in rows, with streets 20 feet wide between each, running down the side of the hill, so as to form an inclined plane for the water to be carried away in rainy weather; each house will face the one at the oppo- site side, and there will be a space between the end of each, form- ing, as it were, cross streets, a matter of great importance in the ventilation. Each hut will be covered in with asphalt, except those of the officers, which will bave vulcanized iron roofs, and will be supplied with a stove in the centre, and open by a door at each end. Some of them will have boarded floors, others merely the soil on which they are placed, and none will have ceilings. It is estimated that five rows, each having eight huts, wil accommodate 1500 men. The foundations dor four are already built. Ovens and a slaughteringhouse will also be erected ; thus, along with being taught to manceuvre in masses, the men kie qued to the minor though not less important duties of e field. — Sd CEMENT FOR MOULDING PURPOSES. H. J. D. Scorr, Capt. R. E., Patentee, May 13, 1854. The cement, or plaster, is prepared from chalk or limestone, by subjecting them, when reduced to the state of quicklime, toa dull red heat in an atmosphere created by the combustion of car- bonaceous fuels, such as coke, culm, or other suitable materials. The cement, when ground to powder. and mixed with water in quantity sufficient to form a paste, will set somewhat after the manner of plaster of Paris, and even under water attain quickly a considerable degree of hardness. It will allow time to the ope- rator to work to a surface, and is not liable to injury from damp or rain. The new cement is adapted for scagliola work and imitation marble, as it is susccptible of a fine polish, and to the touch is similar to the natural stone. . ——. —— Protection of Iron from Oridation.— M. Paris has discovered a vitreous enamel, which will stand the test of any chemical or hysical action to which it may be subjected. Some experiments uly prove that the adherence is perfect, and that the enamel resists the most violent shocks without cracking, although the iron it covers may be completely bent; it does not peel off or take fire by the action of heat; and concentrated acids can be kept at the boiling point for a considerable period in vessels pro- tected by it. These qualities will enable the use of iron where lass, silver, gold, or platina has only hitherto been employed. ja is also proposed to apply the invention more especially to the lining of water and gas pipes, covering roofs, and sheathing ships, anchors, &c.— Mining Jou Railway and Marine Signals—A very useful application of Captain Norton’s frictional exploding signal was practically demonstrated at the Polytecnic Institution a few days since. The object is to fire the alarm signal some fifty yards in front of the engine-driver. This is effected by the pressure of the engine against a connecting wire or cord stretched across the rail breast high, from a post or rod on one side of the line, round another on the opposite side, and tied to the igniting-wire of the signal. The pressure of the engine draws the cord and fires the signal in front of the driver. At the same time a floating marine danger- signal was also exhibited. This signal is in the form of a buoy, the covering or lid projecting about two inches beyond the body of the buoy; the frictional igniter is placed in the centre of the lid, and on the ship pressing against the projecting lid, the igniter fires the charge, the pressure being from the circumference to the centre when the igniter is placed. — o Personae THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL NOTES OF THE MONTH. The Charity Trustees of Yeovil have awarded the premium of 107. to Mr. S. W. P. Isaac, of Bath, for his designs for the pro- almshouses. The Burial Board for the parishes of St. Thomas, St. Edmund, and St. Martin, Salisbury, have adwarded the premium for the new cemetery to Mr. C. H. Edwards. The Burial Boards of St. John's, Westgate, and Elswich, New- castle, have awarded the first premium of 20. to Messrs. John- ston and Knowles, and the second premium of 10. to Mr. Johnston, for their designs for the new burial ground and chapel. The Burial Board for the parish of Westbury, Wilts, are de- sirous of receiving designs, &c., for a new burial ground, two chapels, &c.; premium 254.; last day 7th inst. A surveyor and inspector under the Gloucester Board of Health is requi salary 250/. per annum; an assistant to be provided at the expense of the Board; applications to be made on or be- fore the 2nd inst. The Burial Board of Buckingham are desirous of receiving designs, &c., for a new burial ground and chapel, premium 104. ; last day 9th inst. The India Company have appointed the following gentle- men on their staff of Civil Engineers, at a salary of 600“. per annum respectively, and are under orders to proceed forth with, via overland route, to the North-West Provinces, viz.:—Messrs. W. Hall, G. P. White, and F. T. Clarke, each engineer being ac- companied by a second-class assistant, at 300“. per annum. The Lords of her Majesty's Committee of Privy Council for Trade have appointed the following noblemen and gentlemen to act as jurors for the Paris exhibition: — For Fine Arts, Paint- ing, Engraving, and Lithography: Lord Elcho, Mesars. D. Maclise, R.A., Frederick Taylor, and S. H. Robinson. For Sculpture: R. Westmacott, R. A., and Mr. W. C. Marshall, R.A. For Architec- ture: Sir C. Barry, R.A., and Professor Cockerell, RA. For Glass and Pottery: Mr. John Webb. It is stated that a contract has been entered into between the Ottoman government and Mr. Lionel Osborne for the establish- ment of a submarine telegraph to unite the Dardanelles to Egypt and west coast of Africa. Sir John Rennie has returned to England from Portugal. We understand he considers the bays of Figueira, Oporto, and Vianna incapable of permanent improvement at any reasonable cost. The artificial harbour which Sir John recommends north of Oporto would be connected with the rocks near Lessa. The har- bour would be very similar to that at Kingstown, with the ad- vantage of 40 feet of water at the entrance, the total estimate being 700,000/. Sir John recommends some cheap single lines of railroad in connexion with the projected harbour, and other points north of Oporto, where population and agriculture are most abundant. The works of the new landing pier, Kingstown, near Dublin, from the water-tank into the harbour, which have been suspended for several months, have been resumed by order of the Admiralty. It will be remembered that the interruption took place last autumn, in consequence of a report from Mr. Rendel against the plan, on the ground that the manner in which it was to be con- structed would not allow proper facilities for the ingress of the large class of steamers likely to be hereafter employed in the car- riage of the English and Irish mails. Mr. Rendel, who con- demned the plan of Mr. Barry D. Gibbons, the engineer of the Board of Works, proposed another line of pier, branching off from the jetty, and forming a kind of semicircle, combined with & narrowing of the present entrance into the harbour. In conse- quence, the Admiralty directed an inquiry, which recently took lace in Kingstown, and which has led to the final adoption of . Gibbon's original plan. The Ames Manufacturing Company, Chycopee, U.S., are cast- ing a colossal equestrian statue of Washington, modelled by Mr. H. K. Brown. It is to be placed in Union-square, New York. For the use of locomotives running upon the Copiapo Railroad in Chili, South America, the engineers have been obliged to distil sea water, at a cost of two cents per gallon. This is in conse- quence of it being found that the water of the country deposited scales in the boilers at the rate of a quarter of an inch per week. The deposit was hard enough to scratch glass, aud tests chemi- cally applied showed that it was composed of magnesia, carbonate of [ius and earthy mattar. 253 Mr. Simpson, as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, gave a conversazione on the 31st of May, at the house of the In- stitution. Several models of inventions and pictures were exhi- bited. Among the pictures were—The Meeting at Britannia Bridge, by Mr. Lucas, and a portrait of Mr. Crampton, C.E., by by Mr. 8. ae Among the models we noticed—Goodall’s grinding and levigating apparatus, in which the substances or materials to be operated upon are placed in a mortar, in which a pestle is made to work by mechanical means, in such a manner as to give the rubbing motionas isimparted by hand.—Shepherd’s electric clock, by the use of which any number of dials, placed in various parts of premises, can be made to show exactly uniform time; an electric sympathetic clock, on this principle, has been fixed at the South-Eastern Railway Station, London: for govern- ment, under the supervision of Professor Airy, which clock is driven by & motor electric clock in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.—Griffith's portable horse measurer.—How's salino- meter, to which the Franklin Institute have awarded their silver medal.—Norton’s self-acting turnspit and indicator ; these are now in use at the Crystal Palace.—Ship-building, upon the principles of gravitation, by Henry E. Scott, C.E.—Hanson and Chadwick's water meter.— Vabre's French fire-proof floor.—Rider’s vulcanized pus percha.—Turntable by Dunn, Hattersley, and Co.— P. Princes patent for moulding chairs.—W. H. Barlow's cast-iron Joint chairs, with wrought-iron wedges, bolted together.—Cole- man’s railway wagon spring—The Boyne Viaduct; Sir J. Mac- neill, C.E—Coleman’s railway wagon bearing spring. —W. Pole's tapped fish plates applied to flat-bottom rails; &c., &c. The Annual Conversazione of the Architectural Museum was held on the 25th ult. | The model for the Glasgow statue of the late Sir Robert Peel is now nearly comple It represents the great statesman in a standing attitude, attired in a plain frock coat, with a par- liamentary paper in his hands, as if in the act of commencing to speak. e figure is of colossal size. The artist is Mr. John Mossman, of Glasgow. It is to be cast in bronze, and placed, according to present intention, in the north-west corner of George- square. The 25th nes of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science will commence on Wednesday, 12th of September, 1855, at Glasgow, under the direction of the following officers:— President, the Duke of Argyll, F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents, the Very Rev. Principal M‘Farlane; Sir W. Jardine, Bart.; Sir C. Lyell; J. Smith, Esq.; W. Crum, Esq.; T. Graham, Esq., Master of the Royal Mint; W. Thomson, Esq., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. General erint Col. Sabine, Woolwich. Assistant General Secretary, J. Phillips, Esq., De- puty Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford, Magdalen- ridge, Oxford. General Treasurer, J. Taylor, Esq., 6, Queen- street-place, Upper Thames-street, London. Secretaries for the meeting at Glasgow, J. Strang, LL.D., City Chamberlain of Glasgow; T. Anderson, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni- versity of igen dat W. Gourlie, Esq. Treasurer for the meeting at Glasgow, W. Ramsay, Esq, M.A., F.S.S, Professor of Hu- manity in the University of Glasgow. In order to meet the garrison wants of the important naval station at Pembroke, the government have determined upon the erection of new barracks at Pater, and the Board of Ordnance have taken the peu steps for their construction. The plans have been forwarded to Lieutenant-Colonel Crawley, RE., the resident officer of engineers, and the building will be com- menced without delay. The erection is to be capable of holding 1000 men, and the site has been selected on the rising ground in the vicinity of Hobbs’-point, an open and healthy locality. The barracks are to be fortified, and they will prove another adjunct to the defence of the dockyard. — — . — — OBITUARY. Lately, General Charles Gratiot, formerly chief of the United States Engineer corps. June 16, Charles Geerts, sculptor, of Louvain, aged 48, Cheva- lier of the Order of Leopold, and Professor of the Academy of Fine Arts, Louvain. He had in execution a series of statues for the niches of the Hotel de Ville, Louvain. Several of his works were in the Great Exhibition of 1851. 254 NEW PATENTS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW AMENDMENT ACT. Dated January 19. 148. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvements in obtaining electro-motive power. (A communication) Dated February 29. $79. J. A. Telle, Paris—A system of railways to be used in the interior of cities and towns Dated March 18. 557. E. Bourseret, Paris—Improvements in machines for manufacturing bolta, rivets, and other similar articles Dated March 22. 635. J. Snowden, Dartford, Kent—An improvement in furnaces and other fire-places Dated March 26. 667. H. C. Hill, Parker-street, Kingsland—Improvements in the manufacture of water- proof flock cloth and other fabrics Dated April 8. 745. L. Cornides, Trafalgar-square, Charing-cross—Improvements in saturating and coating or covering leather, paper, and textile fabrica, so as to render the same on the coated or covered surfaces thereof impervious to water Dated April 18. 817. W. Weallens, Elswick Villas, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and G. A. Crow, Forth-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—Improvements in marine steam-engines Dated April 18. 860. H. Harvey, Denbigh-street, Pimlico— The application of cork in all ita forms in the manufacture of beda, mattresses, cushions, and seats Dated April 19. 865. T. Jackson, Commercial-road, Pimlico—Improvements in signals for railway-trains 869. C. M’livaine Congreve, New York, U. 8.—Improvements in the manufacture of iron when oxide iron ores are used. (A communication from C. Congreve) Dated Apri 25. 919. H. Cockcroft, Haslingden, Lancaster—A self-registering letter-box Dated May 2. 982. J. 8. Lillie, South-street, Middlesex—lImprovements in tente or other moveable habitations Dated May 6. 1008. J. Beaumont, Elland, Halifax—Improvemente in treating wheat meal obtained in the manufacture of flour 1006. J. H. Dickson, Rotherhithe—Improvements in the machinery for scutching and heckling flax, hemp, apd other vegetable fibres 1007. 8. Roberte, Hull—improvements in steam-engines Dated May 1. 1009. R. Broadbent, Staleybridge, Chester, and 8. Farron and B. Grundy, Ashton, Lancaster—1inprovementa in steam-engines 1011, H. Marquis de Balestrino, Genoa—Improvemen's in obtaining motive power by the aid of explosive gases. (A communication) 1018. E. Price, Bute Docks, Cardiff—Improvemente in day-light reflectors provements in obtaining elastic finish to 1015. R. Clark, Gallowgate, Glasgow— )jiece goods 1017. T. Bazley, Manchester—Improvements in the construction and e of creels used in machines for winding, reeling, and doubling fibrous yarns or ds 1019. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-Helds— Improvements in hair and 5 used as dress or ornament fastenings. (A communication from E. Bourdon, Paris) 1021. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-iun-flelds— Improvements in cocks and valves. munication from N. Laforest and F. E. Boudeville, Rheims) Dated May 8. 1023. W. B. Wilton, Lowestoft, Suffolk —Improvements in furnaces for steam engines 1024. C. C. E. Minié, Paris—Improvements in muskets or portable fire-arms 1025. J. Hughes, White Hall Mills, Chapel-en-le-Frith, Derby—Improvements in the manufacture of paper 1026. D. Foxwell, Manchester—Improvements in sewing-machines 1027. T. T. Lingard, Manchester—Improvements in presses, which improvements are also applicable to E heavy bodies 1028. R. Needham, Hollinwood, Lancaster—An improved apparatus applicable to steam-boilers, for the purpose of economising fuel, and also assisting in the genera- tion of steam 1029. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for the manufacture of paper tubes to be employed in connection with spinning-ma- chinery. (A communication from J. Motach, Cernay, France 1030. J. A. Williams, Baydon, Wilts—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for driving or actuating ploughs and other implements employed in working and cultivating land 1031. J. Bowron, Tyne and Tees Glass Works, South Shields—An improvement in the manufacture of glass tiles 1082. B. Hallewell, Leeds—Improvements in drying grain which has not been sub- jected to the pm of malting 1033. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved construction of air engine. (A communication) 1034. J. J. Imbe, Brumath, France—Improvements in manufacturing cartridges or cases for containing charges for fire-arins. (A communication) 1035. T. Williams, Red Lion-strect, Clerkenwell, and J. H. Fuller, New Brentford, Middlesex — Improvements in wrenches, pliers, and spanners Dated May 9. 1036. R. K. Bowley, Charing-cross—Improvements in boots and shoes, and other coverings for the human foot 1037. J. (A com- edge, Wellington-street, South—An apparatus for cleansing rooms and other spaces. (A communication from J. N. Truchelut, Bésancon, France) 1038. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South—Improvements in the manufacture of woven or textile fabrics. (A communication from J. B. N. Coupé, 8t. Quentin, France) 1039. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, zou Hp ee in cases for spectacles and similar articles, (A communication from J. B. Sécrétant, Lavaux, France 1040. E. Cockey, H. Cockey, and F. C. Cockey, Frome Iron Foundry, erset— Improvements in clod-crushers and land-rollers 1041. J. M. Worrall, Salford—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for cutting piled goods or fabrica 1042. J. M. Worrall, Salford —Improveinents in machinery (or apparatus for cutting piled goods or fabrics THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 1048. R. 8. Markindale, Salford—An improved method of removing wool from sheep- akins and other peltry 1044. D. Morrison, Bordesley Works, Birmingham—Improvements in the manufacture of metallic bedsteads, sofas, and other articles to ait or recline on d x Taylor, Liverpool—Improvements in steam-engine governors. (A communi- on 1047. C. Whipple, United States of America—Preparing and combing wool 1048. 8. Grainicher, Zofingen, Switzerland—Improvements in the construction of pampe, of which improvements are also applicable to steam engines. (A communica- from H. Tongue, Natchez, Mississippi) Dated May 10. 1049. C. Mertens, Gheel, Belgium—Improvements in breaking and scutching fiar, hemp, and other fibrous matters, and in the machinery employed therein 1050. J. W. Lewis, Granby-road, 1 in lightning conductors, 1051. E. A. Forbush, Ashland, Massachusetts, U. S.—An improved machine for sewing leather, cloth, &c. 1052. W. Scott, and A. Powell, Birmingham—Improvements in apparatus or machi- nery to be employed for the purpose of rifling and draw-boring gun-barrele and 0 ce 1053. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved mode of preparing colours for printing and staining fabrica. (A communication) 1054. M. Allen, Worship-street, Middlesex—An improved valve, particularly applica- ble for regulating the supply of air to furnaces and fire- places 1055. E. Eastw Long Eaton, Derby—Improvements in certain parts of railway carriages 1056. F. W. Norton, Edinburgh—Improvements in the manufacture or production of figured pile fabrics 1067. J. Woodside, near Darlington, and T. Summerson, West Auckland, near Darli —An improvement in the manufacture of iron railway wheels lington 1058. C. J. Hunt, the Willows, Mitcham—Improvements in tug and other hooks Dated May 11. 1059. J. Hallam, Sheffield, and J. Elce, Manchester—Improvements in the construc- tion of rowels or toothed cylinders for self-acting temples and other purposes 1060. E. ee and T. Humphries, Pershore Worcester Lm eovenónita in machine riddles fur separating straw from grain, and for other similar purposes 1062. J. H. Johnson, Linco onn acids improvements in the manufacture ef sulphuric acid. (A communication from J. F. Persoz, Paris) 1063. C. Henderson, Tuffnell-park, Middlesex—Improvements in the constructien and arrangement of locks 1064. J. Pascall, Chislehurst, Kent, and G. Fry, Lee, Kent —Improvements in blanch- ing, forcing, and propagating garden-pots 1065. J. Steele, Greenock—Improvements in effecting the drainage of moulded sugar Dated May 12. 1069. F. G. Sanders, Patent Architectural Pottery, Poole, Dorset—Improvements in oa pipe, and tile machines 1070. G. Robinson, Manchester—An improved invalid’s bed 1071. J. Herdman, Belfast—Improvements in the manufacture of t-iron plates, other purposes for which strength and lightness are requi 1072. W. B. Adams, Adam-street, Adelphi—Improvements in the construction and propulsion of vessels for navigation, moved by internal porer 1073. J. Beckett, Preston—Improvements in machinery for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances, more particularly applicable to the machines generally known by the name of Smith's self-acting mules 1074. G. Whyatt, Openshaw, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for cutting piled goods or fabrics 18 d H. Linsey, Coleman-street—Improvements in account-books and other large adapa for ship-building and 1076. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvements in machinery for boring or petor aag stone and other materials. (A communication) 1077. F. J. Pieton, Wignehies, France—lmprovements in kuitting-macbinery 1078. W. Dray, Swan-lane—Improvements in the manufacture of es for all kinds of structures, together with the means of fastening the same when necessary, part of which is applicable to the manufacture of screws and bolts 1079. F. A. Theroulde, Place Vendóme, Paris—lmprovements in preserving animal substances. (A communication) 1080. T. Rickett, Watling Works, Stony Stratford—Improvements in the construction of W 1081. J. Dupre, Plymouth—Improvements in the construction of ovens. (A communi- cation) Dated May 14. 1082. J. Higgins, Oldham, Lancaster—Improvements in steam-boilers and apparatus connected therewith 1083. W. Robertson, Edinburgh—Improvements in the treatment of fuel, and its use for heating purposes 1084. J. Pettigrue, Drumcree, Westmeath, and Dorset-street, Dublin—Improvemeats in propelling vessels ep McConnel, Glasgow—lImprovementa in beams or girders for building or struc- tural purposes 1086. R. Morrison, Newcastle-apon-Tyne—Improvements in steam-engines 1087. J. Buchanan, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture of heddles or healds for weaving. (Partly a communication) 1088. T. C. Eastwood and T. Whitley, Bradford, York—Improvements in preparing and combing wool and other fibrous aubstances 1089. J. Mason, S. Thornton, and L. Kaberry, Rochdale—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for preparing cotton and other fibrous substances for spinning yarns or threads, and for finishing or polishing such yarns or threads 1090. A. Robertson, Shetfield—linprovementa in the construction of stoves and fire- ates 1051. R. S. Newall, Gateshead —Improvements in apparatus employed in laying dowa submarine electric telegraph wires 1092. A. C. Garratt, Massachusetts, U. S.—Facilitating the work of lubricating the axles or bearings of ar ag wheels 1098. L. L. Hill, Westhill, New York, U. 8.—Improvements in silvering glaas 1094. J. Lackmann, Hamburgh—An improvement in the manufacture of sheet-iron. (A communication) 1095. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—An improvement in burning hydro- carbon in lamps. (A communication) Dated May 15. 1096. P. Christie, Greenock—An improved tent or hut for soldiers in the field, emigrants, touriste, and other persons requiring a portable dwellin, 1097. R. Jobson, Holly-hall Works, near Dudley, Stafford, and J. Jobson, Litchurch Works, near D RO in the manufacture of moulds for casting metals 1098. W. Fawcett, J. Lamb, and F. B. Fawcett, Kidderminster—Improvements ia the manufacture of carpets and other similar fabrics, and in machinery and appe- ratus to be used therein 1099. G. T. Bousfield, Sussex-place, Brixton—Improvements in the manufacture of wrought nails. (A communication) THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dated 16. 1100. G. Saxon, Openshaw, near e dee te close in the construction of . and in valves for steam i 1102. T. Ri , Leeds— vements in dyei 1108. A. R. Le Mire de Normandy, Judd-street, Brunswick-square—Improvements in converting fatty and oily substances into fatty and oily acids, and into soap 11855 e E Peny and rea eie Berkshire Ax improvement d in Aigo ont 1105. C. W. Siemens, John-street, — rovements in cooling freezing water and other bodies , p 4 1107. R. Jamieson, Ashton-under-Lyne—An improved machine, or improvements in machinery or apparatus for forming or forging the burrs or nuts for screw-bolts; applicano also to forming, forging, or completing blanks for bolta and pieces of metal er purposes. 1108. R. Vesey and E. Vezey, Bath—Improvements in carriage-ste 1109. J. H. Porter, Birmingham—Improvementa in coat iing blocks for trusses employed in roofs and other structures generally 1111. R. Murdoch, Cran-hill, Glasgow—Improvements in agricultural apparatus for seeds, and for depositing manure 1112. W. Rye, Miles Platting, near Manchester—An improved railway wheel, which may also be employed for other similar purposes Dated May 1%. 1113. T. Dawen, ee Arms-yard, London—Improvements in cases for containing pen, an mpe 1114. A. M. Mennet, Paris—Improvements in ornamenting textile and other fabrics 1116. J. G. Butt, and J. A. Martin, Paris—A new system of rotary steam engines 1116. W. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fields—Improvements in the manufacture, treatment, and application of oily, resinous, and gammy substances, and soaps. (A communica- tion) 1117. F. D. Blyth, Birmingham—Improvementa in the manufacture of tea-trays, picture-frames, and other aimilar articles from papier-machó 1118. J. Rae, Alpha-road, New-cross—lmprovemente in warming railway passenger carriages, and compartments in steam vessels Dated May 18. 1120. B. T. Warée, Paris—A new or improved apparatus for sharpenin cils 1121. C. C. E. Minié, Paris—Improvements in Geos lgadio M Ri zy 1122. J. Jeffreys, Kingston, Surrey—Improvementa n sun-blinds or solar screens 1128. E Moroton and G. Rogers, Enfieid, Middlesex—An improvement in coating wrought-iron 1124. J. amming, DOM ne in looms for weaving 1125. W. H. D. Granville, Stokenchurch, Oxford—Improvements in fire-arms, and cartridgea for the same Dated May 21. 1126. R. J. Stainton and E. C. Davey, Holland-street, Blackfrinrs-road Improvement in the construction of warming and other stoves for generating and radiating heat, and also for economising combustion therein and attention thereto 1127. W. H. Tucker, Fleet-street —Improvementa in locks 1128. P. B. Eaasie, Gloucester—A sectorial or radial eliptograph 1129. H. H. Watson, Little Bolton and J. Oliver, Over Hulton, Lancaster—Improve- menta in the manufacture of fuel 1180. B. Nicholls. East-street, Old Kent-road —Improvements in the manufacture and construction of buttons 1131. P. F. Didot, Paris—An improved process of bleaching paper pulp, textile fabrics, and other substances or matters 1132. S. Stocker, Brighton —Improvements in machinery and apparatus for shaping of metals, and also in such metal gooda made from sheets, plates, or tubes, and also for other parts connected therewith, and for finishing the same when left by the machine of apparatus 1138. F. W. Mowbray, Shipley, near Leeds—Improvemente in looms for weaving carpets ami other pile fabrics ae aes Pigzutt, Birmingham—An improvement or improvements in telescopic gas- olders 1135. E. H. Bennett, Birmingham—Improvements in roasting jacks 1136. W. J. Curtis, Harilinge-street, Islington—Improvements in aerostation or aeronautics and the mechanism connected therewith, which improvements may be rendered subservient to purposes of navigation 1137. H. Whitaker, Buffalo, New York, U. S.—Improvemente in the propulsion of steam vessels by a direct application of a crank ontside the hull to side screw-pro- pellets, such application being combined with a high-pressure engine also outside of e 1138. L. F. I. Ravenstin, and C. Chatel, Paris—Improvements in the manufacture of blinds, screens, reficctors, and other articles of a similar nature 1139. I. J. Silbermaun, jun., Paris—Improvements in printing on any kind of surfaces 1140. A. F. Cossus, Cagliari, Sardinia—Improvements in treating oils and fatty matters 1141. W. Longmaid, Victoria-cottage, Stoke Newington and J. Longbottom, Leeds Improvements in Sas coppers, pans, and boilers 1142. J. L. Rey, and A. Guibert, Marseilles—A compoaition to preserve wood and iron, called a submarine and preserving coating 1143. T. G. Shaw, Old Broad-street—An improved conductor to be used in the decanta- tion of wine or other liquids 1144. A. H. Mentha, Manchester—Improvemente in the manufacture of wadding, and in the machinery or apparatus connected therewith 1145. W. MacNaught, Mauchester—Improvementa in steam-boilers or generators 1146. J. M. Murton, Somers-place West, St. Pancras—Improvements in sister-hooks and thimbles for ships’ and boats’ riggings, such improvements or parts thereof being rar a also to other purposes where hooks are required 1147. J. Shanks, Arbroath, Forfar—Improvements in mowing machines 1148. J. H. Johnson, Lincolo’s-inn-fields—Improvements in signals for nautical pur- poses. d^ communication from H. J. ers, Baltimore U. 8.) 1149. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fields—[m provements in the process of vulcanising and rendering hard india-rubber and gutta-percha, and in the application of those materials when hard to the construction of nos of machinery or apparatus employed in the preparation and manufacture of fibrous materials and textile fabrics. (A communication) 1150. A. V. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improvements in the construction of watches. (À communication) Dated May ?2. 1151. H. E. Scott, Brixton—Improvementa in ships and other floating vessels 1152. J. Cruickshank, Marcassie, Elgin—An improved construction of offensive and Friede e pe: for cavalry ar G. er, Halifax — Improvements in looms for weaving carpets and other brics 1154. H. Holland, Westfield, Massachusetts, U. 8.—Improvements in the method of m tee ME sulphurets ue oT olt, Blackburn and J. Sagar, Cabin-end, near Blackbarn—Improvements in 1156. J. Morgan, Manchester—An improvement in the manufacture of ted or platted wicks used in the making of candles plai 255 Dated May 28. . 1157. J. J. Meyer, Rochdale—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for shaping wood and other materials 1169. J. Eden, Lytham, Lancaster—An improved mode of drying fabrics . 1160. F. Pesebing, Busby, near Glasgow —An improved method of preparing or treating certain dye-stuffs, so as to obtain ter dyeing power i 1161. D. L. Davis, Dedham, usetts, U. S.—An improved method of apply ing elastic bearings to railroad chairs and rails 1162. T. M'Low, Staples Inn-buildings, Holborn—Improvements in paddle-wheels 1168. A. V. Newton, fee oe ale bee-hives. (A communication) 1164. W. Smith, Salisbury-street, Adelphi—Improvemente is safety apparatus for mine shafts and other hoista. (A communication from M. N.J. Jacquet, Arras, France) 1165. W. Smith, Salisbury-street, Adelphi—A safety apparatus for steam-boilers. (A communication from M. A. L. Pinel, Rouen) Dated May 24. 1166. W. Smith, Snow-hill, London and N. K Taylor, Gloucester - terrace, Park-wall, Chelsea Improvements in meters for measuring gas and other fluids 1167. J. A. Longridge, Newcastle-upon-Tyne—Improvements in the construction or the manufacture of guns and artillery, and of o vessels intended to resist great pressure 1168. A. F. G. Seege and of textile fabrics 1169. J. Mitchell and J. Entwisle, Bury, Lancaster Improvements in presser flyers for roving frames and other machines of the like nature 1170. J. Park, Bury, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery for manufacturing paper P uh. J. Hudson, Laurel-place, Dalston, and G. R. Williams, Stanley-street, Chelsea— Improvements in water meters, which are applicable also for the measurement of other fluids 1172. C. Rawlings, Sherborne, Dorset—Improvemente in writing-deaks . 1178. G. W. Muir, Glasgow, and M. Gray, Bonhill, Dumbarten—Improvements in admitting and regulating the admission of alr to furnaces Boston, U. 8 for other 1178. T. M Low, Staples Inn-buildings, Holborn—Improvemente in paddle-wheels 1179. k . Addenb Bartlett’s-passage— Improvements in machinery for folding envelopes 1180. G. Horrocks, Pilkington, Lancaster—Improvements in shuttles Dated May 25. 1181. E. Haseler, Wolverhampton—An improvement or improvemente in frames for pictures, drawings, engravings, and other similar articles 1182. T. M. Greenhow, Newcastle-upon-Tyne— Improvements in constructing and protecting the bottoms and aides of iron ships 1183. A. lville, Baker-street, Portinan-square— Improvements in breech-loading fire-arms, and in projectiles used therewith 1184. L. de Parienté, Rue de Brabant, Faubourg de Schaerbeck, Brussels—1mprove- ments in cutting or sawing wood. (A communication) 1185. J. H. Poullain, Paris—A new or improved pen-holder 1186. E. Aldridge, Boston, Lincoln—Improvemeuts in meters for measuring the flow of liquids and fluids, which can also be employed for obtaining motive power, and in taps for regulating the flow of liquids 1187. H. H. Henaon, Parliament-atreet, Westminster—An improvement in the manu- . facture of fabrics suitable for goods-wrappers, and other purposes for which canvas has been or imay be employed ; 1188. J. Allen and W. Allen, Wallsend, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne—An improvement in applying heat to alkaline solutions, and to 1 alkaline salte 1189. A. P. Jaccard, Bainte Croix, Switzerland An improved independent centre seconds movement for watches. (A communication) Dated May 26. 1190. R. W. Waithman, Bentham House, York, and J. Waithman, Manchester—Im- provements in machinery or apparatus for the manufacture of lint or similar sub- stances 1191. F. H. Maberly, Stowmarket, Suffolk—Improvements in flre-arms 1192. J. L. Lorand, William-street, Hampstead-road—An improved railway break 1193. T. Mather, Preston, Lancaster—Improvements in the construction of pistons 1194. R. Maclaren, Glasgow—Improvements in furnaces, and in the consumption or prevention of smoke 1196. J. Aspinall, Fenchurch-street — Improvements in machinery for extracting moisture from substances, and for separating liquid from solid bodies, applicable to the ranae x sugar, drying of goods, and to purposes for which centrifugal machines are employ 1197. A. I. H. Parent, Paris—Improvements in manufacturing buttons, nails, and metallic and plastic articles 1199. C. W. Harrison, Woolwich—Improvements in metal ropes, cables, and rods, and in machinery for man the same 1200. A. E. L. Bellford, Kesex-street—Improved machinery for making envelopes. (A communication) 1201. A. E. L. Bellford, Easex-street-—A new apparatus for regulating the speed of steam-engines. (A communication) 1202. T. M. Rabetté and J. Rettig, Paris—Improved machinery for bruising, graining, or cary ag leather, skins, and hides 1208. J. Avery, Essex-etreet—Improvements in apparatus for conveying heavy weights for bridge building and other purposes. (A communication) 1204. D. Methven, embroke-cottages, Caledonian-road, i Improvements in the manufacture of stoppers for bottles and other vessels 1205. G. Neuffer, Finsbury-square—An improved mode of producing patterns upon floorcloths and other ornamental coverings for floors, walls, tables, and other surfaces 1206. F. T. Botta, Paris—A new construction of furnaces, called mixed furnaces, par- ticipating of the heating by the solid fuel, and by the combustion of the gaseous roducta 1207. T. Waterhouse, Claremont-place, Sheffield — Improvements in the means of actuating forze and other hammers, which improvements are also applicable to pile driving and other like purposes. (A communication) 1208. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex- street Improved machinery to be used in preparing flax, hemp, and other fibrous matters. (A communication) Dated May ?8. 1209. J. B. Howell, Sheffleld —A new or improved mode or modes of consuming effectually the and gaseous producta evolved during the combustion of fuel 1210. 8. Rowland. Birmingham—A new or improved instrument or apparatus to be used for purifying or otberwise treating gas. (A communication) 1211. B. Fulwood, Kirby-street, Poplar— Improvements in the purification of mineral vegetable, and animal matters containing oily, bituminous, resinous, ammoniacal and aqueous qualities 1213. J. Morrison, Arlington-square, New North-road—A new mode of constructing railways, specially intended to be employed for the transit of carriages or vehicles moved or propelled by human power rs, Paris—Lmprovements in the manufacture of hangings of paper ö 256 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 1215. E. M. Roch, Paris—Improved apparatus for reading or bringing into sight bills, advertisements, papers, maps, and similar objecta 1716. F. De Moriés, Montmartre, near Paris—Improvemente in obtaining motive power 1217. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in sewing machines. (A commu- ni 1219. J. Whitehead, jun., and R. K. Whitehead, Elton, near Bury, Lancaster—Im- provementa in finishing woven fabrica l 1220. T. P. Salt, Paine ain -Hmprovementé in the construction of artificial "id 1221 H. Grafton, Rolla-buildinga, Fetter-lane—Improvemente in apparatus for heating and coo 1222. R. Coleman, Chelmsford—Improvements in the construction of land rollers, and in implements for ploughing and breaking up or scarifying the soil Dated May 29. 1723. D. Dunn, King's-road, Pentonville—Improvements in steam-boilera 1221. J. B. Acklin, Paris—Improvemeuts in the mode of substituting paper to paste- in Jacquard looms 1225. E. J. Lafond and Count L. A. de Chatauvillard, Belleville, near Paris—Improve- menta in the processes of, and apparatu. for, treating mineral, animal, and vegetable matters, for obtaining oils, essences, paraffine, and other similar products 1226. E. J. Payne, Birmingham—Improvements in the manufacture of covered thread. ‘A communication trom €. E. Dumonteil, Paris) 1227. E. Clowea, Kiug'a-bench-walk, Temple—An improved construction of spring for resisting sudden and continuous pressure. (A communication) 1228. W. gshaw, Eagley, near Bolton, Lancaster, and G. and W. Jelley, Liecester —Improvements in machinery for manufactefing fancy fabrics with both sides alike 1229. T. V. Lee, Prospect-cottage, Dulwich—linprovementa in generating steam in marine and other boilers 1280. G. Rogers, Alfred-place West, Brompton — Improvements in apparatus for retaining and drawing otf aerated liquors. (A communication) 1231. W. A. Henry, Bruce Works, Bridge-street, Shettield—Improvements in vices, and in the mode of securing the same to work-benches 1232. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in casting metals. (A com- munication from Jackson Brothers, P. Gaudet and Co., Rive de Gier, France) 1238. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-flelda—Improvernenta in stamping and embossing presses. (A communication from C. H. O. Fauger, Graefrath, Prussia) 1234. T. M Low, Staples Inn-buildings, Holborn—Improvements in screw-propellers Dated May 80. 1235. R. D. Aked, Matilda-street, Caledonian-road —Improvementa in the construction of stands for supporting crochet reels when in use 1336. A. V. Newton, Chaucery-lane—An improved calculating apparatus Dated May 31. 1237. E. Wharton, William-street, Birmingham—Improvements in ordnance and fire- arms 1238. a Cen William-street, Birmingham—Improvements in the manufacturing metal tu 1239. E. Wharton, William-street, Birmingham—Improvements in steam-engines 1240. J. L. Jullion, Combe House, Tovil, Kent—The manufacture of paper, card, and millboard, from certain vegetable productions 1241. J. Leetch, Westminster—An improved construction of helmet or head-dress Bibs W. Rimington, jun., Skipton, Craven, Yorkshire—A new spring hinge for swing doors 1243. C. T. Dunlop, Glasgow—Improvements in the manufacture of chlorine 1244. Sir J. W. Lubbock, Mansion House-street—An improvement applicable to tele- scopes and other similar optical instruments 1245. H. Sacks, Newgate-street—An improved construction of fountain pen 1246. S. Bickerton, Oldham An improved oil lubricator 1247. A. B. A. Baron Espiard de Colonze, Paris—An improved diving apparatus 1248. R. Ashworth and S. Stott, Rochdale—Appendages to and improvements in ma- chinery for preparing, spinning, doubling, twisting, and winding fibrous substances 1249. T. Worsdell, Birmingham—Improvements in lifting jacks 1250. R. A. Brooman, Peal ee Hb provements in dyeing cotton threads, yarns, and twista. (A communication from C. J. E. Ab-der-Halden, Mulhouse, France) Dated June 1. 1251. A. Jackson and E. Kershaw, Manchester, and J. Roberts, Failsworth, near Man- chester—Improveuienta in looma for weaving 1252. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvementa in the treatment of vegetable and animal oila. (A communication) 258. R. Peyton, Bordesley Works, Birmingham, and A. S. Stocker, Poultry, London— linprovements in the manufacture of bedsteads 1254. C. I. C. Venant, Amiens, France—Improvements in apparatus for roasting coffee and other substancea 1255. J. E (Eel Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia—Improvements in the manufacture of iron wheels 1256. R. Whytock, Edinburgh—Improvements in colouring yarns or threads intended to form elementa of various loom fabrics, and for crotchet work and knitting 1257. H. Tu Rochdale—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for twisting aud winding spun yarus or threads Dated June 2. 1258. J. Boyd, Ashbocking, Suffolk—Improvements in letter-press printing machines 1259. J. Lane, Liverpool, and J. Taylor, Birkenhead—An improved engine 1260. J. Taylor, and W. Smith, Maochester—Improvements in the chairs of railways 1261. C. Coe, Manchester—huprovements in the mode or method of manufacturing druggeta, bockiugs, pilot cloths, blankets, or similar strong materials. (A communi- cation! 1252. C. Little, Derby —Improvemente in the machiuery or apparatus for the manufac- ture of envelopes 1263. H. Cartwright, Broseley, Salop—An improved stcam-cock 1264. F. C. Armclin, jun., Draguignan, Frauce—Improvementa in ploughs 1200. J. T. Dore, High-street, Southainpton—An improved mode of constructing boxes or cases for holding needles, buttons, and ether wares Dated June 4. 1268. P. A. Godefroy, King's Mead-cottages, Islington—Improvements in the treatment of gutta perclia 1272. W. Eley, Broad-street, Golden-square—An improvement in the manufacture of detonating caps for ſire-arius Dated June 5. 1278. J. Gedge, Wellington-street South —Improvementa in securing the contenta of bottles or other similar vessels. A communication from C. Chevalier, Paris) 1280. D. N. B. Coffin, jun., Massachusetts, U. 3.—4A new and uscful improvement in self-closing stop-cocks 1282. C. Curtice, Massachusetts—A new and improved light alarm or burglar annun- ciator or apparatus, to give alarm when a burglarioua attempt is made to enter a room or dwelling. (A communication from E. Brown and others} 1284. E. Allen, Massachusetts, U. S.—An improved breech-loading fire-arm 1286. W. E. Newton, Chancery-lane—Lmproved machinery for rolling bar iron. (A communication) Dated June 6. 1288. J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South—Improvements in the means of preserving grain. (A communication from C. J. Delezenne, Lille, France 1290. J. Fielding and W. Hopwood, Blackburn—improvemente in looms 1292. G. Hopper, Houghton-le-Spring Iron Works, Durham—Improvements in rolling and shaping metals 1294, J. Robertson, Ardrossan, Ayr—Improvements in transmitting motive power in certain circumstances where reversing actions are necessary 1296. J. Boucher, Surrey-villas, Camberwell New-road—Lnprovements in powder- flasks, and in the sights and ram-rods of fire-arms Dated June 7. 1299. J. Ramsbottom, Longsight, near Manchester—Improvements in safety valves and feeding apparatus 1300. J. Buncle, Springfield, Linlithgow—An improvement in bleaching resinous sub- stances (caluphane, for the manufacture of soa 1801. M. Heap, Blackburn—Improvementa in the method of grinding dye-woods ot roots 1302. T. Ogden, Manchester—Improvemente in machinery or apparatus for spinning cotton and other fibrous materials 1303. A. Orange, Edinburgh Representations of articles for sale p x Fas Reynols, Elmira, New York—Improved machiuery for discharging volleys of sho 1305. D. Fehrman, Liverpool—Improvements in the manufacture of lamps. (A com- munication; 1306. C. C. J. Guffroy, Lille, France—An improved smoke-consuming apparatus 1307. R. A. Tucker, Lenton—Improved method of using gas and smoke arising during combustion Dated June 8. 1309. R. Caunce, Bolton-le-Moors—Improvementa in sizing, dressing, and warping yarn 1310. P. A. le Comte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Lmprovemente in the manufacture of iron shovels. (A communication) 1311. F. Weaver, Handsworth—Improvements in the mode of grinding bones 1312. I. Lippmann, Paris—Improvements in the manufacture of leather 1318. G. F. Chantrell, Liverpool—Improvements in the manufacture of charcoal Dated June 9. 1314. H. Sibille, Paris —Improvements in decortication and preserving 1315. J. S., E. J., and J. H. Nettlefold, Holborn—Improvements in locks (A oom - munication) 1816. E. J. Lafond, and Count de Chatauvillard, Bellville, Paris—Improvement in the mode of lighting 1317. H. 1 Lincoln—Improvements in meters 1319. T. Bricht, Carmarthen—Improvements in the prevention of waste in water or other fluid supplies 1820, M. J. Cooke, Newcastle—Improvements in the method of preserving food 1321. J. Robinson, Poplar—Improvements in the manufacture of tables 1327. J. Greenwood, Irwell Springs, Bacup—Improvemente in the mode of purifying 0 1323. S. Colt. Pall-mall —Improvements in the manufacture of firearms 1324. S. Colt, Pall-mall, and W. T. Eley, Broad-street, Golden- square —Improvementa in the manufacture of cartridges Dated June 11. 1825. W. K. Hall, Mark-lane—Improvements in the manufacture of railway- breaks 1326. H. B. Barlow, Miuchester e in cotton machinery. (A,commanica- tion) 1377. F. C. Bakewell, 6, Haverstock- terrace, Hampstead—Improvements in the manu- facture of bench- planes. (A communication) 1328. J. D. Kind, Birmingham —Improvementa in the manufacture of lock spindles and handles 1329. J. L. Casartelli, Manchester —Improvementa in pressure and vacuum guages 1330. E. V. Gardner, Norfolk-street, Middlesex-hospital, and J. H. Walker, Cole-street, Dover—Improvemeuts in the mode of separating vegetable substan^^s,fro. fabrics containing wool, and preparing wool for re- manufacture for i eat rr Limerick, aud W. R. Le Fann, Dublin—Improv. nts in joining ridge rails 1332. F. T. 3. Bards, Royal Exchange—Improvements in the manufacture of card- cases 1333. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvemente in the manufacture of metallic pens, (A communication) 1334. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln's-inn-fleldas—Improvements in the manufacture of go- vernors. (A communication) 1335. I. Lippmann, Paris—Improvemente in the mode of dycing skins Dated June 12. 1336. I. J. Liebisch, London—Improvements in rails for railways B W o Armitage, Mauchester—Improvements in the manufacture of union bags and aail-clot 1338. N. Hackney, Hull—Improvements in the manufacture of earthenware, china, and porcelain 1339. S. Coulson, Sheffield —Improvementa in the manufacture of sulphate of ITA 1340. W. B. Jobnson, Mauchester— Improvements in steam-boilers and safety-valves 1341. T. Metcalfe, High-street, Camden-town—lmprovementa in the manufacture of collapsible hats and bonnets 1312. C. Parker, Dundee—Improvements in weaving 1343. H. W. Ford, Gloucester—Luprovements in agricultural machinery 1344. J. C. Brant, Surrey-square, Old Kent-road — Improvements in the permanent way of railways PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 1106. R. Peters, Union-street, Borough—Improvements in steam-engines—May 16 1174. S. 8. Putman, Massachusetts, U. 8.—A new or improved forging-machine— May 24 1175. S. E. Robins, Vermont, U. 8. — New and useful improvements in fire-arms. (Partly a communication from G. Leonard, U. S.) May 24 1177. T. Baron von Gilgenheimb, Widenau, Silesia A new machine for tilling land May 24 1214. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in ordnance and in cartridges therefor, (A communication from C. F. Brown, Warren, Rhode Island, U. 8.)— May 28 — d NOTICE OF APPLICATION FOR LEAVE TO ENTER DISCLAIMER. A petition haa been presented to the Attorney-General for leave to enter a disclaimer to part of the title and specification of a patent granted to W. L. Brook and C. Brook, jun., Meltham Mills, near Hudderstield, York—For “certain improvements in preparing, dressing, finishing, and winding cotton and linen yarns or threads”— November 25, 1853 Seen ai ee eae 11 1 Google hd natur | hmmm if FN 0 Í up b ; | ! i y AULA 73 — o FS LT M DOE ELI S IT c pA RET BEI a — Mie % — eee ee J E il e i fi } hl tll ] ii ramos di 1 f " d | H — 7 Uu = | ES i tl M T a = este’ emer da 1 i i 106000 | | ae \.+ fe j ; "E 7 l LE XC TN n MT EIUS" WE cob rs 1 v f 2 mL VE une QUUM. Ve ze | TT mi SH ume aT ^ hl li k - Tu 7 4 - -— "M UN. EUR SIL T HD | IO PAN BEN =, Any s 2 TUA "AU JU | „ j x : 151 * e n " Sp 2 E Y. ie p z- = = — — — s |J LU li I i i M / ; " rm = n Š - = a Ae de UR A SUUS Ly a TE CHURCH. NE AR TODMORDEN ; VOS 1 JAMES GREEN, TODMORDEN ARCH" THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL LYDGATE CHURCH, NEAR TODMORDEN, YORK. (With an Engraving, Plate XXII.) Tue church represented by our engraving is now in course of erection in the vale of Todmorden, so justly celebrated for its bold and romantic scenery. It will be a chapel-of-ease, within the incumbency of Cross-stone, in the parish of Halifax, and will provide for the wants of a large and rapidly increasing popula- tion. The Decorated style of the thirteenth century has been adopted throughout, and the interior will, in every respect, correspond to the external decorations. The chapel will consist of,—nave, 57 by 33 feet; and chancel, 26 by 20 feet. | The chancel will be separated from the nave by a deeply moulded arch springing from clustered columns, having foliated capi and will have sedilla, piscina, and arcade behind altar, of polished Bath-stone. The east window will be glazed with stained glass, representing some scriptural subject. — — — — — — [ , ,, = “iy j 2 = ` j -- "T9 — PF — 7. i Yy E A i = I 3 i = 7 Y iy * " T : WY ` IN — $ 1 — Vy ht — "os M — —— c i p PR e RR, E e ERE NR ge me KELL ELL LLL A ecc edi id c i i d [hf . D WE al hy hd As ` : : ` x F . SONA — LS S — Se ee — S / rr — m — — 7 AF 777, = a S A ` D Y i IIIS J A ee Tu j 1 | Q. È 1 ` Dan — — — td A Uf —— 28 aw j ; 2 A 7, ^ 1 1 » » ——— . NÅ! Bey» WTA, — = » » / 7 = y — I P v 7, ` = R — MT = ~ Se ` 7 A — H E / 7 ASL, f TS = TEES = = Z : - - — — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 273 formed in the breech piece B, through which the cartridge or charge is to the barrel, the wedge piece D, D, being pre- viously withdrawn by the screw E, E; the wedge piece is then forced up against the inclined edge of the breech piece B, B, and ita front surface is brought into close fitting contact with the end of the barrel. In ite upwards, the steel piece 6, may be used to cut off the end of the cartridge if desired, or it may be provided with a cutter for that purpose, having a projecting ledge to prevent the powder or dust from falling. he same principle the patentee applies to rifles. The cross section of the barrel at any part exhibits externally the same polygonal outline as internally, and, viewed longitudinally, has mila spiral lines and surfaces to the interior; it tapers from the breech to the muzzle. The breech piece is screwed on to the end of the barrel, and attached to the stock of the gun by a tail iece and screws. The breech piece has a vertical slot or open- ing, into which is fitted à wedge piece and screw, as described in the case of the cannon. The cartridge or charge is inserted in the manner described above in treating of the breech-loading of cannon. The fire-arm cannot be discharged until the wedge piece is raised to its proper position, as in any other the nipple is too low to be struck by the hammer. The patentee does not confine himself to the exact details, as such may be varied or modified without departing from the prin- ciple; but he claims:— First, the several combinations of parts forming (when put together) the barrels of ordnance or fire-arms having a polygonal spiral shape. Secondly, the use of the spirally-shaped segments. Thirdly, the adoption of the polygonal spiral for rifled ordnance aad fire-arms. Fourthly, the combination of parts forming the breech-loading apparatus. — —.:À— —— —— AMERICAN ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS. Tae importance of the electric telegraph as a means of com- munication is yet very imperfectly appreciated, but it is, never- theless, rapidly extending its ramifications, and every year will make its advantages more fully known. When each town and village has its electric telegraph, and the means of transmitting information are more regular, more free from error, and much cheaper than at pos communication by the comparativel slow medium of the post will in a great measure be superseded, and the most distant parts of the kingdom will, in point of corre- sponding facility, be brought as close together as different parts of the same large town. The history of so important an inven- tion cannot fail to interest, and in tracing the successive stages of 5 to its present degree of practicability—we will not say of perfection —we perceive, perhaps more distinctly than in the progress of most other inventions that have effected social change aud advancement, that the result is due not to any one individual, but that it has been attained by the gradual progress of scientific discovery, by the successive application of those discoveries, and by improvements in the contrivances of preceding inventors. An abridged history of the invention has recently been published in New York,* which presents, within a small compass, the advances made by different scientific and ingenious men in bringing the instrument to its present state. But this abridgment, like most other works on the subject, is written for the purpose of setting forth the merits of one particular system of making a telegraph communication, with the object of advanc- ing the claims of an individual inventor. There is still wanting an impartial and full history of the invention of the electric telegraph, in which the course of improvement would be faithfully traced, and every system have due consideration, uninfluenced by prejudice or favour. It is remarkable that in this small pub- lication, as in the larger ones from which it is compiled, no notice is taken of the recently contrived means of communicating by transmitting copies of the writing of the ies corresponding, a system which has been pronounced to be the beau ideal of the electric telegraph, and which we understand might be applied without difħculty. The subject of the electric telegraph is looked at, in the book * *' History of the Invention of the Electric Telegraph. Abridged from the works of Lawrence Turnbull, M.D., and Edward Highton, C.E.; with remarks on Royal E. Houses American Printing Telegraph, and the claims of Samuel F. B. Morse, as an inventor.” New York: Bryant and Co, No. 257-—Vol. xviii.— Aucust, 1855. before us, from an American point of view, and the main object of the writer ap to be to exalt the merits of Mr. House's printing ee and to depreciate the claims of Mr. Morse, who has been endeavouring to monopolise the whole telegraphic communication of the United States. The latter holds the same reputation in America as the inventor of the electric telegraph, that Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone do in this country, though to neither can the merit of original invention of that means of communication be assigned. Mr. Morse, like Mr. Cooke, was ignorant of the science of electricity, until his attention was directed somewhat accidentally to its applicability as a means of transmitting information. The subject was first brought to the notice of Mr. Morse during his return to America from Europe, in 1832, by Dr. Jackson, one of the passengers on board the cket. r. Jackson claims to have made the suggestion to r. Morse, and it is a disputed point between them who first communicated to the other the notion of transmitting telegraph signals by the mechanical agency of electro-magnets; but as Dr. Jackson had just come from Paris, where he had been attend- ing scientific lectures, and had an electro-magnet with him, whilst Mr. Morse was admittedly ignorant of electricity, it seems most probable that Mr. Morse was more indebted for information and suggestion on the subject to Dr. Jackson, than the latter to him. Neither of them, however, could claim to have known more than was well known to most scientific men in Europe, and Mr. Morse most certainly has the credit of applying the know- ledge he then and afterwards acquired to the construction of the simplest practical telegraphic instrument that has yet been con- trived. e was by profession an artist, with very limited means, and not having the power to pursue the necessary experimenta, the subject, though frequently present to his mind, was allowed to remain in abeyance until 1837, when he filed a caveat in the Patent office of the United States; but it was not till 1840 that the invention was sufficiently advanced to enable him to obtain a patent. Even in the autumn of 1837, after the caveat had been filed, the apparatus of Morse's telegraph was in so rude a form, that he felt reluctance to have it seen, a part of it being *made up of an old picture or canvas frame fastened to a table, and the wheels of an old wooden clock moved by a weight to carry the paper forward" Mr. Morse, in the specification of his patent, claimed to be the original inventor of electro-magnetic telegraphs, and he claimed the exclusive right to every improvement where the motive power is the voltaic current, and the result is the marking of signs at a distance. This claim was admitted in one of the American courts, in face of the facts that Prof. Wheat- stone obtained his first patent three years previously, and had made known the means of applying electro-magnetism for the transmission of telegraphic signals. Indeed, electric telegraphs had been invented thirty years before Mr. Morse thought on the subject, which would have answered the purpose nearly as well as many recently patented instruments, had the want of such a means of communication been felt, and the application of it encouraged. It is well-known, that for nearly ten years after Prof. Wheatstone's first patent was sealed, the invention was not practically applied, because the government gave no encourage- ment to the project, and capitalists could not not see their way clear to à profitable return of money invested in such an under- taking. It was to the perseverance and scientifie skill and tact of Mr. Cooke, that this country is indebted for the introduction of the invention; and the same credit that is due to Mr. Cooke for his exertions in establishing the telegraph here, may be claimed by Mr. Morse in the United States. The government of that country, however, did not exhibit the same indifference to so important a social improvement as was manifestel by our government, for, on the representations of Mr. Morse, Congress appropriated $30,000 for the purpose of testing the practical appli- cation of his telegraph. Thus enabled to carry out his plans, Mr. Morse constructed a line between Washington and Baltimore in June 1844, on which, after the difficulties of a first application had been overcome, bis telegraph worked in a highly satisfactory manner. Mr. Morse has little claim to be considered an original inven- tor, but he contrived to combine the inventions of others into the form of the simplest of working telegraphs. No other instrument equals his in simplicity of action; for the ends of the two line wires might serve, without any apparatus, to transmit a message in his manner. The receiving instrument, however, requires clock-work mechanism. This plan has been received with much favour in America, where the greater number of the 39 274 telegraphic lines are worked with his instruments, and it has also been extended to Europe. On many of the continental telegraphic lines, Morse’s system has been employed; and we understand that it is now adopted by the Submarine Telegraph Company, to the exclusion of the needle instruments which they formerly used. The Morse telegraph possesses the advantage of recording the signals on paper, by symbolical marks which represent letters of the alphabet. The form of the symbols consists of combinations of ds and strokes, made in & continuous line on a strip of paper; the varied dispositions of which indicate ditferent letters. 'The symbols may, of course, be arranged in any manner agreed upon, the object in constructing such an alphabet being to employ the marks most readily made, to repre- sent the letters that most frequently occur. The following is the arrangement as recently Wed bs the Electric Telegraph Company, ies 1 a modification of Morse's instrument on some of eir lines: A B C D E F G H R S T U V The mode of opang to produce these marks on paper will be readily understood by those who are acquainted with the action of electro-magnets. To the end of a short lever fixed to the keeper of an electro-magnet there is attached a blunt point, which presses upon and makes an indentation in the paper when the electro- magnet is put in action by the voltaic current. To adapt the marks thus made to telegraphic purposes, a continuous band of paper, about the third of an inch in width, is drawn slowly by clock-work mechanism underneath the point, and thus when the keeper is attracted by the et, an indented line is impressed in the paper so long as the electric current passes through the coil of wire, and it is broken off the instant that the contact with the voltaic battery ceases. The transmitting portion of the telegraph consists of a spring key connected with the telegraph wires and the voltaic battery; so that in its ordinary sondition the spring raises the key and breaks connection, but when pressed down the circuit is closed, and the electro-magnet at the distant station is brought into action. The length of the inden- tations on the paper depends therefore upon the duration of the pressure on the key. When a dot or short stroke only is required to be made, the pressure is instantaneous; when a longer stroke is required, the pressure is prolonged, and by thus varying the durations and the intervals of pressure on the key, any series of dots and strokes and vacant spaces may be made, correspondin with the signs of the letters to be transmitted. A boy we practised in the use of the instrument can transmit messages in this manner with great celerity. As many as one hundred letters a minute are sometimes thus transmitted, and when it is con- sidered that the average number of marks requisite to form the symbols of the letters is three, and that pauses have to be made between each letter and word, the rapidity of manipulation is astonishing. The operator, keeping his eye fixed on the written message to be transmitted, taps away with the key, observing the requisite variations in the duration of the pressure and of the intervals, until he has finished. The clerk at the receiving station reads the symbolic message from the strip of paper as it is delivered, and translates and writes it down. It is evident, from the mode of operation, that it is very liable to error, for by ressing down the key for an instant longer than it ought to be, or y not leaving a sufficient interval between two distinct symbols, mistakes and confusion may arise; and there is not the same facility as with the needle instrument, for indicating whether each word transmitted is understood. One great advantage of the Morse instrument however is, that it works with a single wire nearly as fast as the double-needle instrument with its two wires. | It might be supposed, from the extreme simplicity of Mr. Morse’s telegraph, that there could have been little difficulty in perfecting that system of communication after the plan had been devised. But simple as it seems, the difficulties arising from various causes when working in an altogether untried field, were extremely perplexing, and threatened to put a stop to the under- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. taking, supported though it was by the liberal grant of Co : The plans of insulating the wires at first adopted proved defec- tive, and it was not till several other methods had been tried that the suspension of them in the air from posts was resorted to. It was stated in evidence, by one of the persons employed by Mr. Morse to superintend the construction of the telegraph from Washington to Baltimore, that upon making experimenta on the line, everything was a complete failure;" the instruments first made had to be entirely altered, and alterations had also to be made in the batteries, the re-lay magnets, and other parts of the arrangements, before they succeeded in obtaining legible mes- es. he claims of Mr. Morse as the inventor of the American electric telegraph are thus set forth in the publication before us: * It appears that Prof. Morse's exertions were ana directed to certain mechanical contrivances by no means complicated, but not being much of a mechanic, theoretically or practically, he made but slow pro- ss. As soon as science and invention had demonstrated the practio- ability of producing mechanical effects at great distances by means of electric currents either with or without the electro-magnet, the electric telegraph became inevitable, and various forms of the telegraph were also inevitable. Any ingenious person could suggest and put in opera- tion various practicable forms. One inventor would avail himself of the deflection of the needle, another of the property of the electric current to decompose salts, another of the miecha cal cower of the electro-magnet. Morse preferred the latter, and invented or adopted one of the various forms in which that power could be usefully applied for the purpose, and he invented or adopted an alphabet of signs. As to the making of intelligible marks by the action of the electric current on chemically prepared paper, that had been done by many persons years before Morse had heard of the electric telegraph. ‘In 1830, Booth, in Dublin, explained fully how electro-magnetism could be used to telegraph at a distance, and cause marks to be made by the fall of the armature from the horse-shoe magnet when the current was roken.' It was shown by Faraday in 1838, that a current from even a single pair of plates was sufficient to make such marks, and to accomplish them he used a single wire, touching the paper, and making marks whenever the contact was made. This was a well-known mode at the time of exhibiting the chemical effects of the galvanic current. Atan oy period, patents for this mode of telegraphing were taken out in ngland. In 1827 or 1828, Dyer constructed & telegraph line on Long Island. He used common electricity and not electro-magmetism, and but one wire, which operated by & spark, which, after going through paper chemically prepared, so as to leave a red mark on it, passed into the ground, without a return circuit. The difference of time between the sparks was, by an arbitrary alphabet, to signify different letters, and the paper was to be moved by the hand, while the telegraph operated, though machinery was contemplated to be introduced for that purpose. In July 1838, a patent was granted in England, to Mr. Edward Davy, for a marking telegraph. He used the decomposing action of the galvanic current to produce marks upon chemically prepared cloth or other material. Many of the chemical telegraphs were marking or permanently recording telegraphs. In some, even of the earliest contrivances, oom- binations of dots made by the electric spark, served as signs of letters. Morse, to make his alphabet, adopts horizontal lines of unequal lengths, as well as dots, and makes these marks with a pricker, instead of usi the direct action of the current. By his system, patented in 1849, he dispenses with the pricker, and marks the dots and dashes on chemically prepared paper, by the direct action of the current. e have seen that the motive power of electro-magnetiam was actually applied in the telegraphic art as early as 1833, by Gauss and Weber, upon a line of electric telegraph, and that, afterwards, other persons, but especially Steinheil, in 1836, and Cooke and Wheatstone in 1837, applied the same power upon telegraph lines, using different mechanical contrivances for the purpose of making intelligible signs at a distance. Steinheil did not use in his marking telegraph the motive power of electro-magnetism in the same way as Morse does; the former made his marks with small electro-magnetic bars of iron, each having a small tube holding ink, but Morse uses an electro-magnet to attract a piece of iron (called a keeper or armature) to which is attached a pricker, with which indentations are made on paper. The machinery is not identical in the mode of operation, but the motive power of the electro- magnet is used in both cases for the purpose of marking signs. The use of an electro-magnet, with an armature, was suggested by Booth in 1830, and by Prof. Henry in 1833. After repeated experi- ments, Prof. Henry, by means of an intensity battery of his own arrangement, succeeded in sending the electric current through a long circuit, without any perceptible diminution of magtetic power. His experiments and their results were made public in 1831, in ‘Silliman’s Journal.’ In the same publication he announced the applicability of his discovery to the project of the telegraph. In his lectures from the chair THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. of Natural Philosophy, in Princeton College in 1838, and in every sub- sequent year during his connection with the institution, he mentioned the project of the electro-magnetic telegraph, and explained how the electro-magnet might be used to produce mechanical effects at a dis- tance adequate to making signals of various kinds. But neither Booth nor Henry contrived a system of signs adapted to that mode, nor did they apply clock-work to move the paper and receive the marks: it remained for others to do these things, and perfect the mechanical details, from time to time as experience might dictate. It has seemed surprising to many that the electric telegraph was not introduced into public use soon after it was discovered that an electric current might be generated, and instantaneously transmitted through wire. But the fact is that great discoveries had to be made in the means of generating electricity, so as to secure a steady flow of the cur- rent before electric telegraphs could be brought into profitable use or business purposes. Moreover, before the discovery that gutta percha was a complete insulator, the attempts made to lay down conductors beneath the surface of the ground were only partially successful, and it was not at first known that conductors of great length suspended in the air would require no special insulation. It was supposed that the cur- rent would be dissipated in the course of a few miles if the wire were not covered with some insulating substance. This was Morse’s idea when he filed his caveat in Oct. 1837, for he therein assumes it to be absolutely necessary to cover the wires if they should be suspended in the air. Weber concluded in 1833, that the air was a sufficient insulator. Steinheil, in 1836, acted upon that opinion, and indeed, formed the con- clusion that we should never succeed in laying down conductors beneath the surface of the ground that would be sufficiently insulated, the ground being always damp. The wires of the first telegraph constructed in England in 1837, were insulated in tubes by means of a mixture of cotton and india-rubber, and the prepared wires were passed through iron pipes, which, on some parts of the line, were buried beneath the the ground, and in others rained above it. The wires were afterwards elevated on wooden posts, as the moisture affected the wires and destroyed the insulation. Morse, in 1843, not being aware of these experiments, as it would appear, adopted an inferior mode of laying his conductors under the und, which, after considerable expense had been incurred, was aban- oned, and the conductors were then suspended by him in the air, with insulators at the supporters, according to the custom in Europe.” The writer, it appears from the foregoing extract, takes no favourable view of Mr. Morse’s claims; and the attempts made by the latter to enforce a monopoly of telegraphic communication throughout the United States, were calculated to excite a stron feeling against him amongst other inventors, who were preven by the assumed monopoly of inventions and discoveries made by others, from making improvements in the system of telegraphic communication. The following observations have reference to these attempts to grasp and monopolise the inventions of others: ‘Tt has never been disputed that Morse has a right to take out a patent for his mode of marking signs. Judge Woodbury held that ‘other inven- tors must take care not to use anything which Morse himself invented, but only, like him, use the fruits of their own perseverance and ingenuity.' ut it has been contended by Morse’s assignees that other inventors had no right to begin where Morse himself began, and introduce other Bystems of telegraphing, even although they avoided the use of anything invented by him—that they could not be permitted to produce an effect by the agency of electricity of any kind, directly or indirectly, with or without an electro-magnet, which effect could be described by the same pere term or expression which describes the,effect produced by orse's apparatus. Thus the making of intelligible punctures and scratches on paper, may be called recording intelligence, and so may the printing of plain letters, although machinery to produce that effect must be as different as that of & steam engine from that of a watch. The general result, the instantaneous transmission of intelligence by electric currents was not new when Morse completed his invention. Nor was the particular result the marking of intelligible signs at a dis- tance thereby. Nor waa the yi dais of the motive power of electro-magnetism to roduce either the general or the particular result above-mentioned. or was that application, or any application of electro-magnetism, necessary to produce either result. But the application of the motive power of electro-magnetism, to cause marks to be made by a pencil or pricker at the end of a lever attached to the armature of & horse-shoe magnet appears to have been first made by Morse, for the purpose of an electric telegraph, although that application was not originally suggested by him. At least appears to have been the first who completed an apparatus for that application. Others may have projected the same thing, but he, accord- ing to the testimony, was the first to carry out the idea in practice, so as to be entitled to a patent. The true date of the invention is the time when he first adapted his invention to use, which must have been some time after the date of his 275 aras in which document he states that the invention was then incom- piete. The patent covered the means thus first applied, and the principle of the contrivance. ‘It would amount to an infringement of such an invention as Morse's, or the patent for it, to adopt his mode of acting, operating, &c., or merely to change it by substituting some mecbanical equivalent in a part of it, or altering only the form and proportion so as not, materially to affect results, or making any change merely evasive, colourable and not substantial or considerable in its character.' It will be obvious, from what has been already shown of the progress of scientific discovery, that the electric telegraph would long ago sve been in public use in this country, if Morse had never existed. But he is entitled to the credit of having persevered in endeavouring to intro- duce the telegraph into seen. use, although it was confidently predicted that the business would not pay expenses. He and his friends succeeded in inducing Congress to pay the expense of constructing an experimental line between Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Morse was assisted by Mr. Vail and Mr. F. O. J. Smith, in bringing 'the American telegraph before the public. Morse's own pecuniary means were very limited, he not having met with much success in his profes- sion as an artist, which he pursued until the summer of 1837, when Mr. Vail joined him in his telegraphic enterprise. Morse was also assisted by Prof. Gale, and often consulted Prof. Henry. If Morse had obtained no patent, or had not interested himself in the subject, no doubt others would have availed themselves of the actual establishment of the electric telegraph lines in England and elsewhere, before referred to, and even if we had not had the electro-magnetic marking-telegraph, with the pricker, and dots, and lines, we should doubtless have had the needle telegraph, or the chemical telegraph, about the same time that Morse's apparatus was put in operation. Either of the above contrivances would have angwered the purpose quite as well as the one selected by Morse, and if the public had had nothing to pay for patents, the telegraph lines would probably have been more substantially built, and the tariff of prices would have been lower. On the principal lines, as much has been paid for the use of Morses petente as for the total cost of the construction of the lines. This urthen has been almost too much for the telegraph system in its infancy—the lines having been flimsily built—the stocks of the companies have been too high, and the extension of the business has been restrained by the necessity of charging heavy rates for messages, in order to get dividends on such large capital stocks. In many parts of the country, especially in the south and west, the telegraph lines are but of little practical utility, not being at all reliable. And there is reason to believe that so long as Morse's principal patent is in existence, the general adoption of other and better systems of telegraphing will be prevented by the influence of the old companies, and by the claims set up under that patent. The electric telegraph has been a long time in advancing to ita present state. It is not the invention of one man or any set of men, nor of one nation, but of many nations, each adding their might to the noble atruc- ture. Its history is based upon two of the most interesting of the physical sciences, those of electricity and magnetism. Had not these sciences been fully investigated, and thousands of labourers spent cen- turies upon them, we should never have seen an electric telegraph. Had not such men as Oersted, Ampére, Arago, Faraday, and our own Franklin, spent their days in experimenting and nights in studying, we should never have reaped the rich reward of their labours." The instrument which it is the object of the writer of this work to bring into notice in opposition to that of Mr. Morse, is Mr. House's printing telegraph, also an American invention. But objections, on the ground of want of novelty, may be raised also to that; for Prof. Wheatstone and Mr. Bain had previously invented printing telegraphs in this country, by which letters were printed from types on paper. It is true that neither of those instruments had been brought to a satisfactory state of working, and that to Mr. House is due the invention of an arrangement by which the same effect may be produced with ter rapidity and with more certainty. An improvement on . House's telegraph has been made by Mr. Jacob Brett in England, by which the mode of printing telegraphic messages is rendered less liable to error, and the instrument works beautifullv —though slowly in comparison with others. Mr. House is said to have made further improvements to facilitate the action, and the number of 234 letters per minute are stated to have been printed by it. That, however, must have been under very peculiar circumstances, and most probably without any regard to accuracy. The following explanation of the instrument conveys a general idea of its construction and mode of operation: 4 The different letters are signalized from one station to another by the transmission of a number of electrical impulses for each letter, by the rapid opening and closing of the electric circuit. At each station there is a key-board (similar to the key-board of a pianoforte), upon which there are twenty-six keys, each having a letter of the alphabet marked upon it, and one key marked with a dot, and one left blank. 39° 276 Under the key-board is a horizontal cylinder, which is kept revolving by the turning of a crank and fly-wheel. At one end of this cylinder is a cog-wheel, with fourteen cogs, aud consequently, fourteen spaces between the cogs. This wheel is called the circuit-wheel, being con- nected with the electric circuit by a spring, which presses upon a cog, or passes over a space as the wheel revolves. When this spring is upon : cog the telegraph circuit is closed; when it is in a space the circuit is roken. Upon the underside of each key there is a pin fixed directly over a similar projection on the cylinder. By the revolution of the circuit- wheel the circuit is rapidly broken and closed until a key is depressed, when its pin comes in contact with one on the cylinder, and the motion of the latter and of the circuit- wheel is arrested; when the key is released, the cylinder and wheel again revolve until another key is depressed, and the circuit is opened and closed as many times as there are spaces from the last key to the next one which is depressed. Each opening and closing of the circuit is communicated through the line wire to an axial magnet at each station, which is thus caused to vibrate an equal number of times; each vibration of the magnet changes the direction of a current of compressed air to opposite ends of a small cylinder in which a piston moves backwards and forwards, which piston is connected by an escape- ment (somewhat similar to that of a watch), with a wheel having the letters of the alphabet engraved upon its edge, corresponding to the letters on the keys. The result is, that this type- wheel is thus made to advance as many letters as there are vibrations of the magnet and move- ments of the piston, cor nding to the number of times the electric circuit is broken and closed between the depression of one letter key and another. It only requires that the instruments at both ends of the line should be set to the same letter, and then the cylinder at one extremity, and the . type-wheel at the other, regulated by the pulsations of the electric cur- rent, in combination with the compressed air, will always revolve at the same rate; and if the cylinder is stopped at any one point representing & letter, the type-wheel is stopped at the same point, and presents the corresponding letter on its periphery to the strip of paper placed in front of it. When the type-wheel stops, an eccentric, moved by the manual power at the crank, draws the inking band and paper forcibly against the type, and a letter is thus impressed on the paper. The paper is then carried on by the machinery the distance of a letter, and is ready for another impression. The action of the electricity and compressed air in this telegraph is merely to produce correspondence of motion between the machines at different points of the line, so that the particular letter desired, and no ether, may be printed. All the mechanical results are produced by the manual power. The axial magnet moves only about the sixtieth part of an inch each vibration, and from sixty to eighty times in a second. A slight current of electricity is sufficient to produce this effect, as the magnet combines attraction and repulsion, and thereby a great advantage is secured in the acquisition of power, so mucb so, that messages are sent over long distances by House's Printing Telegraph without the aid of local or branch circuits which are necessary for other systems of tele-. graph. As observed by Judge Woodbury, from the bench, this machine ‘literally gives letters to lightning as well as lightning to letters.’ The operator sends messages as fast as he can touch the keys in suc- cession, using both hands, and every time he touches a key, a plain letter is printed. He can keep his eye upon the manuscript just as a performer upon a pianoforte keeps his eye upon the music notes, and not upon the keys. | | If, owing to any temporary disarrangement, the letter touched on the key-board is not printed at the place of destination, no other letter is printed which can deceive the operator at the receiving station; but letters fly off rapidly in confused order, and a signal is given at once to the operator at the transmitting station to adjust his instrument, which is effected in a moment. The advantages of this system are despatch, accuracy, and economy. The machines cost more in the first instance than the apparatus for the dotting and signal telegraphs, but the expense, trouble, and errors of translating and copying the messages are avoided. The operator merely touches a lettered-key once, and the machinery, with unerring accuracy, produces a similar letter, whilst by other systems, a number of manipu- lations, say on the average three for each sign of a letter, are required. It is evident that even with the needle telegraph, there is a vast deal more danger of making mistakes in transmitting messages than there is in the use of the House Printing Telegraph, to say nothing of mistakes in translating the signs and in writing out the message. To perfect the electric telegraph, it was necessary to make machinery to supersede the doubtful action of human fingers.“ Mr. House under- took to do so, and after years of toil he succeeded beyond his most san- guine expectations. The importance of the result is appreciated by those who are practically acquainted with the use of the instrument, and by the public at large. Messages have been sent by this system * This is apparent from the fact that a short time since a great many messages sent over from New York to Cincinnati, were examined with the manuscripta, and it was diacovered that there was at least one mistake in four messages out of five. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. from Washington to Utica, by way of New York, without being repeated—a distance of 600 miles. Congressional reports are sent through from Washington to New York without being repeated, & copy being dropped at Baltimore and Philadelphia, the distance by telegrap! being 280 miles. House lines now run from New York to Philadelphia, Washington, Boston, and Buffalo, and from Buffalo to Cincinnati and Louisville; and other lines are projected in various parts of the country.” The principal objection to Mr. House’s telegraph is the com- plication of the arrangements, and the accuracy requisite in constructing the mechanism; the necessary consequences of which are, costliness and liability to get out of order. A single instru- ment costs upwards of 100/., which is five times the amount of most other telegraph instruments. It would no doubt bea improvement on the present method of si ing, either by the needles or by symbolic marks on paper, to have the messages cor- rectly printed at once; but even that advancement in telegraphic communication is far inferior to the transmission of exact copies of the messages, with the recognised signatures of the writers; and there is nothing, we understand, to prevent the adoption of that plan, but the dislike on the part of the established companies to disturb existing arrangements, which would apply equally to the printing telegraph. PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF BATTERSEA PARK. THE works required for the formation of the park were com- menced in February 1854, and have been continued from that period as rapidly as earth could be obtained for raising the levels, and as the funds would permit. The first yis taken were to clear the site of the park, by pulling down fifty houses which stood upon it, to cut down the hedges and fruit trees, to fill up the ditches, and partially to sow the market garden grounds with grass seeds, by these means the whole of the area intended to be appropriated as park land has been made available for the use of the public (but at present without walks, &c.) and the remainder has been laid out in masses preparatory to being let for building purposes. In April, a contract was entered into for the fence, so that the park land is now enclosed all round, except on the east side, which awaits the formation of the mE The works required, preparatory to the formation and planting of the park, commenced about the same time, and have con- tinued ever since, there being at the present time above 120 men employed upon them. These works have consisted, Ist, of the raising and forming of an esplanade by the river side, the whole neta of the park, about 120 feet broad, and 4 feet above Trinity high-water mark. 2nd. In the raising and diens bes the Albert- road east of the park, from the river to the Lower Wands- worth-road, which is now in an advanced state; and 3rd, in the formation of entrances to the park at its south-west and south- east angles. During these works, little short of 100,000 cubic yards of earth have been brought from a distance (chiefly by the river) for filling up the jocks and low grounds, and above 25,000 cubic yards of earth have been excavated and moved, for forming the levels df the public roads and of the approaches to the park The principal work now in hand, and to which attention will be principally directed, is the formation of the public road or ascent to the new Chelsea bridge. This road, which is to be 60 feet wide, will require to be raised near the bridge 22 feet above the present level of the ground, and the quantity of earth required will be about 150,000 cubic yards, exclusive of the slopes, which, for effect within the park, should be made very easy. It is hoped that arrangements may speedily be concluded for obtaining this large quantity, which must all be brought from a distance by the river; but this must depend on many contingencies. The sum which has been expended upon these works since February 1854, or for which liabilities have been incurred, amounts to about 8000/., which is the full amount available out of the sum of 25,500/. voted last session, after payment of the moneys due for the purchase of properties, &c. JAMES PENNETHORNE, Architect. April 11, 1855. — — THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL PRESENT STATE AND CONDITION OF CHELSEA BRIDGE. Tux works of the bridge have been subject to extraordinary delay. In one instance by want of funds, but principally by the first contractor not having fulfilled his contract; and when he ceased operations at the . the Board were withheld by legal proceedings from arranging with other contractors for the prosecution of the works until the autumn of last year. These arrangements have been completed, and the works are now in rapid progress. e chairs, saddles, suspension rods, &c., are being made by Messrs. Howard, Ravenhill, and Co., of Rotherhithe, by their patent process of rolling the links without welding; and it is satisfactory to state that this important of the work is of such good iron, and so well manipulated, that the links have borne the tensile strain of 13$ tons per square inch under the specific conditions. ° The wrought-iron girders, cantilevers, railing, and other iron- work for the roadway, and the ornamental cast-iron casing of the towers are in pro by Messrs. C. D. Young and Co., of Edinburgh, who are also the contractors for fixing the chains, cradles, saddles, and other work, and who will commence the operation of fixing, generally, as soon as the castings for the interior of the tower are in place, which I expect will be about the end of July. Mr. Jackson of Pimlico, the contractor employed for the com- letion of the brickwork for the mooring-chains, and approaches, continued that work to the level of the roadway formation, and has now to complete the lodges. Caleulating on the works proceeding without extraordinary interruption from the weather, I anticipate that the bridge may be completed by the end of the present year. l Tuomas Paar, C.E. Whitehall Yard, May 28, 1855. — eee PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF THE NEW BRIDGE AT WESTMINSTER. Mr. Marr’s contract for the works was dated 18th October, 1854, the time for completing the works being three years from the lst June, 1854, subject to such further extension of time as xps of weather, or other contingencies, might render it just to ow. The temporary works for the service of the bridge were com- menced in the beginning of May 1854, consisting of platforms at the bridge wharf, on the Surrey side of the river, two large plat- forms on.the north and south sides of the bridge opposite to the blocked-up arches, and the hoarding for the bridge, and the piles, girders, and vane for the travellers. The last named work, as it precedes the piling for the piers, is still in progress. To reserve sufficient width for the navigation of the river, con- sistently with regard to the progress of the works, I arranged in the specification that the two abutments, and the piers Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 5, should be first proceeded with, and that the piers, Nos. 2 and 6 should not be commenced until it was absolutely requisite to proceed with them to secure their completion, up to ee openging of the arches, by the time the other piers were y- To carry out this arrangement, and to accommodate the navi- gation under the fourth arch of the bridge by deferring No. 1 pen the permanent works have been proceeded with in the ollowing order:— The driving of the first elm bearing pile was commenced at the Middlesex abutment on the 3rd July. At pier No. 4 the first bearing pile was pitched on the 19th August. At piers Nos. 3 and 5 on the 28th and 29th of the same month; and at the Surrey abutment on the 10th October, and at No. 2 pier on the 7th instant. The driving of the iron piles and plates was commenced in the following order, viz, at the Middlesex abutment, on the Ist September; at No. 4 pier, on the 27th September; at No. 5 pier, on the 27th October; at No. 3 pier, on the 14th November; at the Surrey abutment, on the lst December; and at pier No. 2, on the 15th instant. There are now driven, or in progress, in the Middlesex abut- ment 75 bearing piles, 07 sheet piles, 6 cast-iron piles, and 3 277 cast-iron plates. In No. 4 pier, 68 bearing piles, 21 iron piles and 20 plates. In No. 3 pier, 35 bearing piles, 14 iron piles, an 13 plates. In No. 5 pier, 43 bearing piles, 16 iron piles, and 15 plates. In the Surrey abutment, 85 bearing piles, 32 sheet piles, 11 iron piles, and 8 plates. And in No. 2 pier, 14 bearing piles, and 2 iron piles, The works provided for fixing are the following:—77 granite slabs for the facing and the foundations, a quantity of granite for the plinths of the piers and 72 iron piles, and 104 iron plates for the first 33 feet of the bridge. The castings of the ribs are in progress, and the wrought-iron segments forming the central pori of the ribs are being made at Mr. Mare’s premises at lackwall . The severe winter caused an absolute cessation of the work during six weeks, and considerably affected the progress imme- diately before and after that cessation, so that a total delay of at least two months is attributable to the winter. Beyond this and casual impediments common to great works, the principal causes of delay have been— 1st. The difficulty experienced by the con- traetor in obtaining bearing piles of sufficient length and scantling for the purpose. 2nd. In the driving of the iron piles and plates, which process, being new to the people employed upon it, has been one of some diffculty; but now that the men have been drilled into the work, the progress is more satisfactory. 3rd. To this may be added the loose state of the ground in the Surrey abutment, requiring increased depth of excavation; and lastly, the expediency of driving additional piles over the area of excavation in the piers, owing to the substratum not affording sufficient resistance. The difficulties which presented themselves in the construction of a new bridge, while the present bridge should be used for traffic were—lst. Those which would be caused by the founda- tions of the old bridge during the p of the first part of the work. 2nd. The necessity for providing sufficient waterway under both bridges for the navigation of the river. On these pue I was especially questioned by Sir William Molesworth fore the works were commenced, and explained the arrange- ments for meeting the requirements of the case. In surmounting the first of these difficulties we are at presént engaged. The piling of the foundations of the abutments, and of the piers Nos. 3 and 5 having been continued close to the founda- tions of the old bridge, great care and tedious labour are required to complete the remainder of the new foundations up to the south face of the old structure. Three diving bells have been employed by the contractor in cutting away and removing the cutwaters and foundations of the buttresses of piers Nos. 3, 7, 10 and 13 of the old bridge, and the extended cutwaters which were con- structed during the period between 1839 and 1843, for the purpose of adding 12 feet to the width of the old bridge. In the circumstances under which the present bridge is being proceeded with, viz., the first portion of it being built whilst the old bridge is standing, and the foundations of the new structure having to be formed partly through those of the old, it must be anticipated that difficulties and delays, especially at the junction of the old and new works, must be encountered, and that under the unsatisfactory condition of the old bridge, the work must be rosecuted cautiously; but when a sufficient width of the new bridge has been secured to admit of the carriage traffic being turned upon it, the risk in forming the foundations will be removed, and the difficulties of the work considerably diminished, as the removal of the old foundations will precede the formation of those for the new bridge. With regard to the waterway for the navigation, a plan show- ing the piling and framing for the contractor’s gantry was sub- mitted to the Thames Navigation Committee of the port of London, who immediately deputed Mr. Saunders, the water bailiff, to inspect the proposed sites of the framing, when the width requisite for the navigation was arranged to his satisfac- tion. As to the time required for the completion of the structure, I may state that by the terms of the contract, without allowance for suspension of the works from stress of weather, or other causes over which the contractor has no control, the bridge was to be completed by the lst June, 1857; that from the experience of the last winter, it would not be unreasonable to allow for six months' delay due to the seasons, which would make the contract time December 1857; that six months and more were occupied by the delays in the commencement of the work, and in the pile- driving before alluded to, and by the difficulties in the founda- 278 tions, and unless the contractor shall be able to redeem the last- named six months by rapid progress when the first of the bridge shall have been opened for traffic, it would not be prudent to estimate its completion before Midsummer 1858. It is satisfactory to state that from the levels and measurement of the old bridge, which I have had taken every month, there does not appear to be any change in its position since the new works were commenced. THOMAS Paar, C.E. Whitehall Yard, June 18, 1855. — — ——— SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE OF BLACKBURN. REPORT, IN COMPETITION, TO THE CORPORATION OF BLACKBURN. GENTLEMEN,—Before entering into any detail explanation of the accompanying scheme of drainage, we would lay before you a few particulars as to the data that this scheme has been pro- jected upon. Firstly. — The drainage area of the town portion of your borough amounts approximately to nearly 1200 acres. The population has been taken at 60,000 or about 10,000 houses, and we suppose that each house is supplied with and con- sumes 100 gallons of water, during ihe twenty-four hours. are that this entire quantity may be discharged during three 1ours. From this we arrive at the following facts: That the discharge from main arterial sewers, at its outfall, will amount to 5555 gallons per minute from house drainage only; to which is added 5000 gallons per minute for rainfall, upon that portion of your borough now built upon. Thetotal discharge from the main sewer will therefore amount to 10,555 gallons per minute. "The table at the end of this report shows the discharge and velocity of each class of main sewer, at their flattest inclinations. The main sewers are to be formed either of stone or brickwork: in either case the invert of the sewer must be built in brick in cement, as we believe that the difference of price for their construction will not materially influence the total estimate of the cost of the works. We are at present constructing sewers of the same form in every respect, in a large town in York- shire, somewhat similar to Blackburn, and without exception we have found them to answer our most sanguine expectations. We therefore feel great confidence in recommending them to your notice, and should we be successful in this competition, we shall be happy to show your Board these sewers in actual use, and also in construction at any time that they may appoint. The place selected for the outfall is marked F, upon the plans, and is situated upon the river Darwen, near Stakes bridge. From this point a large arterial sewer is taken through the lowest parts of the town (using the bed of the river wherever racticable) and terminating at a point A, at Brook House. Beyond which, should it hereafter be necessary, the sewer may be extended to Derkins bridge and Cobwall bridge. Wherever the direction of the sewer coincides with the course of the river, care has been taken that on the completion of the works, the present level of the bed will not be altered in any respect. The course of the river has also been selected in many instances in preference to the adjoining streets, to avoid excess in excavation and passing through valuable property. In projecting this sewer our attention has been particularly directed to the point where it passes under Salford bridge, and we do not consider that any difficulty will be experienced by taking the sewer by that course. The next point that we would draw your attention to occurs where we have been obliged to cross the Leeds and Liverpool canal at Grimshaw Park: here we propose to conduct the sewage through a cylinder of boiler plate under the bed of the canal, which can be constructed, and laid down without retarding the navigation; or should this be strongly objected to, we have suffi- cient range of level in that locality to enable us to construct an aqueduct over the canal alongside the present bridge. This is also applicable to the other crossings at Greenbank, and these are the only points to which we would draw your attention. In all the main sewers now before you, care has been taken to project them of sufficient capacity to meet future demands. And the branch sewers have been laid down both for the houses at resent built, and also with a view to further extension. These ranch sewers are proposed to be cunstructed in brickwork THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. where they are of a greater diameter than 15 inches; when smaller, we propose that stoneware pipes be used. In all cases these stoneware pipes are to be laid in well wrought puddle. The dimensions are calculated so as to allow of their running less than half full for their present requirementa. There are many points within your borough from which both the main and branch sewers may be cleansed by flushing; the most effectual of these is from the old waterworks, at the point where the pipes enter the Preston-road, or at Snig-brook. Again, the main sewer may be thoroughly cleansed by a flush- ing sluice being constructed at Brook House Bridge, and also at Copynook for the main sewer. Next in importance come the provisions for ventilation and examination of the sewers. ith re to the former of these, we have invariably recommended, with the most bene- ficial results, that wherever furnace chimneys exist, permission should be obtained from the proprietor to allow a small pipe to be led from the crown of the sewer to the ashpit of the furnace; by this means the noxious gases in the sewers wil be drawn from them by the draught, and con- sumed before they reach the external air. In those locali- ties where factories do not exist, we strongly recommend that connections be made between the main or branch sewers and the rain-water pipes of tlie highest houses, and in all cases the careful trapping of house drains. With respect to the internal examination, you will observe that our estimate contains a considerable item for side entrances and man-holes, although their exact position has not been indi- cated upon the plans now before you, as we have found it to be more economical and advantageous to select the sites for these entrances during the construction of the sewer for which they are intended. e beg to submit a drawing for the con- struction of side entrances and also for gully traps. Many modifications and improvements may be made both in the direc- tion and inclination of the branch sewers, after a detailed revision of the Ordnance plans has taken place, and the necessary cellar levels laid thereon; and it is to be hoped that many of the existing sewers may be found in sufficiently good condition to allow of their being incorporated with the new system of sewerage. With reference to the disposal of sewage matter of your borough, we would beg permission in the first place to call your attention tothe present very unsatisfactory state of this particular question. Theory and practice seem, indeed, to be in like confu- sion, if we may judge at least from the almost innumerable papers and discussions that have been published, and the very many patents granted during the last few years, both to companies and individuals, for the treatment of town refuse. Under these circumstances we have sought to avoid any particular dogma, while we have endeavoured to work in the spirit of your own excellent “Improvement Act,” and at the same time to meet the various requirements of the * Public Health,” the Towns Improve- ment," and the * Diseases Prevention Act.” With these objects in view, we have designed a series of spacious tanks into which the discharge from our main arterial sewer will be received, and where simple mechanical means are provided for causing the separation and deposition of the solid matters previously held in suspension. We may perhaps be ponite to give & sketch of the course of the sewage through the tanks. After falling from the main sewer into the distri- buting channel, it will pass uninterruptedly over a stone weir in the first tank (which, for convenience of cleansing, has been subdivided) and will low forward until met by an elm guard. Passing beneath this the sewage water will meet a grating (formed of quarter-inch iron rods, placed at intervals of half-an- inch), and fall over another weir into the second tank, which is alone capable of retaining upwards of 20,000 cubic feet of solid matter. On the lower side of this second tank is placed a guard similar to that in the tirst tank, beneath which the sewage water must and flow through the copper wire strainer, and over the third weir into the last tank, iu which the operation of the second is simply repeated, with a view to more perfect mechanical purifi- cation of the sewage-water. After leaving this third tank, the now almost pure water will fall into the outfall channel, and pass directly into the river. The object of the guards before the several strainers are, first, that by effectually checking the surface current, they cause the more rapid deposition of solid matters; and secondly, they will prevent the choking of the strainers. The strainers are so THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL arranged that they may be removed, in case of any necessary repairs. Gangways of boiler pas and of planks afford means of reach- ing any part of the building, in addition to the wide centre passage. The interior will be lighted through sheets of rough plate glass inserted in the covering of the roof. Believing that the formation of such an establishment as the one now submitted would, if left open, be considered by many persons injurious to its immediate neighbourhood (notwithstanding much expe- rience to the contrary, obtained from the extensive scavenging depot near Manchester, we have covered the whole with a light iron roof, which, together with the rest of the building, it is proposed to render air-tight, so far as may be practicable; with a similar view, we have indicated upon a drawing a twenty- horse power furnace and chimney shaft, the former of which, burning constantly, is calculated to be more than sufficient for the destruction of any gases that may evolve from the surface of the tanks. The dimensions of the building, as indicated upon the general and detail plans of our proposed system of sewerage, are sufficient to contain the double set of subsiding tanks shown in our draw- ing; this arrangement will be found necessary, so that one series may be in work, while the other is being cleansed. The construction of a series of conveniently proportioned tanks, while it does not pledge you to the immediate adoption of any particular patent mode of treating their contents, will enable you at any time to employ whatever substance that may be proved economical and efficacious for solidifying and deodorising the refuse, as well as beneficial to the soils upon which it may be applied. At the present time, with the above-mentioned con- fusion of the question, we would call your attention to a cheap, et valuable deodoriser, always at hand to an unlimited extent. e allude to coal-ashes, which should be added to the contents of the tanks at the time they are being cleansed, and in sufficient quantity to produce an easily transportable compost. The surface attraction of peat and other charcoals is well known; but the same power possessed in a minor degree by com- mon ashes, seems to have been comparatively neglected. Should it at any future time be considered advisable to dry the sewage manure, in order to increase the facility of its transport, we beg to suggest that means for so doing can be readily obtained beneath the same roof, by throwing a few iron girders across the tanks, and supporting a light floor thereon. this case, small stoves might be introduced in various parts of the building, and the furnace and shaft, already indicated, would be sufficient for carrying off the aqueous vapours. The solid matter retained in the tanks will require periodical removal, not only to ensure the working of the strainers, but also to supply a class of manure the demand for which is daily becoming more urgent, as its qualities become better known to the farmer. To this matter we would draw your particular attention, on account of the great probability that the disposal of sewage matter will gradually develope itself into a source of very con- siderable revenue to your town. Such, at least, is rapidly taking place in other towns, of which we may particularise Manchester, where we have been credibly informed that about twelve months since, the produce of a well organised system of scavenging had accumulated in the depot to the extent of many thousand tons. An effort was then made to bring the town manure into the market, and the result has been that at present there is not a single ton of manure ug the yard. It is the knowledge of these and many other facts, bearing upon a branch of our profession in which we have been long actively engaged, that has guided us in our selection of the point F (the outfall); for in addition to its being within the limits of your act, it presents the combined advantages of a canal and railway in close proximity, by which the manure can be readily transmitted to the more rural districts. Having now submitted to you a complete system of sewerage, with an outfall the merita of which have been carefully con- sidered, we would bring before you an alternative scheme for an outfall on the river Blackwater, as the one next worthy of your consideration. In selecting either of these outfalls, the cost of construction will not materially differ, but the chief disadvantages of the latter scheme lie in its being outside your borough boundary, and that the main sewer will have to be laid through mill Property, and also close to reservoirs, which, if not well con- 279 structed, might be much injured by the building of the sewers. Again, this outfall is comparatively remote from the railways, canal, or public roads, on which account there would be much Me in readily transporting the contents of the subeiding- tan You may perceive that the choice of either of these outfalls influences but a small portion of the entire district. NIL AMI LABOR. Table showing the Velocity and Discharge of the Main Sewers under ordinary circumstances. Mean Velocity. Fall per Disc Flattest : Sewers, Inclination Mile. ; Gallons : Feet Mil on Section. | yest, | "Minute. | Hour | Minute First Class......... 1 in 820 16°5 310 3°5 11244 Second , . . lin 295 | 178 275 3:0 5053 VV 1 in 313 16:8 238 2:7 2715 Fourth ,, ......... 1 in 120 44 353 4'0 2873 EsTIMATE OF Cost FOR A CoMPLETE SYSTEM OF SEWERAGE. Main Sewers. Lineal Y ds. & & d. 1037 First Class Sewer, including excavation 1442 4 8 590 Second 5i ys T 531 0 0 3550 Third 35 5 3 2844 14 11 2225 Fourth „ » 55 1836 6 3 318 24-inch „ = 3 190 16 0 5545 18-inch ,, $4 35 2176 3 7 22 Side Entrances for examination ......... 550 0 0 9571 5 5 Branch Sewers. 7676 15-inch Sewer, including excavation ... 3187 12 0 16670 19 ,, * "T 4533 13 0 27887 9 „ 5 " 5517 4 0 595 Street Gullies, set and fixed complete 2380 0 0 153 Side Entrances, or Vertical Man-holes 1223 0 0 Extra for Stoneware Junction............ 300 0 0 17,141 9 0 Subsiding Tanks for Sewage, &c. ..................... 3,000 0 0 £29,712 14 5 Say £30,000. — — fg ————— UNION RAILROAD DEPOT, TROY, UNITED STATES.* On a recent visit to Troy, we had the pleasure of viewing one of the finest railroad depots in the United States, and if we except one in Russia, we believe the largest in the world. The construction of this spacious and commodious edifice was com- menced in 1853, and completed in 1854. The length of the building is 400 feet, and the width of the part devoted to the “entrance and exit” of the engines and cars is 150 feet—the width of the passenger rooms on the west front is 40 feet, and the width of the portion on the east side (the location of the water-tank and turn-table) is 50 feet, showing a total width of 240 feet, the whole covering about 100,000 square feet, or more than two acres of ground. The main building is covered by an arched truss roof (Howe’s plan), in one single span, covering 60,000 square feet, resting on the main wall, which is 27 feet in height. The roof is supported by arched ribs or trusses of wood, 3 ft. 4 in. in depth, with horizontal or tie rods of iron, extending from one end of the truss to the other. The trusses are placed 18 ft. 10 in. apart. The roof at the centre has a rise of 28 feet above the top of the walls, making the height at the centre 55 feet above the tracks. Onthe top of the roof is a ventilator, 30 feet wide and 15 feet high, extending the entire length of the building, with windows and slate placed alternately on each side. The ends of the main building are constructed upon six large free-stone columns (from the quarries of Connecticut) with elliptical arches sprung frum one stone to another, and subdivided by cast-iron columns, forming two Gothic arches of each elliptical From ‘Hunt's Merchants’ Magazine,’ U.S, 280 $ arch, making ten openi for tracks, eight of which are now laid through the balding; each opening at the ends of the depot is provided with substantial doors, and the whole lighted with thirty gas burners. The passenger rooms on the west front or side are divided into four suites of rooms, each suite comprising a baggage room, gentlemen’s sitting room, ladies’ sitting room, and private parlour. A ticket office, wash room, and gentlemen’s and ladies’ water-closets (with the most improved self-acting water fixtures), ee ar gute to a the four 955 of pas 55 each suite of rooms we have passages for carriages from the cars of the four different railroad companies at whose expense and for whose use the building was erected. The building has three towers. On the front and over the centre of the passenger rooms, it situated the main tower, 115 feet in height, so con- structed as to admit of a clock and bell. At each end of the passenger rooms are towers four stories in height, which are occupied by the several railroad companies for general offices. These rooms are spacious and well adapted to the purpose for which they are designed. In the centre of the passenger rooms for a distance of 90 feet, the building is three stories in height—the second and third stories being used for refreshment rooms, with entrances by two flights of stairs and balcony (187 feet in length) on the inside of the depot. The whole building is lighted by an heated by steam, there being some 14,000 feet of gas and steam pipes used for that 5 Ou the front of the passenger department is a platform, over which is a projecting roof 10 feet wide, supported by cast-iron brackets, so that carriages can drive under and receive and deliver passengers in storm or sunshine without exposure to either. The building was erected at a cost of $125,000, and the und cost $105,000, being a total of $230,000. The Union i Company are also the proprietors of two miles of rail- road through the city, which connects the four roads. That company is appropriately designated from the fact that the road and depot were built by four companies, viz.: the Hudson River, the Boston and Troy, the New York Central, and the Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad corporations. The building (with the exception of the roof) is of brick, in a style resemblin or nearly approaching the Gothic. It was designed by Mr. É Bonnet, a 5 French architect, and carried out under the direction of Mr. E. French, Chief, and Mr. G. S. Avery, Superintending Engineer. — BELLHOUSE AND COWBURNS OSCILLATING SAFETY VALVE FOR STEAM-BOILERS. A Safety Oscillating Float Valve of similar principle to those hereinafter described was invented by Messrs. Bellhouse and Cowburn about two years ago; since that time they have per- fected the idea, and have produced an oscillating safety valve which possesses the merits of being simple, not easily deranged, and certain in its action. One variety of this valve 1s represented in fig. 1 of the annexed engravings, and consists of a spherical valve a, fitted upon a concave seating b, on the top of a tube c, rising from the boiler. The valve is loaded by annular-shaped weights d, dropped over the bell-shaped cover e, which is con- nected by ribs to the s s valve a. The weights thus act directly upon the valve without the intervention of a lever. When the steam rises to a dangerous pressure it affects the valve by imparting to it an oscillating and revolving motion upon its seating, thus forming a lateral crescent-shaped opening between the valve and its seating, which admits of the escape of steam, and at the same time keeps both valve and seating clean and free from tendency to adhesion. 'The suspension of the weights at a level below the valve itself, causes it to find its own level, and adjust itself, should the valve from any cause get out of plumb. This description of valve is further provided with levers and float, so arranged, that should the water in the boiler descend to a dangerous level, the valve will be opened, and the steam will escape. In a second variety of this combination of the vacuum and float valve, the steam acts on the upper surface of the valve, which is recessed on its under side, so as to leave the spherical portion of the valve as narrow as the concave seating on which it is fitted. The valve has a cross-head, to which is attached a forked pendant, which forms one arm of a rigid THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. ce ages lever, the other arm consisting of a tube in which are which act as moveable ballast, and assist the motion of the valve by their impetus in rolling to the other end of the tube. A float is attached to the end of the tubular arm, and when the water level descends to a dangerous point the action cf the levers causes the spherical valve to slide on its concave seating, thereby forming lateral crescent-shaped openings through which steam will be emitted from the inside of the boiler; or should there be @ vacuum in the boiler, air will be admitted from the exterior atmosphere. l1 § N a UL i N WT ENS N r N FAQS FS “y ` Ny Fro. 1. A third modification of Messrs. Bellhouse and Cowburn’s vacuum and float valve is shown in fig. 2. This valve is designed to act under water, being generally p over the fire-box or flue of the boiler, and acting in a manner similar to those already described, allowing of the escape of the water and steam, or of the entrance of air as the case may require. The valve may have leaden or other fusible metal plugs, run into tapped holes as shown, which will provide an additional an These patent valves are much approved of in chester, upwards of 200 of them havin applied to steam and 1 boilers in that neighbourhood, within the last twelve months. — The South-Eastern Railway now book passengers through from London to Marseilles; the distance is 890 miles, and the journey can be performed in forty-four hours, including stop . The charge for first class passengers is 6l. 12s. 7d., about 12d. per mile. Fifteen days are allowed to complete the journey. 1 Google et AT "vo ld iHOHV IH JV 'NIWIYL M3HONV AAYE WIAH qIlXdVHO TITA NaAaAV UO 7 de A Er 4-657 ja -——— = = — — mr, EP Google THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL. CRAVEN HILL CHAPEL, BAYSWATER. (With Engravings, Plate XXIV.) Tas chapel has been erected for the London Congregational Chapel Building Society, as the scene for the ministrations of the Rev. Mr. Birch, uncle of the late tutor of the Prince of Wales, and brother-in-law of the celebrated Lamartine. The style of the chapel is the later Gothic or Perpendicular, and the general study for the elevation was the east-end of Old St. Paul’s. The building is substantial and elegant, is in Bath stone, and will accommodate about eleven hundred persons, and has in MM, school-rooms under the entire surface. The cost was l The architect is Mr. Andrew Trimen, of Adam-street, Adelphi. — —— SUSQUEHANNA BRIDGE ON THE PHILADELPHIA, WILMINGTON, AND BALTIMORE RAILWAY.* THE surveys for this bridge were made during the summer and autumn of 1853. On May 31, 1854, the contracts for the masonry, foundations, and grading for the bridge and its approaches were let to Messrs. Cross, Cook and Co., and to Hatheway, Leach, and Gross. By the final location, the straight track from the Cecil side will be continued across the river; striking the westerly side about one-quarter of a mile above the present depot; and passing by an easy curve, through the town of Havre-de-Grace, in which only two travelled streets are crossed. Less than two-thirds of a mile of new roada are required, by this route, to reach the bridge on the west, and none on the east or Cecil side of the river, although the track there will have to be considerably raised. In obtaining the right of way for the new road; a spacious depot ground has been secured which will afford ample accommodations, not ny for the business of Havre-de-Grace, but also for that expected from the tide water canal. A very favourable connection with the canal basin, for transferring freight, may be made from this point, by a branch of easy construction, and but seven- eighths of a mile in length. he commencement of active operations having been post- poned till the middle of August; and the hot season having proved more sickly this fall than has been known for many pre- vious years, little has been done towards the construction of the bridge, compared with what had been anticipated. The quarry purchased at Heckarttown {last year) was opened and worked during the spring of 1854, by men employed by the railroad company, and was subsequently transferred to the con- tractors, who have obtained there a large amount of rough stone. A quarry wag also opened by the contractors at Conowingo, which is still in operation. But they have more recently obtained access to several of the best quarries at Port Deposit, the stone from which is of excellent size and quality. About one hundred and fifty men are now at work at this latter point, and a large amount of dressed stone will be ready for laying by the time state of the river permits the masonry to be commenced in e spring. The pile foundation of one of the piers is ready for the masonry; the piles driven and sawed off. One of the foundations on rock is also partly prepared. The framing of the timber platforms for lowering masonry is going on, and a large part of the timber desi for that purpose is now on hand. e piles used thus far have been procured from timber lots of which the wood-leave had been purchased by the railroad company, and a large part of those still to be driven can be had from the same source. The laying of a portion of the masonry in deep water was not included in the proposals received, or in the contract closed for the other masonry, but was undertaken by the company. Four piers belong to this class, the foundations of which, when pre- pared, will be more than 20 feet below low-water, this being the imit of the contract. To assist in building these, as well as for examining the foundations generally, a large diving bell, with the attendant machinery, has been constructed, after the desi and under the supervision of H. B. Sears, Esq. Either by thi or by more ordinary means, as may hereafter prove expedient, it * From the ‘American Railway Times.' No. 257— Vol. xviii.—Avausr 1855. 281 is believed that the piers in question can be completed so as not to delay the other portions of the work. The bridge will consist of 13 spans, of 200 feet each in the clear, and 8 spans of 65 feet in the clear, making the total len about 3250 feet, It will be constructed (such being the require- ment of the law) as to serve for ordi travel as well as for railroad purposes, one side being occupied by the highway, the other o the or tracks. The draw, of the vicinity of which an elaborate survey and soundings have been made, will be located according to the directions of the law; and it is hoped to the satisfaction of &ll parties interested. It will have two openings of 65 feet each. he 5 of the bridge, Which is not yet under con- tract, will doubtless be planned and let at an early day. An estimate of the quantities of work, and of the cost of the Susquehanna bridge is subjoined. In this, some of the larger items are calculated from contract prices, and from ment actually made. Those which are not, are believed to be ample to meet any contingency, and probably exceed, on the whole, the outlay that will act be required. An iron superstructure, however, should such be adopted. would probably exceed the cost here estimated,—which is for a wooden bridge, with three trusses and with arch beams. It should be remarked also, in reference to this estimate, that 15 per cent. of the amount covered by the contract, is payable in improvement bonds at par. ESTIMATE OF COST—SUSQUEHANNA BRIDGE. Right of Way, xir Pu an rocuring charter, and new depot ground in Havre-de-Grace ........ ............ $50,000 00 Foundations: Piles, number driven and cut off, 1516, 2 e ——Á——Ó——À" $,7580 00 Piles, lineal feet, 70,570, at 12 cents 8,468 40 Timber in foundations, 31,275 cubic feet at Went: 12,510 00 Dam and excavation for abutment, and pier M (( ˙ AA. ͤ sere I deiude un tensis 1,000 00 Concrete used in levelling foundations, 1420 yarda at $9 ; 12,780 00 Riprap, 5900 perches, at $2 25 ............... 13,275 00 One diving-bell and apparatus, and ex- penses on same exclusive of those charged to nr 15,000 00 Contingencies (15 pr. cent. on $70,613 40) 10,692 00 81,205 40 $131,205 40 Masonry: Ist class, above water, 2610 perches, at $10 26, 100 00 2nd and 3rd above water, 5730 perches, at$9 51,570 00 lst class under water, 2820 perches, at SIO0^ BU. P E de sod iua d esa sepas 20,930 00 2nd and 3rd, under water, 1820 perches, at | jp cr 29,610 00 Ist class, laid by diving-bell, 8850 perches materials fur- nished, at $8 50 ............... $28,875 00 2 bells and machinery, deduct value when work is completed 6,100 00 Cost of manning and working (3 bella 6 months) 15,810 00 Contingencies (20 per cent. on f TEN 4,382 00 Patent fee es 10,000 00 —————— 65,167 00 Hammered face of walls, 13,000 square feet, enn, 8 j sivas E 90 Contingencies (5 cent. on $131, 460) 6,5 = us : —— ——— 203,200 00 Superstructure: oes 2889 lineal feet (long spans an a,) at 00 iud F 141,950 00 419 lineal feet (short spans, ) at 828. 11,732 00 dd — 153,682 00 Grading: 60,000 yards earth, at 19 1'2cents................ eee 11,700 00 Track: Two-thirds of a mile, new, at $9500 ......... 6,333 33 1 1:2 miles, including turnouts, moved and relaid, at $600 .............. . . 900 08 — 7,233 33 Engineering, salaries and incidental expenses ............... 25,000 00 Total estimated Ost. . . . . . $532,020 73 40 282 THE GREAT INTERCEPTING SEWERAGE QUESTION. From a valuable report, ordered by the Court of Commis- sioners of Sewers and prepared by Dr. Sayer, containing im- portant calculations as to the best means of raising funds to the amount of 5,000,000L, for the purpose of improving and extending the drainage of the metropolis and carrying out the t works of interception, with a view to the purification of e Thames, it ap that the commissioners have resolved that the health and welfare of the metropolis require that the sewage and drainage, instead of being allowed to flow with daily increasing pollution into the bed of the Thames, should be trans- ferred north of the river to Barking-creek and south thereof to or below Plumstead-marshes. The accomplishment of this colossal undertaking being for the benefit of the present and future generations, it is urged that the amount of a general sewer-rate should be such as to bear as moderately as possible on the present and future ratepayers; the money required should be raised at the lowest rate of interest per annum, with the test economy, and in the most eligible manner for liquidation; and, finally, the period when the progressive liqui- dation is to be completed should be neither too proximate nor too remote. A small general annual metropolitan and city of London maintenance sewer-rate will be all that the ratepayers will have to bear. A general equal and annual pound rate of fourpence, assessed and levied by act of Parliament, on the 1854 gross metropolitan assessment, 9,484,945L., and on all future increments thereof, and on the 1854 gross city of London sewer- rate assessment, rental 1,241,2804, and on future increments thereof, will supply ample means to pay the annual interest of 3,500,000. (the amount required for the interception works) pro- sed to be raised by the issue and sale on the Stock-Exchange, Eom time to time as the money may be required, of “ Metro- politan and City Sewers Bonds,” and to pay off 3,500,000/. by the gradual purchase of the bonds in the money-market. Then, withdrawn from public circulation, the bonds will fructify at the rate of interest at which they were issued, and at compound interest, for the benefit of the metropolitan and city of London ratepayers, until, in unison with the decrease of the annual pound rate, they may be cancelled, and in a less period than 60 years the liquidation will be accomplished. It will appear that the maximum limit of the annual pound rate need not exceed fourpence. The estimated outlay for the metropolitan and city of London sewage and drainage intersecting and outfall works amounts to 3,000,000/; allowing 500,0004. for extension north and south of the Thames, additions and contingencies, the probable amount of outlay may be 3, 500, O00“. e annual charge, after completion of the works, fuel for steam pumping lifts, wear and tear, management, collectors’ poundage, &c., is assumed not to exceed 30,0004. According to the rate of interest at which the 3,500,000/. may be raised, the total annual amount to be provided for by the metropolitan and city of London rate- payers will be at 5l. per cent. per annum (the highest calculation), 205,0004, or at 34 per cent. per annum (the lowest calculation), 152,5004. These annual charges are proposed to be met bya general and equal pound rate on the gross metropolitan and city of London assessment (10,726,225/.). At 43d. (to meet the highest calculation) the amount raised by assessinent would be 212,2874., giving a surplus of 7287/. over the total amount of interest at 5 per cent.; at 3$d. (to meet the lowest calculation) the amount raised by assessment would be 156,422/. giving a surplus of 3922/. over the total amount of interest at 34 per cent. To the increase of the population of London, it is presumed, may be left to pay off the principal 3,530,000/.; for, assuming 2000/. to be the future annual increase upon the gross assessment (which is a too moderate estimate), the total amount for 60 years, exclusive of all interest during that period, would be 3,660,000/.; being 160,000/. more than sufficient to pay off the sum required to carry out the whole of the works for the interception of the sewage and drainage of the metropolis, and for the outfall works north and south of the river. The Metropolitan and City of London Sewers Bonds it is proposed to divide thus:—10,000 bonds, 100/. each, representing 1,000,000/.; 5000 bonds, 200/. each, representing 1,000,0004; 30004. bonds, 5004 each, representing 1,500, 000“.; total bonds, 18,000; total amount represented, 3,500,0000/. These bonds to be issued in series as funds may be required, irredeemable for such terms of years as may then be determined, and at the rates of annual interest the market value of money may bear at the times of issue. The total outstanding THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. amount of moneys, the produce of loans or annuities raised former commissions, is 992,4754, to which debt no addition has been made by the present commission. From January 1, 1849, to December 31, 1854, the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers have built 163 miles 576 cubic feet of public sewers, and 366 miles 4629 feet of private sewers, costing 821,344/. 15s. II d., and the total cost for management of 126,9184 19s. 5d., the ratio is 154. 9s. per cent.; on the total outlay the ratio is 114. 7s. 5d. per cent. There are yet d ciel required about 400 miles of sewers, in which are included about 20 miles of old sewers within the present rated area so defective as to require rebuilding. The probable cost is estimated at 1,500,0004, and this amount it is roposed to raise by the issue of 11,725 1001, 9004, and 5002. nds, upon the same principle as those representing the 3,500,0004; the total amount raised being, therefore, as at first stated, upwards of 5,000,000/. The whole of this would be paid off in less than 60 years, were less than half of the average increment of the last five years to be the uniform rate of future increase, since, without interest, 3000/. increase per annum yields in 60 years 5,490,000/., and the average annual increment has been 61314, When compound interest is considered the period will be much shortened. Great works carried on at Paris and in the department of the Seine are supported by funds raised under the authority of the Legislature by public sale of Obligations de la Ville de Paris, or nes igi u Departément de la Seine. These bonds are for 1000f. (about 404) each. The system has been found to work extremely well, the bonds passing freely and untaxed by stamps or transfer fees from seller to buyer. Eve day the Ex e- list gives the quotation of their market value, when sales take p This, in truth, is the system recommended by the report to be applied to the exigencies of this great metropolis. — —— CONDITION OF THE RIVER THAMES. S1r,—It seems to be admitted on all hands that the condition of the river Thames is calculated to endanger the health of the inhabitants of London; that the evil is a growing evil—extending day by day with the increase of population, and in the ratio in which the law of 1848 (which requires that cesspools and drains shall be connected with one of the main sewers) is acted upon; that if there be danger to life to-day, that danger will be much greater this day year; that delay is only another name for death; that the mortality from this cause will at length become so pal- pable and so alarming, that further delay will no longer be tolerated by the outraged inhabitants of the metropolis—and, consequently, that the svoner the evil is grappled with the better will it be for all parties concerned. Now, Sir, it may not be known to some of your readers that a remedy for this great evil actually exists; that the machinery for putting that remedy into execution also exists; and that there oes not exist the necessity for a fortnight’s delay in carrying into effect the spleen measures. That such, however, is the case I shall now proceed to demonstrate as briefly as the nature of the case will admit. By an act passed in the year 1535 the pollution of any river in England was constituted an indictable offence. Water-closets were unknown till the commencement of the present century; nor was it till the year 1811 that their use became at all general. Until the introduction of this comparatively modern luxury by Bramah, cesspools were the only receptacles for refuse matter. Sewers, however, have existed from the time of the Romans, but their employment was confined to the carrying otf of surface drainage. In their earliest form they were rivulets, which, takin their rise in the high lands around the metropolis, swept throug London on their way to the Thames under the well-known names of| Langbourne, river Fleet, &c. Some of them have for centuries been covered over, as in the case of Wall-brook, whilst others remain still uncovered, even in the most populous districts, as in the case of the Effra. These rivulets are the present sewers of London. The introduction of water-closets rendered what had previously been a physical impossibility perfectly easy; viz, the conveyance of night-soil into sewers; and, indeed, the additional quantity of liquid matter thus carried into the cesspools created in its turn a serious inconvenience, which led to the violation of the law of 1535, by the connection of cesspools with sewers. Till the year 1847, however, that law remained untouched by any enactment; THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. bat the VV and the systematic violation of the law, induced the Westminster Commissioners of Sewers to apply to Parliament for compulsory powers to enforce the connection of ls with their sewers; and their applica- tion was granted under the idea that the Thames would not thereby be further contaminated, but that the sewerage would be conveyed by sub-sewers (to be constructed) to a of the river from which it would be carried to the sea. In the following year the Westminster Commission was amalgamated with the various other commissions (the City branch alone excepted), and desig- nated the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers. There are, there- e Erde only two commissions of sewers, the Metropolitan and e City. In the year 1848 the City Commissioners obtained from Parlia- ment similar powers to those ted the year before to the Westminster Commission. On the subject of this grant, the City Solicitor stated on the 16th inst., in answer to a question by the Lord Mayor: At the time those acts were Parliament had it in contemplation to enforce the construction of intercepting sewers to convey the house drainage of both sides of the river into the Thames sufficiently low down to prevent the tide bringing back any portion of the polluted water. The proper order," he continued, “had been inverted. The intercepting sewers are not even yet commenced, while for the last three or four years the pollution of the Thames water has been increasing.” Now, Sir, it cannot be said that the reason why nothing has been done in this matter is because no feasible plan for carrying the design into effect has been presented to the Commiasioners. A bill conferring the requisite powers to commence the construo- tion of intercepting sewers was prepared and printed in 1845, and lodged in the Parliamentary offices, and was again laid before her Majesty's Government in 1846, and before the Sanitary Commis- sioners, the Sewers Commissioners, and the public in general, the following year. In 1848 a bill was again introduced into Parlia- ment, but was stopped at the second reading, on the 7th of March, because the Sanitary and Sewers Commissioners were at that time contemplating the adoption of other schemes. From 1848 to 1854 everything has been kept in abeyance by the indecision of these bodies, which have more than once been reconstructed during that period. On the 27th of July, 1854, the Metro- litan Commissioners of Sewers obtained the permission of arliament to borrow 300,000/. towards the construction of two t outfall drains. This amount they accordingly borrowed, at 4 to 5 per cent. per annum; but, finding that their powers did not extend to the purchase of land—on which the whole scheme hinges—they lent out their money at 3 per cent., and have since done nothing, if we except what I am about to relate, not even applying to Parliament for the requisite power to render their ere practicable. What they have done is this—On the 3rd of April, 1855, the Court met and appointed a general com- mittee to consider a variety of plans for the construction of inter- cepting sewers. That committee resolved, “That it be recom- mended to the Court to order that the reports and communications of the gentlemen undermentioned, having reference to the drainage of the metropolis, or part thereof, be referred to a com- mittee of engineers for their consideration and report, viz:— Messrs. Bazalgette and Haywood, Mr. John Roe, Mr. Morewood, Mr. S. Perkes, Mr. G. R. Booth, Mr. J. R. M‘Clean, Mr. Henry Law, Mr. James Jones, Mr. James A. Bruce, Mr. F. O. Ward.” A Vies Court of Sewers was accordingly held on the 16th of May following, when it was resolved, * That the farther conside- ration of the subject be adjourned." Now, Sir, since the 16th of May, nothing has been done—the metropolis is threatened with pestilence; and all because those who alone can act refuse to take any step in the matter. The upshot then of this long—not, I hope, unnecessarily so—narra- tion, is an appeal to you, Sir, as one of the organs of public opi- nion, to call on the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers to Apply at once to Parliament for powers to purchase land, that ey may commence the work entrusted to them, and on which the health of the metropolis is 5 and to appoint the committee of engineers which they themselves, on the 18th Apri declared to be necessary to determine on the best of the ten p of intercepting sewerage submitted to their Court. City of London Club, July 20. Freperick Sra. P.S.—I have not advised the urging forward of the City Com- ‘Kissioners, as it appears they are compelled to await the proceed- ings of the Metropolitan Commissioners. 283 P.S., July 21.—The foregoing remarks are not at all affected by what took place in the House of Commons last night, in the debate on the Metropolitan Local ment Bill; for, even if by the Lords, inasmuch as it was admitted by Sir B. Hall on the 9th inst, that the new board could not be in working order till December, I still maintain that the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers should apply to Parliament for powers to purchase the land necessary for the immediate prosecution of the works, as, in this case, something will have been done towards meeting the great evil under consideration; and partially commenced works will be handed over to the new Board, which will save them some valuable time, and the public, possibly, some valuable lives. Sir,—The condition of the Thames is a subject of such vital importanoe to 2,500,000 human beings, that I do trust you will afford me s for a few farther observations and suggestions. A fortnight hence it will be too Jate to out—the destiny of the river will then be settled for years, if not for ever. The sewers of London are under the direction of two boards the Metropolitan and the City Commissioners of Sewers. On the 27th of July, 1854, the former obtained the permission of Parliament to borrow 300,000/. for the construction of two great outfall drains. They accordingly contracted for this amount at the rate of 4 to 5 per cent. perannum. Their act, not empower- ing them to purchase land where alone (according to their most recent admissions) outfall drain termini could, with advantage, be constructed, they lent out the amount received on account of the 300,000. loan at 3 per cent. On the 18th April last, a com- mittee of the whole court resolved:— That it be recommended to the court (that is to themselves) to order that the plans of ten gentlemen having reference to the drainage of the metropolis be referred to a committee of engineers for their report." The court met on the 16th of May following, and, instead of acting on their own resolution of the 18th April resolved:—* That the further consideration of the subject be adjourned.” Since that date they had done nothing. The City Commissioners of Sewers cannot in this matter until the initiative has been taken by the etropolitan Commissioners, and hence that nothing is really being done towards remedying the alarming condition of the Thames, against which every one, from Faraday downwarde, is inveighing. The evening of the 20th inst. was signalised by the passing of Sir Benjamin Hall’s Metropolitan Local Manage- ment Bill by the House of Commons. It is now before the Lords, and will, no doubt, become the law of the land before the middle of next month. This bill is, inter alia, to supersede the Metro- politan Commission of Sewers, and I shall proceed to demonstrate that, unless it undergo the slight modification I am about to recommend, it will inflict a serious evil on the the metropolis, because it will occasion a fo delay in effecting the required improvement in the condition of the Thames than any delay likely to arise from leaving the matter in the hands of the Com- missioners of Sewers, now that public attention has been drawn to their proceedings. The following is the order to be observed under Sir B. Hall’s new bill:—1. Ratepayers are to choose vestries. 2. Vestries are to choose local boards. 3. Local boards are to choose a metro litan board of works, to consist of forty-two members, which board is to have permission (not to be compelled) to adopt a plan of intercepting sewers. 4. Assuming a plan of intercepting sewers determined on by this new board, such plan is to be sub- mitted to Her Majestys Board of Works for their approval. 5. The site of the terminal outfalls is to be 5 y approved by the Home Secretary. 6. The whole, if adopted by the forty-two, and approved respectively by her Majesty’s Board of Works and the Home Secretary for the time being, is to be completed, not in a period in which any of our leading engineers would contract to perform the work, viz., from twelve to eighteen months, but by December, 1860. Now, Sir, if Sir B. Hall’s bill had reference to no other subject than the dispollution of the Thames, I confess that I should utterly despair of this object being effected for several years, when I con- sider the successive preliminary ds cu (indicated above) through which the work will have to ut this bill is not designed for the dispollution of the es only, but for the “ paving, lighting, watering, cleansing, or improving of the metropolis,” for the construction of new bridges, the opening of new thorough fares, &c. Besides, there is involved in it the division of the metropolis into districte, the appointment of an endless number of officers, and the settlement of the compensation of those super- 40* 284 seded, whose united salaries amount to 70,000/. per annum. Beyond all this, there is the superintendence of 300,000 house drains, the supervision of 1000 miles of local sewers, the pro construction of 600 miles more, and the charge of the existing * main sewers.” All to be accomplished by a body of men yet to be elected and new to their work. It is enough for any one acquainted with human nature to run his eye over the preceding catalogue, to be thoroughly convinced that three years hence the condition of the Thames will be just so much worse than it is at present, as the increase of population is calculated to render it. And Sir B. Hall has shown himself to be no mean judge of mankind in taking five years and a-half to execute a work which, if handed over toacivil engineer to-morrow, would be 5 by this day twelvemonth. Nor is Sir Ben- jamin a man devoid of experience in such matters. On the 29th July 1851, he thus addressed the House of Commons: —“ The noble lord (Ebrington) has referred to the scheme of drainage for the northern and southern districts of the metropolis. Why, that scheme caused the greatest consternation throughout the metro- politan districts, for the people were led to suppose that they would have to pay 3,000,000/. or 4,000,0000. for it." Ir the forty-two members of Sir B. Hall's board, chosen by the ratepayers, fairly represent the sentiments of their constituents, what are we to expect, when the present alarm occasioned by the heat of summer on the polluted Thames is over, but an indefinite postponement of this vitally important undertaking ? Fortunately, however, the peers of the realm are men of expe- rience, too, and well acquainted with human nature in all its phases. To the House of Lords, then, I appeal with the pro- foundest respect, and entreat them to consider the following sug- ponon A. variety of plans for constructing works to rid the hames of its impurities are before the Metropolitan Commis- sioners of Sewers. These commissioners have in their hands 300,0002. to be devoted to this special object. A committee of the eourt of commissioners resolved that it was expedient to refer these plans to a committee of engineers, but the court did not act upon their own committee’s recommendation. Money, plans— everything, in short, is ready for immediate action. Modify, then, Sir B. Hall's bill thus—it is but a very trifling modification after all—hand over the plans and money to her Majesty's Board of Works; let them at once proceed to carry that plan pronounced by a committee of engineers to be the best into execution, availing themselves of course of the services of the successful candidate; and when Sir B. Hall’s board is ready to undertake the task, let her Majesty's Board of Works transfer the whole affair over to Sir. B 8 board. I am no prophet if the intercepting sewers will not be very near completion by the time Sir B. ’s board will be ready to accept the transfer. City of London Club, July 25. -——— ., — — REGISTER OF NEW PATENTS. MANUFACTURE OF GAS. Tuomas Isaac DimspALE, Patentee, June 23, 1854. Tuis invention has for its object to increase the volume of the gas obtainable from carboniferous or bituminous substances, by means of a novel mode of applying known chemical principles to the production of gas for both heating and lighting purposes. The production of gas for both these purposes is effected by one continuous operation, and in & simpler, cheaper, and therefore more practical way (consistent with the easy adaptation of the invention to the existing apparatus in gas works) than has hitherto been done. The decomposition of water when heated to various degrees, by passing it over incandescent charcoal to obtain hydrogen gas and otherwise, as auxiliary to these purposes, has not been hitherto effected in a manner to bring the process into anything like general use. One difficulty has been the high value of charcoal, which, by the great majority of experienced gas manufacturers, has been found to render the cost of obtainin the gas greater than when coals are employed in the us method. In carrying out this invention, steam is generated in an ordi- nary low-pressure steam-boiler, and it is conveyed by a horizontal iron pipe immediately over or under the groups of retorts, as they are now ed in gas manufactories. is pipe may be well covered with felt, or any substance which is a non-conductor FREDERICK SMITH... THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. of heat, in order to prevent the steam from experiencing any material loss of temperature during its passage along the pipe. From this horizontal pipe smaller perpendicular short branch pipes, provided with stop-cocks, are madc to ascend or descend towards the centre of the retorte, These branch pipes are to be connected, by a screw-joint, with a pipe passing through the lid or top of the retort, along the top inside, then down at the back, where the pipe is divided into three pipes that pass along the bottom. These bottom pipes are perforated with very fine holes underneath, so as to permit the escape of steam, and their ends are closed. When the retorts are not at work the small perpendicular pipes can be disconnected from the pipes in the retort and taken off; and the stop-cocks close to the horizontal pipe being turned off, all escape of steam will be prevented. The retorts are to be charged, in the usual way, with bituminous shale or schist, boghead, cannel, or ordinary coal, and heated precisely in the manner now done. When the retort has become thoroughly hot, and the mass of the substance within heated through, or nearly through, to a red heat, the stop-cocks commu- nicating with the horizontal steam-pipes are to be turned on, and the steam admitted: the result of this will be, that the steam will become superheated in its passage through the pipe placed inside at the crown or top of the retort, and, after descending through the pipe at the back of the retort, the super-heated steam will ascend through the incandescent mass in the retorts from the small apertures pierced in the lower pipes. The steam will be thereby decomposed, and hydrogen and oxide of carbon gases be evolved, which will combine with and increase the volume of being produced by the destructive distillation of the substance with which the retorts have been charged. From bituminous coal, schist, or shale, a thick heavy gas is produced, rich in illumi- nating power, and the addition of the hydrogen and oxide of carbon gases will not materially diminish the illuminating power, and by no means in proportion to the increase of volume they afford. Up to a certain duration of the process (being nearly that at which the operation would cease for ing gas under the old and usual mode) the increase obtained in volume will vary in amount, according to the quality of the substance with which the retort is charged, from twenty to thirty per cent., before any . diminution of lighting power will occur, or so as to render the gas unsuitable for illuminating purposes. When the decrease in lighting power has reached to this point, the communication between the retorts and the gas holders, which received gas intended for lighting, is to be shut off, and the gus subsequently produced should be conveyed into a separate holder which gas will now be applicable to heating purposes. This gas will be of greater heating power than carburetted hydro- gen; and the quantity produced by the continued passage of the super-heated steam through the incandescent mass in the retorts, will amount to more than the volume of the lighting gas trans- mitted to the first ps holder. Thus, assuming that the quantity of gas which would have been yielded under the old and ordinary process of gas making, to be nine thousand cubic feet per ton of ordinary coal, the quantity suitable for lighting purposes will be increased up to nearly eleven or twelve t nd cubic feet, and the produce from bituminous schist or shale augmented from five thousand or six thousand to seven thousand or eight thousand feet; and the quantity of gas for heating purposes yielded besides, will be at least an og quantity 1 the material to be carbonised be peat, lignite, or other carbonaceous substance, yielding gas of feeble illuminating power, it may be saturated revious to being put in the retort, or partly saturated, with any issolved resinous, oleaginous, or fatty matter, or a proportion of boghead coal mixed therewith, with or without such saturation, and then heated in the manner above described. The ash or charcoal of boghead coal or shale, which has been previously used and exhausted of all the it will yield suitable for light- ing, may be pee used for producing gas for heating. Thec coal obtained from lignite, peat, or wood, when in an incandescent state, being capable of decomposing the steam of water, may all be used in the above-described manner for that purpose; and if the gas be required for 5 purposes, it may be carbu- retted by putting into the retort with these matters dried peat in small lumps, or pulverised sawdust, or ground charcoal saturated with any oleaginous, fatty, resinous, or tarry matter, or with naptha. The fatty, oleaginous, resinous, or tarry matters should be mixed with the dried peat, sawdust, charcoal, or other solid carbonaceous substances, before the latter are placed in the retort, and not added thereto while in the retort. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECTS JOURNAL Claims.—The method described, of operating upon carbonaceous or bituminous substances (capable of yielding combustible gas for lighting and heating), by the introduction into the retort, during the process of distillation, of jets of di eR steam, for the pore of decomposing the same, and causing its elementa to combine in a nascent state with the gases evolved from the car- bonaceous or bituminous substances contained in such retort. Also mixing with solid carbonaceous matters, as above set forth, fatty, oleaginous, or resinous substances, previous to the same being placed in the retorts, for the production of gas. PUDDLING FURNACES. JosgPH Hipxiss, Patentes, May 27, 1854. Tis invention consists in obtaining and applying a material to the making and repairing of the beds of puddling furnaces used in the manufacture of iron. In ing this invention into effect, a cast-iron or other vessel is pl underneath the flue of the mill or other furnace, to arrest the cinder which flows from the iron while in the furnace; which cinder has hitherto been allowed to escape as refuse. When the mill furnace-man has drawn his heat of iron from the furnace, he taps or draws off the cinder into a cast-iron or other receptacle; and the cinder, when cooled, is fit for use. The plan is sometimes modified in the following manner:—The cinder or other refuse cinder, produced in the manufacture of iron, is mixed with pottery or any other iron ore,—and, by fusing the cinder and ore together, a composi- tion or material is produced which may be used for making and repairing the beds of puddling furnaces. PERFORATED GLASS. JAMES HARTLEY, Patentee, November 24, 1854. Hergrorors glass has been perforated with numerous holes, side by side, by means of rollers having thereon projections of the forms of the intended holes, and the rollers have been used to act on the glass when the glass has been in a highly heated Btate; and it has also been proposed to produce like perforated lass by having like projections on plates or dies, and caused to pressed on the glass when it has been in a highly heated state. This invention consists of employing a number of circular mills or cutters fixed on an axis, and more or less a accord- ing as it is desired to have the holes more or leas distant from each other, and such mills or cutters are caused to rotate, and in their rotation to bring up water and grit, and thus to act on the glass as the same is gradually pressed to the cutters or mills till cuta of the size desired are e through the glass. REVERBERATORY FURNACES. JouHw BIRD, Patentee, November 7, 1854. Turis invention has for its object improvements in reverbera- furnaces with a view to reduce the quantity of fuel employed, and the invention consists of combining the use of closed ash-pits with the use of two sets of fire bars, one set being horizontal or only slightly inclined, the other set of fire bars being considerably inclin by which the fuel on the fire bars will offer a much more extensive surface for the passage of air from the closed ash- pit than if only one set of fire bars was employed; and in order that the air coming into the closed ash-pit may be as highly heated as may be before it comes into the ash-pit, it is 3 to build the arch or top of the reverberatory furnace hollow, and to admit the atmosphere to such hollow portion of the structu and thence into the ash-pit; or the air may be introdu ' through passages built in the sides or bottom of the furnace, or otherwise introduced into the closed ash-pit Suitable openings and doors are constructed in order to get at the fire bars and to the fire thereon when desired. The patentee does not claim generally to make the reverbera- 5 with closed ash-pits, whether the same be supplied with heated or cold air; nor separately the arranging of the fire bars of such a reverberatory furnace, partly horizontal and partly inclined. But he claims the constructing reverberatory furnaces with fire bars arranged as herein described, combined with the closing of the ash-pits and supplying heated air thereto. 285 GUIDE FRAMING OF GASHOLDER, PHILADELPHIA GASWORKS. Joun C. Cresson, Engineer. d = L— RRR uH [ B In the number for October last, p. 384, we gave a description, with engravings, of the Gasholder at the Philadelphia Gas- works, and now show the guide framing of the same. It is 160 feet in diameter by 90 feet high, and consists of twelve such towers united by girders. The upper three sections are of cast- iron, the lower section of stone. | 286 TRACTS ON STEAM—No. L Instructions to Stokers Working Steam- Engine Furnaces, constructed to Burn their own Smoke. 1. First and foremost, Stokers should understand that they are not to make a business of “stoking,” but to leave it off entirely. excepting only when preparing to clear out the grate from clinkers and rubbish, which requires to be done generally three or four times a-day with average qualities of coal. Convenient times being chosen for the purpose, sten there is least demand for steam. 2. A fireman's business is, first, to see, before the fire door is opened, that no coal is left in the heap ready for going on bigger a man’s fist; and that very small coal or slack is wetted, or at least damp, as well as a little water always in the ash-pit. Then begin by charging into the farther end of the furnace, reach- ing to about one-third the length of the grate, from the bridge, as rapidly as possible, from a dozen to twenty or thirty spadesfull of coals, until they form a bank, reaching nearly, or quite, up to the top of the bridge, and then shut the fire-door, until the other fires, if there are any, are served in the same way. 3. In firing up, throw the coals over the rest of the grate, by scattering them evenly from side to side, but thinner at the front, near the dead plate, at the middle or back. In this manner, keep the fuel precip aie thick and level across the bars, but always thicker at the than the front, not by pushing the fire in, but by throwing the coals on exactly where and when they are wanted. 4. Never for a moment leave any portion of the bars uncovered, which must be prevented by throwing, or pitching a spadefull of coals right into any hollow or thin place that appears; and alwa remember that three or four esfull thrown quickly on the 5 of the other, will make no more smoke than one, and gene- y less. But all depends upon doing it quickly; that being the main, if not the only point in which freedom from smoke and great economy of fuel agree. Some firemen only putting on three spadesfull, while another can put on four, and make 20 per cent. more steam in the same time by doing it. 5. In replenishing the fire, take every opportunity of keeping up the bank of fuel at the bridge, by recharging it, one side at a time. Whenever this bank is burnt entirely through, or low, and also when the fire is in a low state generally, take the rake and draw back the half burnt fuel twelve or eighteen inches from the bridge, and recharge fresh coal into its place, upon the bare fire-bars as at first. An engine fire tended in this way, will burn its own smoke without any difficulty, simply, by admitting a moderate supply of air, (which for safety to the boiler should be heated) at the bridge, this being a more certain and economical mode of preven- tion, than that of diluting (not burning) the smoke by the admis- sion of cold air at the fire-doors. R. ARMSTRONG, Consulting Engineer. 65, Fenchurch-street, June, 1855. ——— — Great Land Slip in Caliſornia— The last mail brings us some interesting particulars of an immense slide at Badger Hill, about 14 mile from Paterson (late Cherokee). The river bluff at this place is about 14 mile in height. Two ravines run up from the river, distant from each other about 175 yards, with a high point of land between them. At this point the middle Yu makes a bend, and for a long time has been wearing away the base of the point between the ravines. On Thursday the point slid into the river, from half a mile up the bluff down to the water’s edge, a Ae it great pine and oak trees, which kept their perpendicular position; and such was the force of the slide that the earth went clear across the river anddammed it up, so that persons passed dry-shod for 24 hours afterwards. The trees stood el phe in the midst of the dam till the rise of the water carried away the earth, and they now lie in the bed of the stream. A lake five miles in length up the river was formed, the water gradually increasing in volume, till it burst the unusual barrier. The river here is 75 yards across. The flume of the San Juan ditch ran across the place where the slide occurred, and about 200 yards of it were carried off. The scene is represented as having been terribly sublime—the rush of the earth and the roar of the water making the ground around tremble, as with an earthquake.” THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. NEW RAILWAY STATION, HALIFAX. Tur new railway station, which haa been in course of erection for the past year and a-half, was publicly opened on 23rd June. It was a joint station of the Lancashire and Yorkshire, aud the Leeds, Bradford, and Halifax Railway Companies. The building is in the Italian style of architecture, with a frontage of 236 feet. It consists of a centre and two wi The former is brought out about 3 feet, and the latter about 6 feet. The principal entrance is through a very neat portico, which consiste of four columns, and finished on the top of the blocking with four carved vases, one over each column. e entrance doorway under the portico is bold and handsome. An elaborate cornice runs through the entire length of the building, with carved lions’ heads in the top mould. There is a general entrance at the station for passengers of all classes, 25 ft. 6 in. long by 15 feet wide. On each side are booking-offices (only one of which will be used at present). Each booking-office is 24 feet long by 15 feet wide, and has a neat staircase into the rooms above. Both offices are fitted up with Spanish mahogany desks, booking counters, &c., complete. The first-class ladies’ waiting-room is 21 feet by 15 feet. The waiting-room for the 2nd and 3rd class ladies 1s the same size as the other, all of which are fitted up with conveniences. The lst class gentlemen’s waiting-room is 21 feet by 21 feet. The 2nd and 3rd class gentlemen's waiting-room is the same size, and fitted up with seats round the room, and the walls are boarded for 6 feet high. The porters’ room is 21 feet by 13 feet, fitted up with seats round the walls, which are boarded 6 feet high. inspector’s office is 12 ft. 3 in. by 11 feet, and is neatly fitted up. The parcel office is 16 feet by 15 feet, and the lamp-room is 18 ft. 3 in. by 11 feet. This room is lighted from the roof. At the south end is the station-master’s house, which consists of dining-room 16 ft. 6 in. by 16 feet, parlour 21 feet by 13 feet, staircase 10 feet by 9 feet, and lighted ie do pics light from the roof; scullery 10 feet by 7 feet, and four bed-rooms. There is a yard attached, as well as good cellarage. There are rooms in the roof over the whole of the waiting-rooms, lighted from the roof, which are to be used as store-rooms. The platform is next the station. It is 323 feet long, and 21 ft. 4 in. wide. It consists of polished landings of a very large size. The platform on the opposite side is 450 feet long and 18 feet wide. This platform is also covered with large lan The iron roof is 73 feet wide, and is longer on one side the other. There are 53 rafters; those next the station are 6 ft. 3$ in apart, but those on the opposite side are only 6 ft. 9$ in. a This is occasioned by the curve of the roof, which follows the curve of the rails. e roof is about 330 feet long. There are two rows of skylights the whole length of the roof, with ventilators. The station is built of Ringby stone. The platforms will be lighted by 14 large copper lamps suspended from the roof. There will also be 30 copper lamps at different parts of the station. The whole of the works have been executed by Messrs. Geo Thompson and Co., railway contractors. The architect is Mr. T. Butterworth, of Manchester. Mr. Knox has had the manage- ment of the building department. REVIEWS. Archelogia: or Miscellaneous Tracts relating to Antiquity. Vol. 36. 1855. The first part of the volume for the present year, of the proceed- ings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, contains twenty-one interesting papers, illustrated by twenty plates. The paper of Mr. J. H. Parker F.S.A., in continuation of previous ones, on Mediæval Architecture in Aquitaine, is a valuable one, and we are glad to see that he describes several places in the ancient province of Guienne. We give an example :— ** A few miles from Langon is the town of Bazas, the cathedral of which is deserving of more attention than it has received. It is of mixed styles, but chiefly of the thirteenth century. The plan is oblong, with aisles and an apee, no distinction between the nave and choir, but the apse is surrounded by an aisle and chapels, and there are low chapels between the buttresses of the nave. The work seems to have been carried on for a long period; part is late in the thirteenth, and another part early in the fourteenth century; but it has been & good deal THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. modernised in the seventeenth, and the date of 1675 is painted on a base at the east end. The west front is very fine and rich, the arches and tympanums fitted with sculpture, among which are the signs of the sodiac, with the operations of each month nding. But four peak panelled buttresses have been introduced in the seventeenth century, two of the months are destroyed. The nave has the pillars chiefly rebuilt or refaced after the mutilation by the Huguenots, and the vault is also modern, but the side walls with the sbafts attached, and the vaults of the aisles are original, with some of the windows. In the north aisle is a tomb of the end of the twelfth century, with a canopy; on which are some curious incipient crockets, the earliest that I remember to have met with. The rest of the work is chiefly of the Flamboyant style. The tower which stands on the north side of the west front is a fine imen of that style, with a rich crocketed spire, and there is a good boyant round window in the west front. The upper part of the front is, however, modernised. At the opposite end of the market-place is the shell of a good small church in the early French style, with a series of very long lancet windows, having fine mouldings, and a corbel table. It is called the church of the Mercadel, or little market. The windows have very tall shafts, with good capitals of foliage and the square abacus. Nothing certain appears to be known about the history of the church, or of the structure of the cathedral, which was founded at a very early period, and was formerly much more important than it is at present, the bishopric being now united to that of Bordeaux. The market-place of is of an i form, arising from the nature of the ground on the top of a hill; the houses are built on an arcade or piazza, some of the arches of which appear to be early, but none of the houses are earlier than Flamboyant. One corner house is a good specimen of the French houses in towns of the fifteenth or sixteenth century in this part of Franoe; the lower windows have canopies over them with crockets, finials, and pinnacles; the upper windows are enriched with panelling. Portions of the old walls of the town remain, but they are not very early nor remarkable.” Mr. Parker expresses his intention of giving another paper on the same subject. Theory of Colour. By WILLIAM Miniris, Baltimore, U.S. London: Trubner & Co. This is a very useful little work, and will greatly assist the colourist in mixing his tints. After describing the primitive colours and their combinations, he describes their technical value, showing that yellow, orange, citron, and green are advancin colours; red, middle or neutral point; russet, olive, blue, an urple, retreating colours" The “absorption and reflection of ight, transparency, and opacity,” he describes, and gives in detail the nature of each colour, and a few hints on colouring geometrical drawings, and concludes by an “ Application of Colours:” ‘The following are the most useful of the prepared cake colours for mechanical drawings:— Yellows: Gamboge, Roman Ochre or Yellow Ochre, Indian Yellow. Reds: Carmine or Crimson Lake, Vermilion, Indian Red. Blues: Cobalt or Ultra-marine, Prussian Blue, Indigo. Browns: Sepia, Vandyke Brown or Burnt Umber, Raw Sienna. Indian ink may be used for the shades or a semi-neutral tint, com- pounded of indigo and Indian red; this tint may be found in cakes under the name of neutral tint.” Popular Lectures on Drawing and Design. By WILLIAM MINIFIE, Baltimore, U.S. London: Trubner & Co. This is à small pamphlet describing the general usefulness of drawing; course of instruction of the Schools of Design of the xus! iiis Institute, also of the schools at Paris and Lyons; rules for the government of drawing schools, and various instructions for their formation. The author strongly insiste that every person may acquire sufficient facility in the use of the pencil, to make its practice agreeable as well as profitable, and advises it to be taught early: ** Drawing when taught , ia of great aid to the acquirement of writing. I have been informed that, in the infant and primary schools of Germany, children are taught to draw, long before they commence writing, and, by this course, writing is acquired much more readily and correctly than by the general mode of teaching writing first.” „And next, I would say that every person ought to learn to draw; for I can hardly recognise any situation in life, m which drawing would not be advan I need not refer particularly to the Engineer, the Architect, the Mechanical Draughtsman, or the Surveyor, because these professions cannot exist without this acquirement." — eee 287 THE SAULT ST. MARIE SHIP CANAL, CANADA, Tak Ship Canal around the Falls of St. Mary is now completed» and in successful operation, as a means of transit between the lower waters and LakeSuperior. A few days ago the steamer Illinois arrived at Detroit, being the first boat from Lake Superior, through the Ship Canal around the Falls of St. Mary. The event is a memorable one, and, as facilitating the means of transit from Lake Superior to the lower lakes and the ocean, cannot fail to help forward the growing prosperity of Canada—notwithstandi that it is to the enterprise of the other side that we are indebted for the successful carrying out of the work. The following facts relating to its construction we derive from ade furnished by the engineer and agent of the Canal Company. e dimensions of the Canal are as follows :—Locks, 350 feet long by 70 feet wide in the clear. Lower Pier and Fender Pier, 372 feet long. Upper Pier 830 feet long. The Canal from extremity of Lower Pier to Upper Pier is 5694 feet long, or about ly; mile. It is 12 feet deep at low-water mark, 64 feet wide at the bottom, 100 feet at water level, and 115 feet at top of banks The “breaking of ground" took place on the 8th of June, 1853, and the work was completed on the 8th of April, 1855. According to the contract with the State, 88,300 yards of rock were to be excavated, 117,300 yards of earth (mostly hard pan), and 14,378 yards of lock masonry; but in addition to this an enlargement of the Canal from the original plan rendered necessary another 12,600 yards of excavation,and 1105 yards of mason In constructing the canal, the quantity of iron used as material for lock gates, piers &c., was 299,810 Ib., besides many tons in machinery, &c. The square timber used up amounted to 197,235 cubic feet, besides 1,305,000 feet of boards. There were employed on the work at one time 1600 men, 100 horses, and 25 bead of cattle. Also 25 sail vessels for freighting, four chartered steamers and propellers, and six barges, which have carried 32,350 tons of stone, besides lumber and other materials. The cost of the work has been about & million of dollars, all of which has been paid out by the contractors, on the faith of receiving 760,000 acres of government land on the completion of their work. The parties who have taken the lead in the direc- tion of the enterprise are, Erastus Corning, of Albany, New York, President of the Canal Com ; J. Brooks, of Michigan, C. Harvey, of Michigan; L. Nichols, 1 [Prim Mr Harvey had supervision of the construction of the work at the Sault durin the first year, and the last six months. During the summer o 1854, when the heaviest work was being done, Mr. J. Brooks superintended the operations, assisted by H. D. Ward and O. P. Root, of New York. — —— Launch of the Cunard Steamer * Persia. On the 3rd of July, the steam ship Persia, the first iron p liner, built by the orders of the Messrs. Burns, of Glasgow, for the Cunard, or British and North American Steam Company, was launched from the building-yard of Messrs. Robert Napier and Sons, at Govan. Messrs. Napier are the builders both of the hull and the engines. The Persia is the largest steamer both in capacity of hull and steam power which has yet been built. The Persia far exceeds in length, strength, tonnage, and steam power the Great Britain or the Himalaya, and exceeds also by no less than 1200 tons the internal capacity of the ph te of the present Cunard liners. Her chief proportions are these:—Length from figure- head to taffrail, 390 feet; length in the water, 360 feet; breadth of the hull; 45 feet; breadth over all 71 feet; depth, 32 feet; burden, 3600 tons. According to the strict government rule of admeasurement, her power is equal to that of 900 horses; accord- ing to the plan laid down in Earl Hardwicke's bill, her power is equal to that of 1200 horses. The Persia has seven water- tight compartments. The goods are to be stowed in two of these divisions, each about 90 feet long, by 16 in breadth, and 20 feet in height. These stores, or rather tanks, are placed in the centre line of the ship, with the coal cellars or bunkers on each side of them. At the same time the vessel is so constructed as to have a double bottom under these goods chambers, so that if the outer were beat in or injured, the inner would, in all likelihood, protect the cargo dry and intact. She has separate sleeping accommodation for nearly 300 passengers, disposed along what may be called the main deck, lying immediately above the goods and: coal stores. There are in the forward part of the ship about 210 berths for the sailing crew, firemen, and stokers. 288 SELF-REGULATING WATER FURNACE.* TuHoxAS T. Tasker, Philadelphia, U.S., Patentee. (With an Engraving, Plate X XY.) TRE furnace of Mr. Tasker is arranged to warm buildings by means of air which has passed over pipes, within which hot water is circulating ; and the peculiarities consist y in the novel construction of the furnace itself, and of the sets of water pipes communicating with it, so as to allow them to be econo- mically cast, and easily and speedily put together, and chiefly in a self-acting means of controlling the of the furnace, 80 regu- lating the heat as to insure economy, and dispensing with the necessity of uently meddling with the fire. The furnace has the usual grate c, and ash pit below, but the sides and to consist of water spaces cast in segments bbbb, fitting into other, and to be made air-tight by proper cement. The peculiar form of these segmenta can be best seen byi tion of the accompanying engraving. The general figure is that of a small frustrum of a double pyramid, cast with projections on one face, and corresponding recesses in the other, so as to permit them to be tightly fitted together. At the upper part of each side, they communicate with the main tube for the hot water, and at the lower part with the return tube for the water, after it has made its circuit. The water flues, around which the air to be heated, circulates, are also cast in sections, called by Mr. Tasker mani- folds aaaa, each section consisting of a number of tubes connected at the top and bottom by tubes of larger diameter. Each of these sections can be easily cast in one piece, and the number of joints to be kept close is thus much diminished. The ends of each con- necting tube terminate in rings cast on them, which rings, when the sections are set up, fit into each other by projections and ves, so as to form one continuous pipe, which is a continua- tion of one of the carrying or return water pipes of the furnace; and, when adjusted and cemented, a single bolt passing through the axis of each pipe, binds all the sections tightly together, yet allows them to be easily and rapidly separated. It need scarcely be remarked that, when it is desired, the water pipes may be continued throughout a building, so as to heat directly by the radiation from the water pipes. But the punc feature of novelty about the apparatus is the self-governing valve. This consists of a float in a reservoir, so laced on the apparatus as to have the level of the water within it affected by the expansion of the water by heat, and its contrac- tion as it cools. From this float a rod H, passes downwards and covers a register in a flue, by which, when open, air is admitted irectly to the chimney. The draft door of the furnace is also closed by a register, so connected by arod with that just described, that as the one opens, the other closes. So that as the water becomes too hot, its expansion lifts the float, and by its rod lessens the draft, both by letting the air directly into the chimney A, and by tightly closing the draft door E. The first register is, moreover, conn by means of a slotted rod I I, with another register C, in a flue admitting air to enter over the surface of the fire. Thus, when the cooling action begins, it is affected by the two flues A, E, first described, the last remaining inactive while the chimney register opens considerably, owing to the slot which allows the pin to rise without affecting the rod. But should the heat con- tinue to increase so as to lift the chimney valve A, above a cer- tain angle, the pin lifts the rod which operates on the last register C, and the two thereafter lifting together, the tempera- ture of the fire is speedily checked by the additional dampening of the draft through the fuel. The arrangements thus described are manifestly ingenious and simple, and they appear to the committee, both from their own examination, and the testimony of gentlemen who have had them in operation on a large scale, to be practically useful. The committee would especially notice the ingenious combinations for diminishing the number of joints, and rendering them easily and rapidly accessible, while the are so arranged as to allow them to be cast without difficulty. The advantages claimed by Mr. Tasker for his apparatus are:— 1st. A reliable method of controlling the fire without attention, for twelve hours or longer. 2nd. A sufficient and uniform heat, without the possibility of producing a temperature injurious to the health, or unpleasant to the senses. * Report of the Committee of tbe Franklin Institute, March 8, 1855. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. 3rd. The greatest economy in fuel and labour, the combustion being effectually regulated by the action of the water in the apparatus upon the valves, under and over the fire, and in the smoke flue. 4th. Safety from fire. 'The fire being entirely surrounded by water, circulating at a temperature below the boiling point. sth. The improved method of combining the several parts, making but few joints, and these always accessible. The apparatus is, of course, much more expensive, at first, than an ordinary hot-air furnace; but as it presents DUAE advantages, and is free from many disadvantages to which these are subject, every one must determine, in his own peculiar case, whether the increased re ity, safety, and economy of fuel and labour, will justify the additional expenditure. Reference to Plate XXV. FRONT ELEVATION. d. Dust flue. — A. Valve opening smoke flue. e 5 the float to B. Mercury gauge. Float OXON C. Valve opening over fire. J. Flos. — D. Fire door. * E. Valve opening under fire. A. Valve opening into smoke F. Ash Pu door. ; ch G. Overflow pipe. b 5 H. Rod connecting the float to all L v bd nece thé valves. . Valve opening over fire. II. Valve rods. l. SEM door. der fire T SUPE PPP d Vs 5 Lue eee * o. Bolt passing through the se- veral manifolds, by which PLAN. all the joints are screwed aaaa. Radiating manifolds. up to tightness. b b b b. Cast-iron tubular sections. v. Bolt connecting manifold. c. Fire bars. — NOTES OF THE MONTH. The design of Mr. Oliver, jun., of Sunderland, has been selected in competition for the New Congregational Church, High Broughton, Manchester. The designs of Mr. E. B. Lamb have been selected for the Hospital for Consumption, to be erected at Funchal, Madeira, for the Duchess of Bragaza. Several plans were sent in. The contract for forming the new encampment at Colchester has been taken by Messrs. Lucas Brothers, who have just com- pleted the encampment for the Foreign Legion at Shorncliffe. A resident engineer is wanted to superintend the line traffic and locomotive department, on the Cork, Blackrock, and Passage Rail- way; salary 250/. per annum. Last day for testimonials 15th inst. On the 9th ult. Mr. Behne’s statue of the late Sir Robert Peel, executed for the Corporation of the City of London, was placed on its pedestal at the western end of Cheapside. The statue is 11 feet 2 in. in height, weighing 3$ tons, and was cast by Messrs. Robinson and Cottam. e pedestal has been designed by Mr. Tite. M.P. The Council of the Art Union have announced that every member who shall have subscribed ten consecutive years, ending with the year 1856, and shall not have gained a prize of any kind in that period, shall be entitled to one of the porcelain buste of Clytie. A large range of wooden huts, capable of accommodating a force of a thousand men, is immediately to be erected on Hobbs’ Point, in the vicinity of Pembroke dockyard. The contract has been taken, and when completed the militia will be located in them. A considerable grant has been made by the Woods and Forests for the restoration of Dunfermline Abbey and Frasers Hall Mr. Balfour, builder, has commenced operations. A British Protestant Cemetery has been established at Madrid under the superintendance of Mr. Albano, architect. The land is enclosed by a brick wall. There is an entrance building, on one side of which is the chapel, and on the other the lodge for the sexton. The one hundred and first anniversary dinner of the Society of Arts took place on the 3rd ult., at the Crystal Palace. About 350 gentlemen were present on the occasion; the Duke of Argyle in the chair. ee a wt a ! oper | : roy 24 L 4 ah: Iyo uş -- - -- i i Hu SY N y eyoug o; pon ibig ay : s — ueg Jo uot32egq = = o- - — Hou S euidpopupimq Su, `], Sumo. TOVNY Oe MA LVM LOH ONTLWTASDAY ATAS [4 2»u1100 301] ri f Dun hui 7 Ü 4104. SPY d I 1 j —— mme, | EI 007 J £ py? / | P | | PETAD EO] p ditio SF | | nn um | d 5 MW. * & "— ov / d Hate, | 3 200)J | | | uot?vA9[ 1044 ’ * THE CIVIL ENGINEER The designs of Mr. James Stevens, of Macclesfield, have been selected for the New Market Hall, at Warrington; the estimated cost is about 50001. The design of Mr. Veale, of Wolverhampton, has been accepted for the New Town Hall, Wolverhampton. The Board of Management of the Central London School dis- trict are desirous of receiving, on or before the 31st inst., plans and estimates for a district pauper school, at Hanwell, to accom- modate 1200 children. Instructions have been given to the Engineer de ent of the Ordnance Survey of Scotland, to note all remains, such as barrows, pillars, circles, and other ruins. A reflective tube for the trenches has been suggested, the pur- of which is to enable the engineers at work in the trenches to see the interior of the enemy’s works, without exposure to the has been formed at Edinburgh, to promote the observation and classification of meteorological phenomena in Scotland. At the pre ‘America, stated briefly the 8 which meteorological inquiries which had been accumulating for thirty years, were now being arranged for publication by order of government. Dr. Drew, of Kingston-on-Thames, 8 oke at some length on the best methods of observing and classifying meteorological phenomena, and the Mr. Stuart, Hillside, mentioned that for upwards of a year registers of the umfriesshire, and that more recently the Duke of Buccleuch had given directions that the and Eskdale. the Marquis of Tweedale, Vice-President; Mr. A. K. Johnston, Hon. Secretary. The Society is to consist of yearly subscribers of 10s. and upwards. A Mr. John B. Greene has succeeded, notwithstanding the dif- ficulties attendant on clearing away the palace of Medinet Habora, in discovering the celebrated Egyptian calendar of which Cham- pollion could only copy the first lines. A cast of this monument was taken on the spot by means of a particular kind of composi- tion, photography not reproducing it prope Different colossal figures the upper parts of which were only visible, have been now cleared away and brought to light; one of them in excellent pre- servation, shows the features of Ramses IIL, and is about nineteen metres high. Mr. Greene in clearing round this colossus, was able to discover and take drawings of the inscriptions of the pylone or grand portal erected between the two courts ; and he has roved the existence of a pavement in granite, which probabl covered the whole court, and above which rose a passage whic appears to have led into a second court. The excavations of Mr. Greene, which have just been completely made known, will throw fresh light on different points of Egyptian philology. — — àIœ — THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. Agricultural Implements and Machinery. . Ix the French department there are many excellent hand winnowing machines, and one, in especial, for cleaning clover and sanfoin seed, manufactured by Bardy, of Cressye (Dordogne), which is very A two-horse thrashing-machine, by J. Pinet, jun., Abilly, near Tours, is of novel construction, requiring no top frame; the main shaft is constructed perpendicularly, and in such a manner that the horse can stop suddenly without the least injury to the machine. It is one-third lighter than any yet made, and is decidedly the best of its kind. partment are mostly of wood, of the rudest construction, very short in the beam and handles, and The same remark also applies to the harrows, and field implements generally, except, however, the field rollers, for the most part composed of four or five short eylinders, hung on eccentric bearings, which must be very effec- tive. The thrashing and winnowing machines are neatly and well made, but, with the exception of one, are objectionable on account of the motive machinery being attached to the barn- work, which must subject it to get very foul. No. 257—V ol. xviii.—Avaust, 1855. AND ARCHITECT'S J OURNAL 289 The remarks on the French implements a ee apply to the Belgian, save that they have alopted in two p oughs the system of the Scotch swing, and that they have also a grea penchant for the old, very ol fashioned plough, with one stilt. They ex- hibit a good roller gudgeon, requiring greasing but once a month. The Swedish ploughs from the Natio us d purs School, both , are better, but are evidently inferior copies of They furnish a gubsoil plough, which is very iron and w Howards system. good. The Canadian swing ploughs are well finished and strong, and are xag cun for the convex shape of their breast or mould board. e United States exhibit several n machines, some of them of novel construction; that by Mr. Atkins, beautifully finished. They also have a thrashing and winnowing-mac ine, from the manufactory of J. A. Pitts, Buffalo, which will, it is said, perform wonders. The German ploughs and field imple- eiim generally, have not one single quality to recommend them. Switzerland furnishes a heavy, clumsy plough, which, although useful, perhaps, in & mountainous country, would prove & great encumbrance in flat culture. The Italians send, amongst other implements, a horse rake, which, although inferior in point of wor ERI articles of our own production, is yet constru on & good principle. England contributes the usual implements exhibited at her agricultural meetings—all of first-rate workmen and mostly embodying recognised principles. Howards’ (of Bedford) ploughs attract the greatest attention, and are decidedly the best, and for elegance of shape and lightness of appearance must now, a8 ever, stand pre-eminent. They have adopted a novel and simple method of fastening the wheels and coulter. Their zig-zag harrows also, from their threadlike airiness, are the astonishment of is their utility unheeded. Their horse rake uliar form and connoisseurs; nor is much spoken of. The engines and thrashing machines of Hornsby and Co., and Clayton, huttleworth, and Co., whose barn work is decidedly 5 collect many admirers. ‘roskill, Beverley, exhibits a Scotch cart, which is good; as is his root-washer. His clod-crusher is equalled by the French, and is thrown into the shade by its neighbour, manufactured by Stanley, of Peterborough, on Cambridge’s patent, with Mr. Stanley’s improved scraper. Bell’s reaper, made by Croskill, is by the French and Americans, both in goodness of workmanship and improve- xps Stanley's and Harwood's corn-mills are the cynosures of eyes. Ransom's lime plongue attract much attention. Their V. R. C. ploughs are particular y remarked, and give great satisfaction. Burgess and Key ex ibit a good, but complicated, reaper on Hussey’s system, and some first-rate steel digging-forks an draw- ing tools, which the French can hardly conceive to be sufficiently strong for their work, on account of their extreme lightness. Wm. Dray and Co., of Swan-lane, exhibit the manufactures of most of our principal makers, together with their own manufac- tures, amongst which is particularly obeerved their fixed steam- engine. i ine i cylinder, and is thus rendered more durable, and is less liable to get out of order than those on the horizontal principle. Wm. Dray’s reaping machine is also much admired. This entleman visited Amiens on the lst July, on the invitation of N. Le Baron de Morgan, President of the Amiens Agricultural Society and gained the first prize— large medal—for the show of the best agricultural implements. J. Whitehead, of Preston, and W. Clayton, of London, exhibit their ingenious and useful tile machines. Whitehead’s machine is at work, and attracts, in consequence, a large share of atten- tion. In the building, the Marquis de Bryas, one of the first 1 5 in France, has construc a model trench to ‘Tustrate his plan of laying these drain Bc These pipes are being manufactured hitehead’s machine, 80 that department have an opportunity of witnessing the whole process of drainage, including the manu- facture of the material. Biddell’s bean-mill is the only one of its kind exhibited, and has been sold to the Belgian Governmen-. Busby’s cart deservedly attracts the greatest attention of any article of its kind. 41 290 ROYAL SCOTTISH SOCIETY OF ARTS. ous following Papers have recently been read at the meetings of this iety:— On Writing Inks.” By Jaures SrARE, M.D., F. R. S. E. The author stated that in 1842 he had commenced a series of experi- ments on writing inks, and up to this date had manufactured 229 diffe- rent inks, and tested the durability of writings made with these on all kinds of paper. As the result of hia experiments, he showed that the browning and fading of inks resulted from many causes, but in ordinary inks chiefly from the iron becoming peroxygenated, and separating as a heavy precipitate. Many inks, therefore, when fresh made, yielded durable writings; but when the ink became old, the tannogallate of iron separated, and the durability of the ink was destroyed. From a humerous series of experiments, the author showed that no salt of iron and no preparation of iron equalled the common sulphate of iron, that is, the commercial copperas, for the purposes of ink-making, and that even the addition of any persalt, such as the nitrate or chloride of iron, though it improved the present colour of the ink, deteriorated its dura- bility. The author failed to procure a persistent black ink from manganese or other metal or metallic salt. The author exhibited a series of eighteen inks, which had either been made with metallic iron, or with which metallic iron had been immersed, and directed attention to the fact that, though the depth and body of colour seemed to be deepened, yet in every case the durability of writings made with such ink was so impaired that they become brown and faded in a few months. The most permanent ordinary inks where shown to be composed of the best blue gall-nuts with copperas and gum, and the proportions found on experiment to yield the most persistent black, were six parts of best blue galls to four parts of copperas. Writings made with such an ink stood exposure to sun and air for twelve months, without exhibiting any change of colour, while those made with inks of every other proportion or composition had more or less of their colour discharged when simi- larly tested. This ink, therefore, if kept from moulding and depositing ite tannogallate of iron, would afford writings perfectly durable. It was shown that no gall and logwood ink was equal to the pure gall ink, in so far as durability in the writings was concerned. All such inks lost their colour and faded sooner than pure gall inks, and several inks were exhibited which, though durable before the addition of logwood, faded rapidly after logwood was added to them. Sugar was shown to have an especially hurtful action on the durability of inks containing logwood— indeed on all inks. Many other plain inks were exhibited, and their properties described—as gallo-sumach ink, myrobalans ink, Range's ink —inks in which the tannogallate of iron was kept in solution by nitric, muriatic, sulphuric, and other acids, or by oxalade of potash, chloride of lime, &c. The myrobalans ink was recommended as an ink of some promise for durability, and as the cheapest ink it was possible to manu- facture. All ordinary inks, however, were shown to have certain drawbacks, and the author endeavoured to ascertain by experiment whether other dark substances could be added to inks to impart greater durability to writings made with them, and at the same time prevent those chemical changes which were the cause of ordinary inks fading. After experimenting with various substances, and, among others, with Prussian blue and indigo dissolved in various ways, he found the sul- phate of indigo to fulfil all the required conditions; and, when added in the proper proportion to a tannogallate ink, it yielded an ink which is agreeable to write with, which flows freely from the pen, and does not clog it, which never moulds, which, when it dries on the paper, becomes of an intense pure black, and which does not fade or change its colour however long kept. The author pointed out the proper proportions for securing these properties, and showed that the smallest quantity of the sulphate of indigo which could be used for this purpose was eight ounces for every gallon of ink. The author stated that the ink he preferred for his own use was composed of twelve ounces of galls, eight ounces of sul- phate of indigo, eight ounces of cop , a few cloves, and four or six ounces of gum-arabic, for a gallon of ink. It was shown that immers- ing iron wire or filings in these inks destroyed their durability as much as similar treatment destroyed ordinary inks. He therefore recom- mended that all legal deeds or documents should be written with quill pens, as the contact of steel invariably destroys more or less the dura- bility of every ink. The author concluded his Paper with a few remarks on copying inks and indelible inks, showing that a good copying ink has yet to be sought for, and that indelible inks, which will resist the pencilings and washings of the chemist and the forger, need never be 00. or. ** The Strength of Screw Blades; and an Instrument for measuring the Pitch and proving the correct Form of Serew-Propellers, called a Pitch-Compass." By James SPENOE, Chief Foreman of the Steam Factory of H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth. The author stated that the form, length, diameter, and area of the screw had all been carefully examined and experimented on, and well authenticated data recorded; but he was not aware that so much atten- tion had been paid to the strength of the screw blade. Henoe we are frequently hearing of accidents from breakage. The author remarks THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL that in all the broken screws they have had in the navy, the fractures have taken place at about one-third of the length of the blade from the boss. The boomerang of the Duke of Wellington, the Phenix, and Sir Thomas Mitchell, all broke at about this point. Hence the peculiar converse form of the blade should be carried well out beyond one-third of the length of the blade. The author then went on to describe a very useful instrument called a poor for measuring the pitch and proving the correctness ot the form of screw-propellers. This machine was suggested by Mr. Rawson, head-master of the School of Ship- wright Apprentices at the dockyard. A chuck provides a centre pivot in the exact line of the axis of the screw. A trammel, made in two ieces, for strength and convenience, is filled with two trap bushes, ving holes e to fit on the centre spindle of the chuck. It there- fore forms a correct moveable base line at right angles to the axis of the screw. The circular plate on the chuck is divided into twelfths of the circumference, that is, the holes in it are thirty degrees apart. The trammel being secured in one of these holes, a measurement is taken from the trammel, as the base line, to the screw blade by means of a moveable pointed rod at right angles to the trammel, and capable of being moved along the trammel as the length of the blade increases, The trammel is then moved to the next hole in the circular plate of the chuck and secured, it having passed through thirty degrees. A second measurement is then taken from the trammel to the screw blade, when the difference in inches between the first and second measurement will be equal to the whole pitch in feet, and so on, so that by indicating the commencement and end of the measurement, by rings clamped on the moveable pointed rod, and measuring the alternate distances between them in inches, we get the whole pitch of the screw in feet. ** Self-Acting Feed and Brine Apparatus for Marine Boileri.” By JAMES SPENCE. Sea water contains salt in the proportion of 1 to 32; and to get rid of this salt, which crystalises very rep in the marine boiler, many plana have been adopted. It was an early and long-standing practice to blow off large indefinite quantities every four hours. It was then found more economical to pump out by pumps, worked by the steam-engine, & given proportion of surcharged or brine water. The self-acting feed and brine apparatus is designed to discharge the brine by means of the pressure in the boiler, a proportionate quantity, say 2:7 brine, to 9:6 feed. The brine value is in connection with the feed value; the latter is acted on by the engine, and is opened or shut more or less in proportion as the engines are going slow or fast, or suddenly stopped. The prin- ciple on which it is designed is, that the out-going brine is always in proportion to the in-coming feed, however much that may vary. ** Railway Lighthouse Signal. By ANDREW GARRICK. This signal is a stationary, clear light, placed at the beginning of any tunnel or curve, or near to a junction. Every passing engine changes the light toa red colour, which disappears gradually in ten minutes. The smallest glimpse of red light will caution the conductor of any approaching train that there is danger of running into another train not farin advance. The proximity of the latter to the lighthouse may be estimated from the perpendicular degree of red light observable. — c Ó————— NEW PATENTS. PROVISIONAL PROTECTIONS GRANTED UNDER THE PATENT LAW AMENDMENT ACTI. Dated March 18. 558. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—lmprovements in musical wind-instruments. (A communication) Dated March 20. 627. H. T. Williams, Archway, Guildford-street, and Keppel Mews North, Russell- square An improved method of making an eaale Dated April 25. 922. A. Crosskill, Beverley, York—Improvements in machinery for cutting and reaping corn, grass, and other cropa 935. F. J. Anger, Stamford-street, Blackfriare-road—A new metallic alloy. (A com- munication) Dated April 2T. 952. E. Muller, J. Gilardoni, and X. G oni, Rue de Provence, Paris—A and clamping hooked tile, by means of which the entire covering of a roof is ti ether, a machine for the fabrication of such tile by which it is continuously delivered from the mould through a peculiar system of delivery, applicable to any matter that may be moulded, and a conterminous succession of furnaces for its burning Dated May 1. dien G. W. Knocker, Dover—Improvements in motive power by means of water and Dated May 9. 1046. 8. C. Lister, Bradford, York—Improvements in treating old ropes, also old canvas and gunny and similar materials, part of which improvements are also applicable to hemp, rhea, and other similar fibre, to render parta of the fibres guitable to be spun Dated May 16. 1101. W. Latham, Liverpool—Improvements in cutting the t or of certain textile fabrics used for saddle-covers : ind ines Dated May 17. 1119. W. Smith, Salisbury-street, Adelphi—A new machine for cleaning cotton and other fibrous materials. (A communication from M. E. Neven, Malaunay, France) Dated May 23. 1158. L. Ochs, St. Josse ten Noode, near Brussela—Improvements in the manufacture of certain kinds of paper from the refuse and cuttings of leather during the operation of tanning. (A communication) THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. Dated May 96. 1195. W. S. Young, Leith—Improvementa in steam-boiler farnaces, and in the preven- of smoke therein 1198. J. C. Ricu, and C. Bartocci, Fuligno, in the Papal States—A new beverage Dated May 28. 1212. E. G. Swinton, Warsash House, near Tichfield, Hampshire—Improvements in applying motive power for grinding corn, and for other similar purposes Dated June 2. 1265. H. Galante, Place Dauphine, Paris—An improved surgical injection-bottle Dated June 4. 1267. M. Staite, Liscard, Chester—The manufacture of a new black paint 1269. G. H. Ingall, Bartholomew-lane—Improvementa in coupling railway carriages 1270. H. J. Kaye, Denbigh-street, Belgrave-road, and P. Burrell, the Hermitage, Camberwell-grove—An improved mode of communicating to each of two trains that are in motion the distance they respectively are from each other 1271. W. H. Graveley, Upper East Smithfield—An improved apparatus for cooking Purpose: and improvements for the production of fresh water for ship and land use 13 3 E. Morewood and G. Rogers, Id Improvements in coating sheets of wrought- 1214. G. Green, Mile-end-road—Improvements in sawing-machinery 1275. W. E. Newton, Chancery-lane—An improved construction of ships’ auger. (A communication) Dated June 5. 1276. F. Puls, Soho-square—Improvements in electro-coating iron 1277. J. Gedge, Wellington-street South—Improvements in combs, called curry- eombs. (A communication from F. V. Vauconsant, Metz, France) 1279, J. Gedge, Wellington-street, South—Improvements in the distribution of motive wer. (A communication from E. Grill, Beziers, France) 1281. T. Barrows, Massachusetts, U.S.—Improvements in the treatment of wool pre- paratory to its being carded, spun, or woven 1288. T. ws, Massachusetts, U.8.—Improvements in the treatment of wool 1285. J. ous Orchard-hill, Lewisham-rosd—Improvements in water-gauges for 8team-boilers 1989. J. Gedge, Well -street ne in the manufacture ef flat tiles. (A communication from C. J. B. J. Vaultrin, France) 1391. P. Lolm?de, Saux, France—A new instrument for the administration of medi- cinal substances 1293. H. Leech, J. Robinson, and R. Burrows, Preston—Improvements in machinery or & tus for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances 1296. H. Nunn, Mabledon-row, Burton-crescent—Improvements in the construction of carriages for invalids and children, part of which improvements is also applicable to street cabs and other carriages 1297. W. Baines, Coverdale-terrace, Hunter’s-lane, near Birmingham—Improvements in certain parts of railways, and for the methods of manufacturing and constructing of the same part Dated June 1. 1298. P. A. Favre, Marseillee—Improvements in employing the residue arising from the lixiviation of crude sodas 1808. R. P. Peters, Union-street, Southwark—Improvements in the manufacture of ordnance-shells and other hollow vessels Dated June 9. 1818. C. F. Varley, 8t. Pancras—Improvements in electric telegraphs Dated June 18. 1345. F. C. Bakewell, of Haverstock-terrace, Hampstead—Improvements in apparatus for supplying furnaces with hot-air. (A communication from C. Fletcher, North America) 1346. F. C. Bakewell, Haverstock-terrace, Hampstead—Improvements in rotating breech flre- arma. (A communication from J. Ells, United States) 1347. J. Avery, Esser street Improvements in oscillating steam-engines. munication) 1348. W. J. Blackman, Hippodrome, Kensington—A new medicine or syrup for the cure of coughs 1349. E. R. Turner and F. Turner, St. Peter's Foundry, Ipswich—Improvementa in machinery or apparatus for crushing and grinding grain, seeds, and pulse 1350. W. Moxon and J. Clayton, Rochdale, Lancaster—Improvementa in looms for weavin ta or other looped fabrics 1851. H. H. enson, Parliament-strect—Improvemente in the construction of portable and other buildings, and in the means of ventilating buildings 1853. J. Betteley, Liverpool—An improvement in the manufacture of iron knees for ship-buildin 1863. J. Betteley, Liverpool An improvement in ships’ anchors 1354. G. Cottam, Winaley-street, Oxford-street—Improvements in hay-racks and har- ness brackets 1855. G. A. Biddell, Ipswich—Improvements in the manufacture of machines for cutting or grinding vegetable and other substances 1856. E. Lodge, Mirfield, York, and G. Marshall, Huddersfield — Improvements in the production of aniinal and vegetable naptha, ammonia, and and also for the evolution of tbe carburetted and olefiant gases therefrom » Dated June 14. 1357. G. Sinclair, Regent-atreet—Improvements in signalling between the engine- drivers and the guards of railway trains 1868. E. Hollis, Birmingham A new or improved method of securing ramrods to fire- arms 1859. J. Enouy, Denbigh-place, Pimlico—The means of ‘‘removal” of omy toai or “ revolving barrel or cylinder” containing chambers, from all revolver guns, and fire-arms, and the substitution“ in their place by another, and other ls or cylinders” in succession 1360. A. onenen, m Mary, Middlesex—A new manufacture of packages for dry or moist or liqui 1861. F. Leloup, Paris — Improvementá in treating textile fabrics or substances for sepa- rating cotton or other vegetable substances from wool, silk, and other animal products. A communication) 1862. 8. C. Lister, Manningham, Bradford, York—Improvements in treating silk waste, also the noils of silk, wool, and goats’ wool or bair, before being spun 1868. J. T. Chance, Birmingham—Improvements in glass-flattening furnaces. (A com- munication) Dated June 15. 1864. W. Hewitt, Bristol—Improvements in propelling veasels 1365. W. Clay, Liverpool,—An improved manufacture of bar-iron 1866. W. Clay, Liverpool—The application of certain descriptions of bar-iron to pur- where great strength or stiffness is required 1867. H. Bridgewater, Alfred-place, Bedford-equare—An improved construction of spike for railway and other urposes 1868. W. Lee, Duke-ntreet, Westwinster—Improvements in water-closets 1869. H. Mathis, Rue Notre Dame des Victoires, Paris—Improvementa in preserving wood. (A communication from D. Boucherie) 1870. J. i Sadler, Lady Pitt-lanc, Hunslet, Leeda—Improvements in looms for weavi 1871. a. T. Morrell, Fleet-street—An improvement in ink-bottles or ink-vessels (A com- 291 Dated June 16. 1872. D. Pallier, Broad-street, Lambeth—Improvenrents in the manufacture of soap er saponaceous substances 1878. W. Jones, Birkenhead, Chester—Improvements in machinery for punching and shearing plates of metal, which improvements are also applicable to stamping and reasing metals and other substances 1874. J. Webster, Birmingham—A new or improved balance 1375. L. F. Vaudelin, Upper Charlotte-street, Fitzroy-square—Improvements in rail- way breaks or brakes 1876. J. Low, East Greenwich—Improved apparatus to be employed in place of paddle- wheels or ordinary stern propellers for propelling veasels Dated June 18. 1377. J. Sellars, Monsall Huuse, near Manchester—Improvementa in the manufacture of starch, and in the use of substances employed therein 1878. I. Carlhian and I. Corbiere, Castle-street, Holborn—Improvements in moderator lam 1379. T H. Réal, Paris—Improvements in elastic bottoms or seatings for beds, mat- tresses, and seats 1850. R. Peaker, Methley, York, and T. Bentley, Wakefield—Improvements applicable to machinery for grinding wheat and other grain, cement, and other substances 1381. W. H. Wilding, New-road—Improvements in furnaces 1882. H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, New Caunon-street —Improvementa in screw- propellers, and in the shafts and cranks by which they are driven, which improve- ments are also applicable generally to the shafta and cranks of marine, stationary, and locomotive steam-engines 1883. W. Little, Strand—Improvements in printing-machinery 1884. H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, New Caunon-street-—Improvements in the manufacture of cast-steel, and mixtures of steel and cast-iron 1885. = Blanchard, Rue Drouot, Paris—A new and improved method of bendiag timber 1386. H. Bessemer, Qucen-street-place, New Cannon-street—Improvemente in the manufacture of ordnance 1887. H. Francis, West Strand—Improvements in cutting out parts of garments er articles of dress 1888. H. Bessciner, Queen-street-place, New Cannon.street—Improvements in the manufacture of rolls or cylinders used in the lamination, shaping, and cutting ef metals, in crushing ores and other substauces, and in calendering, n P gets embossing, printing, and pressing 1889. E. Myers, Rotherham, York—Improvements in machinery or apparatus fer raising water or other liquids 1890. H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, New Cannon-street—Improvements in the manufacture of railway-wheels 1891. E. Myers and J. W. Potter, Rotherham, York—Improvements in buffers, draw- ee aud bearing-springs 1892. J. Jones, Sheffield Improvement in obtaining motive power 1893. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in furnaces or fire-plaees. (A communication from N. F. Corbin- Desboissierds, Paris) Dated June 19. 1894. C. A. Hartmann, Paris—Improvements in the preparation or combination ef colours for printiug stuffs and textile fabrics 1895. J. F. Norton, Manchester—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for measur- ing liquids and fluids, which is also applicable for obtaining motive power. (A com- munication) 1396. E. Dixon and T. Bailey, Wolverhampton—A new or improved tap or cock 1397. F. Burke, Woodlands, Monserrat, British West Indies—Improvements in pre- paring pulp, or pulpous material, applicable in the manufacture of paper, and fer other useful purposes 1398. J. Macintosh, Great Ormond-street —Improvements in fuses, fusees, and matches 1399. D. Gover, Kinc. street, „ in the construction of gua- es, and appliances connected therewit e Letchford, Duncan-place, Hackney—An improved construction of folding teads 1401. J. H. John«on, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for emptying ces«pools and privies. (A communication from J. P. L. F. Datichy, Paris) 1402. J. H. Johuson, Lincoln's-inn-fields—Improvementa in the storing and treatment of grain. n communication from J. G. de Coninck, Havre 1403. J. H. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in the manufacture of dish- covers, dishes, plates, and other articles of sheet metal, and in the machinery er apparatus employed therein. (A cummunication from F. V. Paris) l)ated June 20. 1404. D. B. Herta, Cornhill—An improved life-preserving harness. (A communicatien from G. Yellot and S. Hunt, Maryland, U.8.) 1406. R. B. Longridge, Manchester —lIinprovements in tae construction of steam-boilers and malleable iron tubes 1407. J. Green, Charlotte-etreet, Portland-place—Improvements in oll-lamps, generalby termed moderators 1408. J. Gernon, Buckingham-street, Adelphi — Improvements in the manufacture ef articles of clay. (A communication) 1409. J. Gernon, Buckingh:uu-atreet, Adelphi—Improvementa in the manufacture ef plaster of Paria and cement. (A communication) 1410. R. Walker and A. McKenzie, Glasgow—Iwm provements in electric telegraphs 1412. R. W. Savage, St. Ja:ues's-&quarc—Improvements in single and TUE ipit 1418. U. Lane, Regency-square, Brighton—An improvement in the manufacture ef um uis. E Cochaud, Paris—Improved apparatus to be used in making aerated or gaseous qui 1415. L. Pol, Paris—Improvements in pianofortes 1416. W. E. Newton, Chancery-lane—Improved machinery for polishing or finishing thread. (A coinmunication) 1417. J. F. V. Fabien, Paris—Improved machinery for manufacturing wheels. (A communication) Dated June 91. 1418. J. L. Jullion, Combe House, Tovil, Kent—The manufacture of paper, card, ard millboard froin certain vegetable pruductiuns i 1419. W. C. Wilkins, Long-acre—An improvement in lamps 1420. P. F. Rivux, Faubourg St. Denis, near Paris, aud L. de Pariente, Rue de Brabant, Faubourg of Schaerbeck next Brussells—Improvements in the fixing ef metallic ornaineuts upon paper, fleck, leather, cotton, silk, or any other fabrics te Which such ornaments may be applicable. A communication) 1421. M. Shelley, Uniou-crescent, Uniou-street, Kingxland-road—Lmprovements im cooking uten-ils 1422. J. R. Birch, Washington-strect, Liverpool—An improved boat-plug or self-aetiag valve 1428. J. B. Jamin, Leadenhall-«tzeet—Improvementa in apparatus for the manufactare of gas. (A communication tiom II. Leprince, Litye,) 1424. T. Bougereau, Lime-street—Improvements in apparatus for roasting coffee 1425. R. Keevil, Lacock, Chippenham—Iwprovements in vessels used iu the manufae- ture of cheese 292 1426. W. Baséb6, Mayfield-place, Kensington—An improvement in the mauufacture of paper 1427. C. E. Green, Blandford-street, Portman-square—Improvements in huts, tents, and camp-hospitals 1428. ha oung, Bow-lane, Cheapside—An improvement in the construction of gas- regulators 1429. T. C. W. Pierce, Manchester—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for 1 yarns, or threads manufactured from cotton, silk, flax, or other textile ma 1430. A. E. L. Belford, Essex- street Improvements in steam engines for pumping and other purposes, part of which improvements is also applicable to pumps. (A com- inunication) Dated June 22. 1431. W. Teall, Wakefield, York—An improved method of treating and working soapy or greasy matters in order to obtain the greasy substance therefrom 1432. O. R. Chase, Boston, U.S.—An improved machine for making lozenges, and for other purposes 1434. 8. White, Liverpool—Improvementa in washing, cleansing, and drying grain 5 d 5i L. Bellford, Essex-etreet—Improveinents in screw-fastenings. 14 commu- cation 1436. A. E. L. Bellford Easex-street—Improvements in breech-loading firc-arma, and cartridges relating thereto. (A communication) 1487. A. E. L. Bellford, Eesex-street—Improvements in pulverising quartz, mine and other hard substances. (A 0 i i - 1438. J. G. N. Alleyne, Butterley Ironworks, Alfreton, Derby, and H. Strafford, Cod- nor Park Ironworks. Alfreton, Derby—Improvements in railway breaks 1489. H. N. Penrice, Woolwich—Improvements in machinery for propelling vessels Dated June 28. 1440. S. T. M. Sorel, Paris—A machine for applying adhesive matters on stuffs, and also for applying on the said matters other substances or stuffs 1441. T. Walker, Birmingham—Improvements in projectiles for ordnance and other -arms 1442. F. W. Mowbray, Shipley, near Leeds—Improvements in looms for weaving 1443. W. Pearce, Poole Iron Foundry, Poole, Dorset—Improvements in machinery for manufacturing certain articles of pottery, such as pipes, tiles, hollow bricks, and other like articles 1444. G. Whish, Canada Works, Birkenhead—Improvements in oscillating steam- engines 1445. I. J. Aberman, Paris—A new system of manufacturing globes and other printed, plane, or curve surfaces 1446. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-strect —Improvementa in the manufacture of bats for felting, and in machinery for manufacturing the same. (A communication) Dated June 25. 1447. J. Gedge, Wellington-street South—Improvements in apparatus or mechanism for measuring liquids. (A communication from A. Cheron, Paris) 1448. J. Young, Linton, near Mobattle, Roxburghshire, Scotland—Improvements in, and a Ucar to, harrows 1449. J. Harris, Clogwynhyfryd, Merioneth, North Wales—A machine and apparatus for crushing, pulverisihg metals, metallic ores, metaliferous matters or substances whatever, and forobtaining, washing, dividing, amalgamating metals and other matters or substances contained therein. (A communication) 1450. J. Page, Perth—Improvements in moulding or shaping metals 1451. B. Smith, Hyson Green Works, near Nottingham—Improvements in apparatus for insuring the correct action of the safety-valves of steam-boilers, aud for regulating the action of the dampers of steam-boilers 1452. M. Poole, Avenue-road, Regent's-park—An improvement in sculpturing surfaces of marble and atone. (A communication) 1453. P. M. Parsons, Duke-street, Adelphi—Improvements in moulds for casting metals Dated June 26. 1454. A. E. L. Bellford, Essex-street—Improvements in rotary Mowing ma ninas which are also applicable to rotary pumps, to rotary engines to be driven by steam or other fluids, and to meters for measuring the flow of fluid bodies. (A communication) 1455. T. B. Sharp, Manchester, and A. Yorston, Belfast—Improvements in the arrangement and construction of furnaces or fireplaces 1456. F. Leiss, and C. Schneider, Hesse Darinstadt, Germany—Manufacturing mica letters, numerals, shop-signs, ien arms, devices, and ornamenta 1467. J. Ronald, James-atreet, Liverpool—Improvements in machinery for dressing manilla, and other hemps and flax 1458. M. Poole, Avenue-road, Regent’s-park—An improvement in the manufacture of printiug rollers or cylinders. (A communication) 1459. B. Bonnet, Rue des Couronnes, Belleville, near Paris—Improvements in weaving 1460. F. V. Derégniaux, Lille—lIinprovementa in the construction of spiuning machi- nery 1461. C. M. Pouillet, Paris—Improvements in railways 1462. J. J. Bucknall, Liverpool —linprovements in the manufacture of hats and caps, and the employment of certain tools for producing the same 1463. F. Raux, and L. Poret, Paris—Improvmeents in the preparation of artificial mineral waters 1464. J. M. Clements, Great Hampton-street, Birmingham—Improvements in pockets with spring lock fastening, applicable to male aud female attire, also as a fastening for bags, reticules, purses, or similar articles 1465. H. J. Distin, Cranbourn-street—Improvements in the means of rendering the ordinary field or regulation bugle chromatic Dated June 27. 1466. F. Russell, Cumberland-market, Regent's-park—An improved mode of hanging windows aud shutters 1467. T. Swinburne, South-square, Gray’s-inn—Improvements in machinery for apply- ing and obtaining motive power applicable, but not exclusively so, in the propulsion of vessels and railway-trains 1468. D. D. Buhler, Paris—Improvements in the construction of fencings 1499. T. Lucas, Duston, Northampton—Improvements in the manufacture of iron 1470. L. J. F. Margueritte, Paris—Improvementa in the manufacture of glass and crystal Dated June 28. 1471. H. Walker, Sambourn, Warwick—Improvements in ploughs for ploughing or tilling land 1472. J. Raywood, Wentworth, Yorkshire—An improved method of stopping railway- trains 1473. C. Moreau-Darluc, Paris—An improved mode of separating substances of diffe- rent nature or composition by means of displacement and substitution 1475. 8. Davey, Tucking Mill, Cornwall—An improvement in the manufacture of safety fuses for mining and military purposes 1478. C. C. Engström, Buckingham-street, Strand—Improvements in breech-loading ordnance, and the balls or projectiles thrown by cannon 1477. G. Lilley, Islington - An improvement in water-meters 1478. R. Besley, Fanu- street, Aldersgate-street—An improved manufacture of metallic alloy, applicable to the casting of type and other articles. (A communication) 1479. J. Skelley, Kilcurry, Ireland—Improvements in the construction of carriage- wheels THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT’S JOURNAL. 1480. A. E. L. Bellford, Easex-street—Improvements in manufacturing, lighting, and heating gases. (A communication) Dated June 29. 1481. P. A. Lecomte de Fontainemoreau, South-street, Finsbury—Improvements in axle-boxes or plummer-blocks. (A communication) 1482. C. A. Buason, Paris—An improved mode of coustructing and fixing the teeth of toothed cylinders employed in the treatment of textile or fibrous materials 1483. E. J. Hughes, Manchester—An improved method of concentrating the colouring matter of madder, munjeet, spent madder, or any preparations thereof 1484. J. B. de Lorenzi, Paris—Improvements in the construction of organa 1485. H. Dembinski, Rue Joubert, Paris—Improvements in the process and apparatus for generating steam without combustible matter, except in accidental cases 1486. J. Eccles, Blackburn—Improvements in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, and other articles made of plastic materials, and in machinery and arrangements or apparatus to be used for the ppe 1487. J. Broadbent, and 8. P. Youle, Machester—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for cutting out the gores of umbrellas and parasols, which said impreve- ments are also appeals to cutting out forms or shapes for other purposes 1488. W. Heaps, Forton, Lancaster—Improvementa in machinery or apparatus for UE cultivating land 1489. J. Weems, Johnstone, Renfrew—lImprovements in drying grain and other sub- stances Dated June 80. 1490. W. Woodcock, Hulme, Manchester—Improvemente in machinery for making bricks, and other articles of 71 materials 1491. T. Barling, Weymouth, Dorsetshire—Improvements in steam- engine boiler and other furnaces 1492. W. Johnson, Lincoln’s-inn-fields—Improvements in the manufacture or produo- tion of manures. (A communication) 1493. J. Birch, Bradford, York—Improvements in the manufacture of iron Dated July 2. 1494. W. H. Tooth, South-street, Southwark—Improvements in the machinery for, and in the manufacture of, earthenware and plastic articles, and in the preparation of clays and other materials 1495. J. A. Mignon, Rue des Postes, Paris—Improvements in maps, charts, plans, tables, &c., of great dimensions, to render them more portable and useful 1496. F. Lycett, of the firm of Dent, Allcroft, aud Co., Wood-street. —An improved glove, together with the means of manufacturing the same. (A communication) 1497. W. Knapton, Albion Foundry, York—Improvements in furnaces for etfecting the consumption of smoke Dated July 8. 1499. R. Muckelt, Salford —Improvements in machinery for etching or engraving designs on cylindrical or other surfaces Dated July 4. 1500. G. Guillaume, Marland-place, Southampton—Improvements in machinery for communicating power to the wheel or axle of steam or other engines, or for carriages to be Propelled [ hand or foot 1501. G. A. Tabourin, Lyons, France—A new system of metallic arch, proper for the construction of bridges, arcades, vaults, roofs, and all other such purposes 1502. R. Tidmarsh, Foxley House, Foxley-road, Surrey—An improved apparatus for lubricating metallic and other surfaces when in motion 1503. W. Clay, Liverpool—An improved mode of manufacturing forged iron 1604. C. Hide, Worthing, Suasex—Improvements in connecting earthenware pipes or tubes 1505. J. Inglis and A. Cowie, Glasgow—Iinprovements in moulding or shaping metals Dated July 5. 1606. 8. G. Flagg, Philadelphia, U. 8.—An improved folding-boat. from A. R. Tewksbury, Boston, U. S.) 1607. J. Connor, Coventry—Improvements in apparatus for communicating between the engine-drivers and the guarda of railway-trains 1508. W. Gerhardi, Manchester—Improvementa in safety-valves and apparatus for regu- lating the pressure of steam and the quantity of water in steam-boilers 1609. S. Oddy, Adelphi Iron-works, Salford—Improvements in constructing and lubri- cating the bearings of mule-spindles 1610. J. Horton and T. Horton, Birmingham—A new or improved manufacture of paper, peo and pulp 1611. J. Howard, Bedford— Improvements in the construction of ploughs 1512. T. Felton, Edgbaston-street, Birmingham—linproveimentae in glass reflectors for gas and other artificial lights 1513. R. A. Brooman, Fleet-street —Improvements in the manufacture of figured net and other like open fabrics. (A communication) Dated July 6. 1514. J. V. Asbury, Enfield, Middlesex—Ituprovements in apparatus for neutralising the effect of collision or impaction in railway-trains, stations, and other sinlilar situations 1515. J. Bullongh, Accrington, R. Wlllan, Blackburn, and J. Walmsley, Accrington, Lancaster—Improvements in machinery or apparatus for warping by power 1516. J. A. Bellay, Paris—Improvements in manufacturing articles of earthenware and china 1617. W. Balk, Ipewich—Improvements in the construction and combination of parts of portable steam-enginea 1518. A. H. A. Durant, Tong Castle, Salop—An improvement in extracting caator-oil 1519. W. R. Morris, and W. Morris, Deptford, and R. Chrimes and G. Eskholme, Rotherham—Improvements in the construction and arrangement of apparatus for preventing the waste of water from service-pipes or cisterns 1520. J. Beckett, and W. Seed, Preston—Improvements in machinery for spinning cotton and other fibrous substances 1521. W. Boyes, Preston—Improvements in looms for weaving Dated July 1. 1522. J. Gedge, Wellington-street South—Improvements in rated waters. munication from C. P. Guettier, Mans, France) 1524. E. V. Neale, Russell-place, Fitzroy-square—Improvements in the application of vitreous substances to tne manufacture of labels, tablets, finger-plates, tiles, and other architectural decorations 1525. J. Pym, Stanley-street, Pimlico—A new combination of materials suitable for building purposes 1526. E. Yates, Birmingham A new or improved dinner or dessert-fork 1527. C. F. Werner, and L. Piglhein, Hamburgh—An improved manufacture of elastic stuffing for chairs, couches, and other articles requiring the same — PATENTS APPLIED FOR WITH COMPLETE SPECIFICATION. 1567. C. Byrne, Dublin—A preparation of a certain kind of fish combined with pepper, wine, and other condiments, which preparation may be used for aandwiches.—July 18 1599. W. Pidding, Putney, Surrey—lmprovelwents in coverings for the feet of bipeds and quadrupeds.—July 17 1600. W. Pidding, Putuey, Surrey—Improvements in the manufacture of building materials,—J uly 17 (A communication (A com- 11 Google J R Jo | = > SS — SS ES = =" E - SY saa 2 = BRIGHTON CHAPEI JOSEPH James, ARCHITEOT mtt tt HÀ À—— M —— — — QUEENS SQUARE = TI "TO 1 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. QUEEN SQUARE CHAPEL, BRIGHTON. (With an Engraving, Plate X X VL) THE new chapel in Queen-square, Brighton, was erected by the English Congregational Chapel Building Society. The design was chosen by the committee from eight others, in conse- queue of some of the natural difficulties of the site being success- ly overcome. : The plan consists of—nave, a double transept on each side, with recess for organ and vestry in the rear. It affords accom- modation for 1050 worshippers. The whole of the building is encased in Caen stone ashlaring, at the especial wish of the committee, the architects desiring that the etrap flinting of the neighbourhood should be used. The works have been carried out by Mr. John Fabian, at an outlay of 35004, exclusive of warming and lighting. The architects were Mr. James, of Furnivals-inn, and Mr. Brown. — . NEGLECT OF SCIENCE BY THE GOVERNMENT. THE Parliamentary Committee of the British Association have been very active since the last meeting at Liverpool, in their endeavours to force the government to recognise the claims of science. Two reports have been drawn up and agreed to, which will be resak lat the ensuing meeting of the Association, on the question, Whether any measures could be adopted by the government or icai that would improve the position of science or its cultivators.” To enable the committee to arrive at a satisfactory determination of that question, they sent a circular to many eminent men, and on'the replies received, they have founded their report. The subjects discussed are considered under the following heads :— “1st. How can the knowledge of scientific truths be most conveniently and effectually extended? “2nd. What inducements should be held out to students to acquire that knowledge; and, after the period of pupilage has expired, to extend it and turn it to useful account? “3rd. What arrangements can be made to give to the whole body of competent men of science, a due influence over the determination of practical questions, dependent for their correct solution on an accurate knowedge of scientific principlles?” In considering the first question, regard is of course had to the different classes of society aus whom the extension of science is to be effected. To those educated in the Universities, the obvious requirement is the appointment of Professors of the physical sciences, and the attainment of a certain degree of scientific knowledge as a necessary 3 to obtaining degrees. The methods to be adopted in instructing the great mass of the population are more open to question. Several are suggested in the replies to the circular sent by the committee, and the plan they recommend, as the result of deliberation on those varied opinions, is the appointment of lecturers in the chief provincial towns, and that arrangements should be made for testing by examination the proficiency of those who attend the lectures. It is further proposed, that museums and public libraries open to all classes, should be encouraged and assisted, in the same manner as aid is now given in the principles of art. The second question, regarding the inducements for the acquirement of science and the reward of proficiency, gave rise to a greater variety of opinions than the first. The increase of the number and addition to the salaries of Professors of physical science, is one of the plans on which several agree. The expe- diency of resorting to orders or decorations is questioned, as not being applicable to others than students; though it is considered that in some cases medals are desirable as incentives to action. Professor Faraday observes, on this part of the question: “I cannot say that I have not valued such distinctions; on the contrary, Í esteem them very highly; but I do not think I have ever worked for or sought after them.” Nearly all the replies to the circular of the committee are opposed to the establishment of Institutes or Academies, like those of France; nor is any wish expressed that men of scieuce, as such, should be appointed to high political offices. But it is strenuously urged, that those offices to which scientific men are eligible should be well remu- nerated; and promotions in the Church, it is observed, ought to be made quite as much on the ground of scientific acquirements No. 258.—Vor. XVIIL—SEPTEMBER, 1855. 293 as of literary merit. In the ten propositions in which the com- mittee sum up what is termed their “desiderata,” those that have relation to the inducements and reward of scientific studies, may be thus stated: Increased salaries to Professors, and othe rewards; annuities in the nature of „ the increase of the salaries of scientific officers to an ity with such other civil appointments as are objects of ambition to highly- educated men; the emancipation of such officers from interference calculated to obstruct them in the performance of their duties; and the creation of new scientific offices. The last question bas a wider scope than all the rest, and is indeed so comprehensive that, if it be acceded to in the manner contemplated, all the former ones would follow as matters of course. The plan proposed is this: That a Board of Science shall be constituted, composed partly of persons holding offices under the crown, and partly of men of the highest eminence in science, which shall have the control and expenditure of the greater part at least of the public funds given for its advancement and encouragement; shall originate applications for pecuniary or other aid to science, and generally erform such functions as above described, together with such others as government or parliament may think fit to impose upon it.“ It is recommended that the new Board should consist of not less than thirty-five members, and that they should give their services gratuitously, with the assistance of a salaried secretary. The appointment of a Board of Science would, indeed, be an important event in the scientific annals of this country, and would contrast so strongly with the neglect which scientific pursuits have uniformly met with from the government, that we can scarcely venture to hope for its realisation. Yet, in this country more than in any other, is the creation of such a Board especially necessary. As Lord Harrowby obeerved, in his address as President of the last meeting of the British Association, the state has until recently done absolutely nothing for the promo- tion of science, though the country “is dependent for the full development of ita agriculture, its mining industry, its manufac- tures, and its commerce, upon the widest extension and the fullest cultivation of chemistry, of natural history, of mineralogy, of geology, of astronomy, of meteorology, and mechanics.” in, “Those who administer the affairs of this cu ought at least (I do not think as yet they do) to know enough of science to appreciate its value, and to be acquainted with ita wants, and with its bearings on the interests of society. Under the com- bined circumstances, therefore, of the importance of science to the wealth, power, and very existence of the state, with the admitted ignorance of statesmen even of its elementary principles, the creation of a Board competent to advise, and of sufficient authority to give due weight to its recommendations, is an absolute necessity. Among the direct and economical advantages to be derived from its satisfactory working would be, the adoption of all suggestions made or approved by that body for the benefit of science; and whilst it would check improvident and reckless schemes, it would promote those deserving of encouragement. It has been urged as an excuse for the refusal by the government of grants for scientitic researches, that the applications did not come so strongly recommended as to justify an expenditure of ir money on such speculative objects. But no similar excuse or refusal would exist when the requisition proceeded from a Board of recognised authority sufficient to take the responsibility of the recommendations they might make. The Board of Science would hold the same relative position to the government, that the Coinmittee of Recommendations of the British Association bear to the General Committee; with theadvantage of being indepen- dent of local iufluences, which too frequently govern the decisions of the latter. The proposed Board of Science would, however, be inoperative for good, unless it possessed the confidence of the government and of the country. It would, consequently, be of the utmost importance that it should be so constituted as to act efficiently and independently of the intluence of wealth, power, or of cliques. To the plan proposed by the parliamentary committee we see strong objections; for if the members of the Board were to give their services gratuitously, they would look for rewards or honours elsewhere, and they would not be invested with that degree of responsibility which can be expected only from paid offücers. Among the suggestions of the late Professor Forbes, who devoted much attention to the subject, he recommended the appointment of an endowed staff, consisting of a salaried repre- sentative of each of the departments of science, with whom were 12 294 to be conjoined other men of distinguished eminence and authority, and some members of the government. It is evident from the report, that the parliamentary committee incline to the adoption of such a mode of constituting the Board, but they consider it “not advisable to endanger the success of an applica- tion to government for the establishment of this , by adopting the suggestions of those who desire that salaries be given to several members as such.” It is perhaps more politic to adopt that course as an initiative, but little practical result can ensue from a Board so constituted. It affords, indeed, a lamentable illustration of the accustomed indifference to the interests of science by the government of this country, that though there are at present in the Cabinet the President and the ident-elect of the British Association, it is considered too hazardous to the success of a measure which is generally admitted would be most beneficial, to accompany its recommen- dation with an application for money. Such niggardly economy is, after all, but wasteful extravagance; for the amount requi for salaries would be saved a hundred-fold, if an efficient rd of Science were constituted that would prevent the frequent lavish expenditure of the public money on schemes destitute of all real a to consideration. — — — — THE STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF ARCHES, By HowERsHAM Cox, M.A., Barrister-at-Law. (Continued from p. 244). CHAPTER III. General Principles and Definitions. Tux review given in the last Chapter of Treatises on the Theory of the Arch, omits many of the works published on the subject, but seems to comprehend all the essential differences between the various theories of that structure; so that the prin- cipal views of writers here unnoticed will be probably found to 1 95 been considered in the notices of writers who have preceded them. We now proceed to lay down some general principles respect- ing the Theory of the Arch, not ao iach br the purpose of arriving at definite resulta, as of excluding erroneous and vague notions. Much error and perplexity are common respecting the characteristics of the arch, which distinguish it from other struc- tures, and its general mechanical properties. If we remove these difficulties, we shall at least have prepared the way for more accurate knowledge. In the first place, what is an Arch? The answer to the ques- tion is by no means so simple as may at first appear; and without a distinct definition of the subject of our investigation, it is ve possible that the reader may dissent from, or fail to understan the writer, because the former thinks of one thing, and the latter writes of another. The arch is only one of numerous structures employed for spanning a beneath them, that is, structures whi over- hang their 8, and consequently must be in part supported by their own strength or internal or molecular forces. It is not ible to distinguish the arch from those other span-structures y reference to distinctions of form, for in many instances those distinctions do not exist. Thus the plate-bande A B ba, or flat arch, which is shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 1), and is the commonest support of the brickwork above the windows and doorways of modern dwellings, has essential c istics of the arch, but in form resembles a beam or girder. THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. For the purposes of the engineer and architect, the arch must be defined by reference to its mechanical characteristics. The following definition seems sufficient:— An Arch is a structure, parts of which external forces tend to bend together, and which tendency the internal tensions have little or no effect to resist. This definition distinguishes the arch from other span struc- tures. Thus the beam and the lattice bridge are, as well as the arch, structures which resist external forces of flexure, but they do so by tension as well as compression, and by a well known property of them, their tensile are equal and contrary to their compressile forces in any vertical section, the deflecting forces being vertical. If a beam were divided by transverse sections, so as to destroy its tensile strength, it would be effective only as the plate-bande above delineated. Again, the structure which most resembles tke arch in ita mechanical properties, the suspension-bridge, differs from it in this, that it resists deflection by internal tensions only. Lastly, the arch is distinguished from several structures which are subject to compression and not tension, in that these are not subject to external forces of flexure—that is, the external forces to which they are subject are opposite to each other, and opposite (not transverse) to the internal forces of compression acting at the same parts of the structure respectively. Thus these con- siderations distinguish the mechanical properties of the flyin buttress, fig. 2, and the abutment of masonry or other material, fig. 3. If the direction (represented by the arrow p) of the resul- tant force applied at the summit of the abutment fall within the base a b, we may suppose the whole of the structure removed, except an imaginary slender rod of which the line of this direc- tion of p is the axis. But in fig. 2 (taken from the church of St. Denis, Amboise), no straight line can be drawn from any point in C D to any point in the base A B, wholly within the structure. Consequently it is impossible that the direction of the force P can be wholly within the structure, which is therefore subject to deflecting forces, and these must be resisted by the weight of the structure. Fig. 9. Fig. 3 The equilibrium of the abutment a b c d, fig. 3, will be diffe- rent] ected if the direction of p do not fall within the base a b; but in this case also the definition above proposed serves to distinguish the abutment from a fying buttress, which has the mechanical properties of the arch. If, in fig. 3, the direction of p cut either the linea c or the line b d, there will be a tendency to deflect the structure. This tendency may be resisted by the weight of the material; in which case the abutment has the properties of the arch, though not arcuate in its form. Other- wise the tendency must be resisted by internal tensile forces; and in general such tensile strength can only be derived from the absence of joints, or from clamping, and not from mere cohesion of mortar. The mechanical properties of an arch may, however, belong to & structure considered as a whole; and yet it may consist of dis- THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. tinct parts, each of which singly is not subject to deflecting pres- sures. Thus figs. 4 and 5 represent structures of equal rise 1 772 and supporting equal loads above their vertices C and c. ut with res to fig. 4, the weight at C does not act as a deflecting pressure of either half of the structure considered sepa- rately, though there is a tendency to deflect the whole by the opening of the joint at F. There is no tendency to bend A B C, because a straight line can be drawn wholly within the structure mE | 1 i | l — 2 emm GER . „ from C to any point in the base AB. In the same way, if, in fig. 5, a straight line could be drawn from c, the point of applica- tion of the load, to any point in the base a b, that line might be ing it sufficiently considered the axis of a slender rod, and sup removed as strong to resist crushing, the rest of a b c might superfluous. The pressure being wholly along this imaginary axis, the ings A B C would not be subject to deflecting forces, therefore would not have the mechanical properties of thearch. But as fig. 5 is here represented, a straight line could not be drawn from c to any point of the base a b; Ense ducente each half of the latter structure is subject to deflecting forces, and the load at c tends to cause it to onde outwards somewhere between a and c. This tendency must be resisted by the weight of the material of a b c, or by external forces applied between b and c; the internal ten- sions of the structure having, as will be shown, inconsiderable effect. GA. ud T oei MET AEN emm iuam D ape k aM r wait IINU R ge 71 Somewhat similar is the distinction between the mechanical properties of the dome fig. 6, and the cone, fig. 7, and pyramid, fig.8. In each of the latter structures, straight lines can be drawn from the vertex to every point in the base. Consequently, the application of a vertical force at the summit does not produce a tendency to deflection. If no external forces act on the struc- ture but that force, and the pressures of the base, there is nothing to cause the slant lines of the cone or pyramid to 5 or bend inwards. But in the dome (fig. 6) a straight line cannot be drawn from the vertex to the base wholly within the masonry, consequently there are deflecting pressures, which must be counteracted by the weight of the material, or by external forces applied at points between the base and the vertex; and these external forces must be in equilibrium with internal pressures transverse to them. Derinitions.—The following are definitions of some of the principal parts of arches:— 296 All arches, according to the ordinary sense of the word, support, besides their own weight, superincumbent weights. The estrados is that surface of the arch on which the superin- cumbent weight rests. Sometimes, as in the Moorish or horse- shoe arch, the extrados is incurvated so that one part of it is below another. The intrados or soffit is that surface of the arch which does not meet the extrados. The intrados may (like the ertrados) be incurvated so that one part of it is below another. Excepting such cases, and those of inverted arches, the intrados is wholly below the estrados. The base is that surface of the arch, which meets the extrados and intrados, and is sustained by the upward pressures of rigid supports. he impost is the masonry immediately below the base. Domes are entirely bounded by the extrados, intrados, and base. But cylindrical arches, &., are also boupded by surfaces which meet the extrados and intrados, und are not rigidly supported, and which are termed the faces of the arch. A horizontal area vertically beneath the whole extrados or intrados may be termed, for distinction, the over-arched area, which, in other words, is a horizontal plan or projection of the arch. This area, in cases of domes, &c., is ilinear. In cases of bridges, &c., it is usually rectilinear and quadilateral. The arch is usually constructed by several blocks cemented together, which are called voussoirs, which are commonly of a wedge-like form. The surfaces between continuous courses of woussoirs are termed their beds. The curves which these beds trace on the extrados and intrados are termed coursing joints. The jointa between these are termed heading joints. Quoins are voussoirs in the face of an arch. The haunches or flanks are portions of the arch lower than the rest The crown of an arch is the highest point of the extrados or intrados. The spandrile of a cylindrical arch are exterior surfaces lower than its summit on either side of it, and vertically above the face of the arch on that side. — — — — THE NICOLSON PAVEMENT. For nearly thirty years I have been treasurer and superinten- dent of the Boston and Roxbury Mill Corporation, and had in charge the preservation of its nine miles of avenues and roads. The main avenue is generally known as the Mill Dam; but that unpretending name designates, in point of fact, a continuation of Beacon-street, ove of the most beautiful avenues of the city, and which connects Boston with the city of Roxbury and its umme- diate vicinity. The eu repairs of the avenue, made neceesary by the travel to which it is exposed, led me to consider the general sub- ject of paving. It seemed to me that the prime objects to be Stained di paving, were, safety to travellers, horses, and vehicles; duan yi comparative noiselessness; healthfulnees as to mate- rials used; absence of dust, and exemption from rapidly accumu- lating and slippery mud. These essential elements, I fancy, are combined in akat is now known as the the “ Nicolson Pavement.” Most of the pavement in Boston consists of stones collected on the beaches of the main land and of the islands. They have become somewhat scarce; but if abundant, they could not now be considered as the most unexceptionable material. Square blocks of stone have been used to a considerable extent; but as they wear smooth from attrition, they afford an insecure footing for horses, and are liable to grave objections. Iron has been used to a limited extent; but it is very expensive. Wood, in some instances submitted to chemical process, has been resorted to; but, thus far, it has not answered the purpose. Yet, on reflec- tion, I did not hesitate to adopt wood as the basis of my plan, reserving and combining it with other materials, in the modes ereinafter described. The method which I now proceed to describe is that which I first put into use. Early in the month of July, 1848, I prepara a section of about 100 feet in length, and of the width of the road, at the toll-house, on the western avenue of the Boston and Roxbury Mill Corporation, near n-street. I firat caused the road to be properly graded, and then covered by a composi- tion of coal tar, sand and lime, about 2 inches in thickness, to 42* 296 THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL, prevent the injurious effects of moisture under the surface. On pavement had been down about five years it became n to this smposition or concrete foundation, I laid down four diffe- remove some of the blocks, in order to lay the pipes of the rent modifications of my wooden pavement. aqueduct. These blocks were found to be in excellent preserva- tion. Some of them are at the rooms of tho mayor and alder. men, and some at my office, where they may be readily seen and examined. Notwithstanding the long exposure of the pavement on the western avenue, to the changing influences of frost, moisture and dryness, it remains in ood Der That portion which is laid down according to the first, second, and third of the above modi- fications is in remarkable preservation; that which is arranged iu the manner indicated in the fourth modification, presents a slight uneveness of surface, the blocks not being pinned together. I have, therefore, adopted the plan of placing i upon the first composition used after grading the road, and it Fig, 1. from Sea-street to South Boston, to be prepared with my pave- Fig. 1 shows the first method. On 15 feet square ofthe road go ment. I adopted the second modification, that of the latitudinal prepared, I placed spruce blocka 3 inches square, in alternate — ridges, in this instance. The vement is now in perfect order, lengths of 8 and 4 inches, in a vertical position as much so as when first laid own; and yet it has checkered surf; The spaces to the incessant and heavy travel of this thronged and crowded i avenue from the city roper. | In the autumn o 1853, it was ordered that Mason-street Should be paved with m vement; and, in May last, the present board of mayor an dermen renewed the order. This Street is between Washington and Tremont-streeta, running parallel with them, and in the rear of the Boston theatre. ]t Was Is in ridges, similar to the method used on the bridge to Boston; hut the foundation was made by laying on the street, when graded, a preparation of coal tar and Sand; on this was placed a covering or floor, of 1-inch boards, upon which the blocks were arrahged, The filling, between the ridges, was of and light before my pavement was laid; since then it has i i Teams and heavy wagons which used to Fre. 2. (from which runs ! ason-street) aud on Exchange-street, the Fig. 2 shows the second plan: The short blocks were omittedand board of mayor and aldermen consented to the removal of the the long blocks laced end wise and next to h oth stone pavements from those streets, and the substitution of my present. latitudinal ridg "| inci 2260 4 to pavement. Exchange-street runs from Dock-square to State- street, and, like the brid e before mentioned, is one of the most f the city. Perhaps no street could be found in Boston in which the travel is 80 trying to the pavement, extent of the street; I preferred a diversity of manner, to test the different modifications. The first 130 feet of the street, start- ing from State-street, are paved with round spruce blocks, ag in fig. 3 (not divested of bark or sap), 8 inches long, and from 3 to 5 inches in diameter, For the next 80 feet, plank blocks, as in fig. 2, were used; they are 3 inches thick; be blocks, 4 inches in diameter, with the bark on. On the remain- ing portion, plank blocks were used, as in the second portion. The street was first graded, the surface rammed, and then a . TE . covering of melted asphaltum spread over the whole street, about The third modification (shown in fig. 3) consisted in the the half. of an inch in thickness, which was covered with a thin use of round spruce blocks, 8 inches in length. These Were coat of sand. The round blocks were loosely placed upon the Fig. 8. e firat, but with this difference. pavement was treated with the ebbles and hot asphaltum. At the blocks were not trenailed together, but their firmness left to the termination of the first 180 eet, the asphaltum Spread upon depend upon the solidit of the base, and the composition intro. the ground was covered with a flooring of hemlock boards, as I duced between the bloc 8. was uf opinion that the Surface of the pavement would thus be The road, so constructed, was opened for travel on the 19th of better preserved against the effecta of the incessant and ve July, 1848; and to this time, nearly SIX years And a half, it hag heavy travel of Exchange-street. After the pavement was ueither received nor required the slightest repair. After the finished, a thin covering of hot asphaltum, mixed with Band, was THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. applied, and the street opened for travel. West-street is next to be paved. I purpose, after the usual ing of the street, to cover it with a composition to protect the pavement from mois- then to lay a board or plank flooring, and to use spruce bl 6 inches instead of 8 inches long; to fill the interstices as before, but covering the whole with hot pine tar, or a composi- tion softer than the asphaltum in Exchange-street. Such, then, are su tially the methods to be employed. Slight variations in the use of materials, or in their arrangement, may be adopted, as experience may suggest; but there is the rinciple, and I believe it to be philosophical and practical. e method of paving in ridges transversely to the street, as delineated in fig. 2, will be found to be the best for such great thoroughfares as Washington-street in Boston, and Broadway in New York. In streets where stone is used for paving, it will be seen that the imperfect joints are soon worn into extensive longi- tudinal grooves, thus causing an uneven surface, and augmenting the danger to horses and vehicles. On the western avenue, where the pavement has been laid for six and a half years, and on South Boston bridge, where it has been used for a year and a half, there is not the wA irai indication of longitudinal grooves or gutters, or any inequality of surface. This method is 79 adapted to railroad and other bridges. For bridges, the blocks may be but 4 inches long, which will save half the usual cost of materials. There will be no earth beneath the blocks, and as the risk of moisture will be thereby diminished, the durability of the pave- ment will be insured for many years, while the mechanical con- struction will add greatly to the firmness and ‘solidity of the bridge. Four the tracks between the rails of a railroad on which horse-power is used, the adaptation of this method appears to be perfect; for while it gives a secure foot-hold to the horse, it 5 a clean and level surface for cross travel, and as it is less than stone, horses will not so soon lose their usefulness. I proceed, briefly as possible, to enumerate and describe some of its important advantages. Safety.—The security of travellers, horses and vehicles, is of transcendant importance. I think I have etfected this in an eminent degree. I have never heard of an accident caused by the slipping of horses, on any of the pavements which I have laid. The small prominences of the wooden blocks so fit the foot of a horse, that, at every step, he catches upon, or is sustained by, the resisting properties of the composition rammed into the interstices. Even the fibres of the wood become tough, and present a resisting rather than a smooth surface, from the insinuating property of the coal tar or asphaltum covering, mixed up as it is with fine portions of earth and sand. Horses are spared the great efforts they are often obliged to make in starting a heavy load, from the superior evenness of the surface, and yet they obtain a safe foothold, which they con- tinually fail to do on the round or square stone pavements. Noiselessnese.—Total exemption from noise would be no recom- mendation of a pavement, for obvious reasons. A mitigation of it is all that can be desired. The offices in Exchauge-street were highly objectionable, if on the front, by reason of the excessive noise incident to the immense travel in this narrow street. To remedy the evil was one of the motives for the substitution of my pavement. The relief is very great. It needs no laboured paragraph to show that the comparative noiselessness of a pave- ment, in & populous city, is an object of no inconsiderable importance. My pavement is as free from noise as is consistent with the safety of the community. Cleanliness.—Observation has abundantly proved that dust does not accumulate so rapidly, or remain so long as on the ordi- nary stone pavements, which is a great relief both to travellers and to those who reside on the street. The superior surface drainage of my pavement prevents the continued formation of mud, which is slippery and dangerous to man and beast, and always offensive. The pavement is too tight to admit the entrance of water, and as the composition resists the sub-moisture, the reault is something over and beyond a mere clean thoroughfare; it becomes a preventive to foul exhalations, and a preservative of the public health. Hence my invention may be introduced into south and southwestern cities with decidedly beneficial results, in a sanitary point of view. In cities exposed to miasmatic vapours, the pavement, by reason of its compactness, and the bituminous materials entering into its composition, cannot but have a purifying effect upon the surrounding air. There can be no e tion from it at any time (particularly after rains, and 297 under the rays of a hot sun) which will not be salubrious, rather than pernicious. Durability.—It is not pretended that this pavement is inde- structible; but in durability it will favourably com with any now in use. The substitution of hard wood would tend to the permanency of the pavement; but it would involve a greater expense, and I have used the softer kinds for that reason. So, too, if the latter were subjected to the several well-known che- mical processes devised for the preservation of wood, greater permanence would be obtained. But I have not resorted to such means, because I have preferred to use common materials, in this particular, for prudential considerations, as well as to test the preserving qualities of the composition. It is found, that the surface of the blocks of wood in the pavement on the western avenue and on South Boston bridge, has become case-hardened, as it were. The blows from the feet of horses have slightly broomed or opened the fibres of the wood, into which sand has entered and been hardened down by pressure of wheels, and thus largely contributed to the preservation of the pavement, and avoided the necessity of any repairs. Six and a half years are proof of its comparative durability, even when constructed of soft wood. Frost does not heave it, nor has the heat of summer impaired it. Economy.—A pavement may be somewhat costly, and yet, in a long series of years, be found to be an economical one, because there enters into the construction of the best possible pavements, elements aside from the first cost. On this head, however, I intend to confine myself to figures. I can furnish my pavements, in this city, on due notice, so as to have time for collecting the materials, at a cost of two dollars, or a trifle less, per square a That on South Boston bridge cost a little over two dollars. is is much less than the stone blocks cost, and 75 cents per ^ as yard more than common round or cobble stone pavement, The stone cube pavement, iu a greatly travelled street, will only last about five years without repairs. It is very noisy and slip- ry. The pebble pavement is also noisy, dirty, becomes full of oles, and requires repairs, in streets like Exchange-street, in less than two years. Judging by the past, my pavement must be considered as more economical than any now in use in this city. Such then are the qualities of the proposed method. It has successfully stood the severe trials to which it has been subjected. Not until its merits had been tested have I ventured to recom- mend its adoption. I have patiently waited until I could present it with the stamp of approbation, which time has impressed upon it. The favourable result of all experimenta, and the approba- tion of scientific and official gentlemen, justify me in the belief, that I offer to the public a safe, durable, and economical pave- ment. SAMUEL NICOLSON. Boston, May 27, 1855. — ——64ũ—P —L—' THE WORKING OF PIPE SEWERS. In consequence of a resolution of the Metropolitan Commis- sioners of Sewers, dated the 9th January, Messrs. Lovick, Grant. Cooper, Donaldson, and Roe, the district engineers, have reported on the working and present state of the pipe sewers in their districts, including the pipe sewers referred to in Mr. Bazalgette’s report of the 21st February, 1853, of * Past Failures and Present Condition of Pipe Sewers.’ The district engineers have stated their views of the causes to which the alleged failures in the pipes referred to in that report were due. Mr. Lovicx, as to the Fulham, Hammersmith, Counter’s Creek, and Ranelagh districts, reported to Mr. Bazalgette on the alleged failures on 18th February, 1853, or three days prior to the date of Mr. Bazalgette’s report. He states no opportunity was afforded him of checking this, and he did not see its results until after the circulation of the printed report containing them. He has found the illicit practice of emptying cesspools through the pipe sewers without precaution, with inadequate supplies of water, or with no supply, to be a fertile source of deposit in brick and pipe sewers. He says that the pipe sewers have not been vitiated by the amount of deposit reported to have been found in them, but that, with three exceptions, their action has been uninterrupted frora the periods of their formation up to the present time; namely, from the year 1850 in most of the cases, and in no case later than from 1851. 298 The advocates of pipe sewers point to certain general causes affecting their free or perfect action, apart from the influence of the feeling against pipes of contractors and others. These having an important bearing upon the question, Mr. Lovick thinks it but fair to give them an expression; limited by their presence in his own practice. Pipes in their earlier stages, in common with other inventions or adaptations, have not escaped the consequences of imperfection in their manufacture, or in their application to the drainage of towns. Fire-flaws, distortions, surface irregularities, excessive thinness, unequal thickness, formed prominent characteristics. Pipes were laid down without due regard to equal bearing; the fitting was inaccurate, the jointing defective, or not done at all. Protrusions within the pipes, on the one hand, were not unfrequent, and, on the othcr, retension of deposit in the structure by the percolation of the fluids through the open joints. The levels at which pipes were laid were e incorrect, and much oftener the ground was carelessly filled in upon them. . The first junctions with pipes were at right angles; these were succeeded by splays, and these gave place to curves. Instances were frequent of holes having been knocked through the pipes for the purpose of inserting branch drains, with a view to save the expense of proper junctions, as in the parallel case of injury to brick sewers, where similar surreptitious openings for drains have been made. Cesspools were often emptied through pipes by private parties without precaution, and without additional supplies of water. In cases, a continuous or shortly remittent flow was either wanting or deficient, from the houses entering the pipes not being themselves supplied with water, or from only a small proportion of the houses draining. Accumulations of soil in the brick outlet sewers checked con- tinuity of action in the pipes. The self-cleansing of pipe sewers, upon the removal of these obstructions in the outlets, has shown tle greatly retarding influence of this cause. Where pipe sewers euter brick sewers, the mouths of which are closed for about eight hours of every tide, or about two-thirds of the entire day, and therefore stagnant for a considerable length from the river, analogous effects ensue. Pipe sewers, Mr. Lovick observes, are not exempt from the usual requirement of all town-sewage works, namely, a propor- tionate supply of water. In cases of deficiency, whether arising from want of house supply or from the connection of too few houses, adventitious suppl have been had recourse to; but it is satisfactory to find that these supplies were required to be of comparatively small amount, and that they were in all cases within perfectly controllable limits. He has not considered it necessary to incur expense, by open- ings, to ascertain “past failures," in the face of a test 30 apparently conclusive as that of continuous action for periods of many years. In this opinion he is fortified by the further consideration, that if the bare fact of the internal condition of sewers (whether of brick or pipe) at any particular period, and at one point, is to be the SN n of failure or success, there is ample evidence in the oflice, in the shape of the flushing and cleansing expenditure. Mr. Lovick concludes by showing the damaging conclusions to which an isolated (unexplained) fact may lead, by a statement of deposits found in certain brick sewers on main lines, all, with one exception, far beyond tidal influence. Mr. EpMvND Cooprr, reporting on the eastern and western division of Westminster, and the Holborn and Regent-street districts, is of opinion that the deposit where referred to in the pipe sewers has accumulated principally for want of a sufficient supply of water and means of periodically flushing out the pipes. In the Finsbury division, Tower Hamlets, Levels, and Poplar and Blackwall districts, Mr. G. Donaldson reports that,— It appears that out of 25 sewers examined at 51 several places, the pipes were found whole in 41 cases, and broken in 11 (there being in two cases one whole pipe and one broken); and in 26 cases thev contain deposit; and in 25 cases they are clear and clean. The only cases mentioned in Mr. Bazalgette's report of November, 1852, which Mr. Donaldson examined (being in his district), are those two, namely, one in Havil-street, where, in 4 12-inch pipe-sewer, there was then deposit to a depth of 3 inches, where, notwithstanding its having been repeatedly openec aud cleansed since then, there is now five inches of deposit; THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. and in Camberwell Grove, where in 1852 the pipes were found cracked, and are now found broken in three separate besides four other places, where, within the last 12 months, 38 broken pipes have been replaced. The causes to which the alleged failures in the pipes referred to in Mr. Bazalgette's report were due, are these: That without suitable gradients, and a sufficient application of water through the pipe (or any) sewers, deposit will unavoidably accumulate in them. These sewers have been kept in working order by means of periodical flushings, * flushing Polo ” having been affixed to nearly all of them since 1852. And that the pipes are in many cases not sufficiently strong to bear Le pressure of the earth above them, particularly in clay soils. he hard gritty deposit now found in the sewers— In Westow-hill, with a gradient of 1 in 300 In East-lane, Greenwich, with . 1 in 64 In Croom’s-hill, with a gradient of 1 in 15 In Royal-hill, with a gradient of l in 60 There being in each of these sewers an average quantity of water passing, shows that no ordinary amount of flushing will remove the road drift which has once settled and become indur- ated within the sewer. Mr. Grant reports on the Surrey and Kent district as follows, dated 30th March, 1855:— No small amount of misconception has been produced by the use of the term “failures,” which, to those unacquainted with the nomenclature employed, has led to the belief of a total destruction, and consequent reconstruction, of the particular sewers to which it is applied; instead of, in many instances, a “ failure” being merely a local and temporary accident, remedied at a small cost, and not in any way affecting the working capabilities of the line. It is not stated upon what authority this return is based. At pe the remark occurs: ** You are aware that the books had not en kept with a view to afford this information; it has, therefore, been difficult to extract it from them, and no doubt many cases have occurred which are not contained in this list.“ If not de- rived from the official books, it certainly would be desirable to know from what other source the information was procured. It is not stated, as is the fact, that in the official account books of the commission, the works included under the head of - repairs" embrace alterations made in consequence of a variety of circum- stances, and not simply repairs of defects or damage. In a large proportion of the cases mentioned, the pipes said to have stopped were those laid at the end of 1848 and beginning of 1849, in anticipation of the cholera, which broke out in the summer and autumn of the latter year. So great was the anxiety of the then Commissioners to adopt every means in their power to avert this fearful scourge, that, after clearing the yards of the pipe manufacturers, they ordered their contractor to make pi of Portland cement, and use them as a temporary measure. Nor can any one doubt that they exercised a wise discretion in ordering this temporary work with all possible despatch, without waiting till it could be done in à permanent manner, with the best ma- terials and the best inclinations, or till steps could be taken to induce the landlords to connect the house drains in a proper manner. This last was the chief cause of the difficulty after- wards experienced, as old brick drains of every variety of sha and size had to be connected with these main ipes whilst the work was in progress, and consequently fenaid. stoppages took pac at the points of junction, and generally in the branches. rom this cause, Horney-lane, King’s Head-yard, Vine-yard Tooley-street, and other localities of a like character, appear again and again in this list. Had it been necessary to take up the whole of these temporary pipes immediately that the emergency had passed over, it would still have been a judicious expenditure of the public money in consideration of the mortality thereby averted. It seems, therefore, a matter nc to be regretted, that any imperfections (not unexpected, but, on the contrary, foreseen), should have been brought forward in such a manner as even, by pee ener to seem to condemn a class of works undertaken for and serving such a beneficial purpose. Mr. Grant proceeds to individual instances and details. He says:. It is much to be regretted that a proper opportunity was not afforded to make these explanations at the time, and that the district engineers were not asked to be present at the examination THE CIVIL ENGINEER AND ARCHITECT'S JOURNAL. upon the ground, as it might have prevented much misconception and many evils. Some of the “failures” mentioned in the report appear to refer to gully-drains and sinks, which even in the most favourably situated districts are with difficulty maintained in perfect order, but in a tide-locked marsh it is almost impossible. Still the de- scriptions, * pipes stopped,” “obstruction removed,” have as for- midable an appearance as if they were the most serious of cases, the fact not being stated that the larger proportion were remedied for a few shillings. It is necessary to bear in mind that of the cases enumerated, “the sewers are stated to form about one-third of the accom- panying list, and the drains about two-thirds, and include public and private.” The pipe-sewers and drains in the metropolis at the date of the report in question were about 300 miles in length, and the number of houses drained by pipes about 25,000. If, therefore, one-third of the 300 alleged failures given in the report were pipe-sewers, and 200 house drains, it follows that there was one “failure” for every three miles of pipes, and one for every 125 house drains, in four years. . Such a return of “obstructions removed” was certainly incom- plete without the statement that the annual cost of flushing and cleansing of the Surrey and Kent district alone was as per official In 1849 . £7313 16 1 In 1850 7074 0 10 In 1851 4906 3 4 In 1852 4173 11 10 If the proportion of this due to pipe sewers and drains could be accurately ascertained, it would probably be found not to exceed one or two per cent. From the foregoing it appears:— lst. That the source is not stated from which Mr. Bazalgette derived the information given in his tabular return of pipe sewers and drains which are alleged to have failed. 2nd. That although it is stated that the list includes “ private" as well as public sewers and drains," and that about two-thirds are drains, no distinction is made in the return, nor are the means given of verifying this, or of ascertaining which are private, or how many of them were done without the supervision, control or permission of the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers. 3rd. That no distinction is drawn between “repairs” and alterations, nor is it shown how many were simply temporary and trifling stoppages in street gully drains, or in junctions between ipes and old and defective bric by the labour of a few minutes. 4th. That although it is said that in selecting these places (the 122 pipe sewers personally examined by Mr. Bazalgette), “ I have not taken the cases where pipes have been laid in open ditches avowedly as a temporary measure," it ia not stated that this rule has been departed from in selecting the cases given in the tabular return, of which, as far as can be ascertained, more than half are on works of thia “avowedly temporary" character, laid at a time of great anxiety, for the purpose of mitigating, or, if possible, averting a great public calamity. 5th. That from the absence of necessary explanations as to localities, &c., it is impossible, in many cases, to identify the sewers or drains referred to, or to avoid misconception of the true nature, cause, or extent of the alleged failures, or cost of the remedies applied. A few instances of those are given, and many more might be added. 6th. That assuming the correctness of the list of obstructions and failures, they amount to one to every three miles of pipe sewers, and one to every 125 houses, in four years. 7th. That from the absence of all mention of the cost of flushing, cleansing, and removing obstructions from all other than pipe sewers and drains, averaging 6000“. per annum in the Surrey and Kent district, the reader is left to infer that this operation is peculiar to pipe sewers, &c,; whereas experience shows that the contrary is the case, and that the expenditure under this head for the latter forms but a minute fraction of the cost of the other. With respect to the examination made personally by Mr. Bazalgette of the results in his diagrams, thirty relate to the Surrey and Kent district. Mr. Grant then describes the result of an examination of the same pipes, as follows * Had the object been simply to satisfy myself, I should have felt drains, removed in many cases . 299 it unnecessary to make any M ap as constant opportunities occur, in carrying out the ordinary works of the commission, of knowing the andino of the sewers. Had only a few been made, it might have been alleged that those had been chosen which there was reason to suppose would be found in good order. There seemed, therefore, no choice between none and a number sufficient to prevent all suspicion of partiality. The number of openings made was 226. I have sunk down to nearly every pipe sewer of any conse- quence in public roads, and included a few on private property, which l perhaps, more properly be entitled ‘drains,’ con- stituting, as they do, the combined main drains of rows of houses. One thing is strikingly observable, that small as these sewers are, the stream of water found running in them occupies a sinall proportion of their limited area. hese pipe sewers have been constructed at from le. 9d. to 5s. per foot, averaging about 2s. 6d. The final result of the present careful examination of the whole system of pipe sewers under my charge, satisfactorily demonstrates its entire and complete success in the several cases above enume- rated. The material advantages ensured to the localities in which it is employed may be perceived on the most cursory inspection; but the benefits conferred in the shape of reduction of disease and mortality, in the improvements effected in the cleanliness and habits of the le, can only be duly appreciated by one well uainted with their past as well as present condition. e economy is as important an advantage in their use as their efficiency; and, did the terms of your reference permit, a most instructive comparison might be given of their cost with that of the brick sewers. Had the former examination been as full, and accompanied by similar explanations, the diffusion of a considerable amount of error would have been prevented, and the benefits of good drainage immensely extended." Mr. BazALGETTE has made the following remarks upon the reports by the engineers of the districts upon their examination of pipe sewers, as given above, dated 30th April, 1855:— “ The examination of the pipe sewers recently made by Messrs. Roe, Donaldson, and Cooper, and the failures in sewers which have from time to time been recorded by the proper officers, since my report of February 1853, all of which are now before the Commission, so fully corroborate the statements contained in that sei: as to require no further comment on my part to prove that it was an impartial and substantially correct report. Out of 122 pipe sewers examined in 1853 by 1ne, 66 contained deposit varying from 2 inches to 12 inches in depth. Messrs. Roe, Donaldson, and Cooper have recently examined 119 places, to some of which flushing boxes have since my examination been added; out of these they find 42 to contain deposit varying from 2 inches to 12 inches in depth. Mr. Lovick has made no examination of the pipes in his district, but has answered the alleged failures by the general argument that they were mostly caused by defective materials or workmanship, the introduction of improper substances into the ipes, or other avoidable causes. These reasons were urged fore the Commissioners in 1853, and the view then expressed by them was, in effect, that if it should appear that pipe sewers uired more perfect workmanship and ter care than is ordinarily obtainable to make them